Crits Notes on Water

and Ion Exchange

Crits Notes on Water
and Ion Exchange
Ion-Exchange Technology
and Water Treatment

by George J. Crits
Crits Notes on Water and Ion Exchange
2012 by Chemical Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of
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The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect
to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically
disclaim all warranties, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a
particular purpose.
ISBN: 978-0-8206-0172-4
Chemical Publishing Company:
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Printed in the United States of America
This book is dedicated to my wife, Thetis, and to the Crits-Christoph triplet
grandchildrenAlex, Nick, and Avery, and to the many friends who helped with
my knowledge of ion exchange and water treatment: S.B. Applebaum, Frank
N. Kemmer, Dick Hetherington, Irv. Abrams, Frank X. McGarvey, Cal Calmlon,
John Sloan, Sallie Fisher, Louis Wirth, Don Crane, Mike Gottlieb, Peter Meyers,
Ken Frederick, Chet Parks, Al Preuss, Fred Pocock, Bruce McKinney, Jack Pratt,
Ed Davis, Bill McIntire, Ed Heller, Ralph Johnson, Bill Runyan, George P. Simon,
Phil DeAngelo, L. Van Halteren, Ed Nace, Bob Kunin and others of Rohm and
Haas, Ted Begg and others of Purolite Co., Dave Dally, Dwight Tamaki and others
of Sybron Corp., many of the Permutit Co., the Dow Co., Duolite Chemical Process
Co., and the many other ion-exchange resin equipment suppliers and Cochrane
representatives from around the globe.
 Contents

Introduction .......................................................................................................... ix
A............................................................................................................................ 1
B .......................................................................................................................... 95
C ........................................................................................................................ 144
D........................................................................................................................ 272
E ........................................................................................................................ 302
F ........................................................................................................................ 332
G........................................................................................................................ 397
H........................................................................................................................ 408
I ......................................................................................................................... 464
J ......................................................................................................................... 512
K........................................................................................................................ 515
L ........................................................................................................................ 518
M ....................................................................................................................... 543
N........................................................................................................................ 608
O........................................................................................................................ 632
P ........................................................................................................................ 660
Q........................................................................................................................ 742
R ........................................................................................................................ 743
S ........................................................................................................................ 806
T ........................................................................................................................ 901
U........................................................................................................................ 934
V........................................................................................................................ 968
W ....................................................................................................................... 979
X...................................................................................................................... 1010
Z ...................................................................................................................... 1015
Glossary .......................................................................................................... 1021
Abbreviations and Equivalents ....................................................................... 1027
List of Elements in Water ................................................................................ 1031
Index ................................................................................................................ 1040

vii
 Introduction

The following foreword by Mikhail Gorbachev, as president of Green Cross

International, is taken from Peter Swansons book Water, the Drop of Life
(NorthWord Press, 2001); also a Public Television series.

Water, like religion and ideology, has the power to move millions of people. Since
the very birth of human civilization, people have moved to settle close to it. Peo-
ple moved when there is too little of it. People moved when there is too much of it.
People journey down it. People write, sing, and dance about it. People fight over
it. And all people, everywhere and every day, need it.

We need it for drinking, for cooking, for washing, for food, for sanitation, for
industry, for energy, for transport, for rituals, for fun, for life. Not only humans
need it; all life everywhere is dependent on water to survive. But we stand today
on the brink of a global water crisis. Although certain parts of the world have
abundant water, supplies of drinking water are inadequate in many regions . . .

Fortunately we have a history of meeting great challenges using imagination and

our irrepressible capacity to adapt, and thousands of talented people around the
world are already mobilized to the cause of preserving water for future generations.

Biographical Sketch of George J. Crits (Critsimilios)

Crits acquired a B.Sc. in Chem. Engr. Degree in 1943 from Penn State University,
and an M.S. in Chem. Engr. from Columbia University in 1950. He has been a
registered Professional Engineer in Pennsylvania since 1950.

During the war he was employed in 1943 by Kellex Corp, NYC, and at Kellex in
Jersey City on the Manhattan Project, and at Los Alamos, NM with the U.S. Army
(as a Gadget engineer), and later with the University of California, operator of Los
Alamos until 1947.

The greater part of his career, from 1950, was with the Cochrane Corporation,
later Cochrane Environmental Systems, Crane Co., King of Prussia, PA. He was
the technical director when he retired from Crane/Cochrane in 1988. Crits visited
Cochrane representatives and customers in England, Holland, France, Italy,
Switzerland, Germany, South Africa, Japan, and the Philippines.

ix
His expertise is in water, wastewater treatment, and ion-exchange technology. He
holds 13 U.S. patents and many more foreign ones (over 50 patents), has contrib-
uted to three technical books, and has published or presented over 150 papers.

From 1962 until 2000, he was a course director of the Liberty Bell Corrosion
Course, and was the principal in obtaining John C. Vaaler Awards at Cochrane for
Ammonex Process, Cation Modified Mixed-Bed Demineralizer Process, Pack-
aged Tube Settler Clarifier Module. He developed the Crits Ring Test, a sim-
ple test for trace detergents in water. In 1981, he was named Honorary Member
of AMFESAAC, the Mexican Water Treatment and Manufacturers Association.
At the International Water Conference, 1983, he was awarded the Annual Merit
Award in recognition of outstanding contributions to the water-related field of
activity. In 1989, he was inducted into the Norristown (Class of 1940) Hall of
Fame for his success in industry.

He is listed in Men of Achievement, Whos Who in the East, American Men of Sci-
ence, Whos Who in Technology Today, and Empire Whos Who. He is also a life
member of AWWA, ASTM, NACE, ACS, and the Franklin Institute.

In January 1988, Mr. Crits announced the formation of Aqua-Zeolite Sciences,

Inc. offering technical consulting services training, equipment improvement in
water treatment, and ion-exchange technology.

George Crits is now operating as the Aqua-Zeolite Sciences Co. or George J.

Crits Co.
103 W. Montgomery A.
Ardmore, PA 19003
Phone 610 649 0372

x
 A
ABROAir Bump Rinse OperationA procedure in filters or mixed
beds (in CPP) loaded with fine crud, iron oxides, copper oxides, etc. Where
at first, the partially drained tank (minimum 2 ft water above bed) is air
scrubbed and rinsed as follows:

1. air mixed/scrubbed with air applied at 5 to 7 scfm/sq ft for 1 minute

or less,
2. then drained or preferably rinsed for 2 to 3 min,
3. refilling with some water, then repeating air scrubbing rinse steps 1,
2, & 3 a number of times, perhaps 30 times for a dirty resin bed.

This is more effective than a normal backwash and saves water and time.
This prevents loss of resin when using the conventional backwash. Also
more effective and economical than ultrasonic resin cleaning.

However, it is important to have plenty of water above the bed for the
scrubbing action or for the resin-mixing action. The level of water above
the bed must be minimum 24" (610 mm) but better to have 36" (916
mm) or more for best fluidization and mixing action.

The reason for the high air rate 6 to 7 cfm/sq ft is so that all parts of the
tank are fluidized to remove resin dead spots that may have residual crud
trapped there.

Crits, G.J.U.S. Patent #3,455,819, ABRO Patent

UsersMost Cochrane CPP supplied plants: S. Calif. Edison, Penn.

Electric/Conemaugh Station, Oyster Creek, Escom SA, Peter Myers/
ResinTech will recommend it.

George Flynn patented process, U.S. #4,065,388, 1977, that features an

air injection at the top portion of a bed to provide an air scrubbing, pres-
surizing the dome of the tank, then rinsing from this same portwithout
disturbing the lower resin/filter layers. This will remove the crud from
upper parts of an ion-exchange mixed bed or filter. This requires a inlet/
outlet collector or distributor added to the filtering or ion-exchange tank.

1
 Rinse Inlet Vent Closed

Vent Open
No need for
long air mix time
no need to mix
up whole bed.
Loosen
Air loosens & Crud Removed from
Fluidizes Bed fluidized bottom.

Air Rinse
(1 min.) (2 minutes)

1st Abro
Crud 2nd Abro
Conc. 3rd Abro
4th Abro
5th Abro

0 1 2 3
Minutes for Rinse

Abro in the external regeneration tank (Air Bump Rinse Operation).

Note: Shaded Area after 2nd minute shows much reduced quantity of Crud being
removed per unit Tile-Volume, therefore both time & rinse volume can be saved
by repeating short Abros rather long ones.

S.B. Applebaum in the 1960s had the same idea and applied it to the
Filterex hot zeolite condensate polishers in industrial boilers.

It was also applied to mixed beds by applying air into the interface
(regen.) collector and rinsing out this same port in the same manner
practiced by Flynn.

JOBW is a modified ABRO method incorporating a side blow from a sub-

surface screened collector. Called Japan Organo Backwash(JOBW).
Promoted by Japan Organo of Japan. This employs two sequential
methods to liberate and separate crud from exhausted resins: Fine crud

2
 particles are removed by a side blow of the supernatant water, and the
other crud is removed by Down Blow, similar to ABRO. Air is allowed
to pressurize in the freeboard prior to the Down Blow to create higher
down flows.

Examples: One application that was cited required 2 Side Blows and 14
Down Blows. (7) In another application4 Side Blows and 40 Down
Blows. If side blow is so important, why were only 2 or 4 blows required?
It would appear that the Side Blow is limited in use and of little advantage
for the extra cost of adding the in-bed collector. ABRO is not a drain step
as claimed by the above reference. The rinse step in ABRO is a forced
downflow rinse, and some pressurization during the air bump takes place
when closure of the vent is delayed before the opening of the rinse outlet
valve. If more air pressure is necessary, this added pressurization may be
programmed by adding an extra step to ABRO.

ABSOLUTE FILTER RATINGA filter rating meaning that 99.9%

or essentially all of the particles larger than a specified micron rating will
be trapped on or within the filter. Nominal Filter RatingA filter rating
indicating the approximate-size particle, the majority of which will not
pass through the filter, or that 85% of the particles of the size equal to the
nominal filter rating will be retained.

ACETIC ACIDBLENDED WITH HYDROGEN PEROXIDE is an

effective sterilizing solution suitable for soiled piping, reverse osmosis
(RO) systems, etc. See VINEGAR file. Mixing one bottle of 5% white
vinegar, and one bottle of 3% hydrogen peroxide (available in drug-
stores), and one bottle of water makes 1.66% Acetic and 1.0% hydrogen
peroxidesuitable for sterilizing high-purity system components: piping/
loops, membrane filters, RO systems, cartridge filters, etc. Contact time
should be as long as possible2 to 24 hrs. For TFC membranes, the per-
oxide must be lowered to 0.1% by further dilution. Cautiontransitional
metals (Fe, Cu, etc.) must first be removed from membranes by an acid
wash to avoid catalyzed oxidation/degradation by the metals that are usu-
ally deposited or accumulated there.

Acetic acid is removed from water by WBA or SBA resins. The order of
affinities with WBA resins in the free base form: HCl = HNO3 < H2SO4
< H3PO4 < benzoic < oxalic < formic < acetic = Citric < salicylic

3
In the Chloride form: F < Cl < Br = Iodide = acetate < molybdate
< phosphate < arsenate < Nitrate < tartrate < citrate < chromate < sulfate
< hydroxide

Absorption of Acetic acid, 2N, or intrusion into SAC H+ form resins:

Ratio of molal inside to outside of the resin gel-

5% DVB 10% DVB 15% DVB
0.8 0.6 0.45

n-Butyric acid 2M:

0.95 0.55 0.30

Excellent separations by ION EXCLUSION of HCl from acetic, chloro-

acetic, and dichloroacetic acids by columns of SAC H+ form50/100
mesh, 8% or lower cross linkage SAC resins. See ION EXCLUSION file.

Ref. Calmon & Kressman, Ion Exchangers in Organic & Biochemistry,

pp. 181183, Interscience 1957.

Recovery of dilute acetic acid by Duolite A-375 (a WBA resin) regener-

ated with lime solution. The calcium acetate is quite soluble, so when
treated with sulfuric acid, calcium sulfate crystals form (which can be
filtered out) and acetic acid solution, which can be recovered. Exchange
capacity was about 1.2 eq./l (vs. total capacity for this resin of 1.4). The
capacity was flat at 1.2 eq./l for influents 0.01 eq./l to 0.05 eq./l acetic acid.

This process may be done in a fluidized reactor-type operation: The resin

can be fully exhausted within 40 to 60 min and eluted by calcium hydrox-
ide within 10 to 20 min.

Ref. Cloete & Marais, IX Process for Recovery of Very Dilute Acetic and
Related Acids, pp. 452459; ION EXCHANGE DEVELOPMENTS &
APPLICATIONS; Proc. of IEX 96, Cambridge, UK.

Acetic acid Process: acetic/nitrate pickling of magnesium sheet

Ion Exchanger/Adsorbent: SA Cation, minimum bed: 30"
Regeneration/Elution Dosage: 7 lbs/cu ft H2SO4 20%

4
Column Cap. 1 lb/cu ft Mg
Theoretical Cap. 1.5 lb/cu ft
Process Info: Solution bath28% acetic acid and 8% sodium nitrate
Capacity is low because Mg is a divalent, which is the ion exchanged on
cation resin.

Type 316 stainless steel and Monel 400 are safe with acetic acids.

ACID EYE protection in acid/caustic mixing systems: Splash Guards

a lucite or polycarbonate clear " thick sheet (18" 24" or so) mounted
before a set of acid/NaOH control valves to prevent chemical leaks/
squirts to an operators face. Placed so that one can reach behind to set
the valves.

ACID RECLAIMINGReclaiming excess acid from regenerants when

applied.

Co-current cation regenerations are practical when excessive regenerant

dosages are used above 200% of theoretical. Reclaiming hydrochloric and
nitric acid is possible because generally the chlorides and nitrates salts
in the regenerant effluent are soluble. However, with spent sulfuric acid,
when calcium is present on the resin, calcium sulfate precipitation or crys-
tallization occurs, which must be filtered out before reuse of the reclaimed
acid. Polypropylene cartridge filters (10 or 50 micron) may be used to
filter the reclaimed acid.

Also, the tenacious CaSO4 crystals will coat and grow on the reclaiming
tank walls, requiring frequent scraping, etc. See Figure.

But reuse of the last 25 or 30% of the acid does have its penalties: IX
leakage will be a little higher and capacity slightly lower. Also, an acid
reclaiming pump or extra eductor and extra processing steps will be
required, thus complicating the simple regeneration procedure.

Acid reclaiming is not generally practiced with countercurrent or pack

bed regenerations because acid utilization is generally below 175% of
theory. But more important, one does not apply contaminated water or
regenerants to the bottom or exit end of the operating bed, which might
lead to increased equilibrium leakage.

5
 Reclaiming Sulfuric Acid from Cation Regenerations
Reclaiming HCL receneration effluents poses no problem and need not be filtered.
However, with the reclaiming of sulfuric acid when calcium is present in the raw water
(even with calcium less than 5%), there is always the problem with CaSo4 precipitation
or crystallization in the reclaim tank. Also the CaSo4 crystals build up on the sides of this
tank to hinder desludging or blow off. Also, the crystals must be filtered from the reclaim
acid to avoid fouling of the cation resin bed. The exchange capacity of the cation resin
will most certainly decrease when the CaSo4 crystals redissolve to add to the calcium
fraction in the resin.
THEREFORE: every effort must be made to design the tank to facilitate the following:
1) Utilize polypropylene cartridge filters within the bottom of the reclaim tank so
that they can be easily flushed, cleaned, or replaced.
2) Use a cone or ellipitical heads at the bottom to aid in flushing out the CaSo4
crystals.
3) Open top tank for observation and ease of cleaning.

Quick disconnect fitting (to remove filters)

Spray or wash down
must be included To acid pump suction
Fill

CaSO4 crystals
and scaling.

Drawdown
level Polypropylene
cartidges-
Rated- 3 gpm per
10 long cartridge
min. Blow down or less.
46 value (10 micron)

On the plus side, reclaiming acid may reduce waste treatment neutraliza-
tion costs (provided caustic from normal anion regenerations is present
for the neutralization).

With CCCR (Co-Counter Flow Regeneration), the spent or reused acid

may be applied only to the top part of the bed and fresh acid to the bottom.

ACIDS (and alkali) molar solutions:

Molar solution of acids and alkali: ml of concentrated chemical (by Baker
Chemical) taken and made up to one (1) liter to make 1 molar solution:

6
 HCl(32%) 82.5 ml
H2SO4(98%) 55.5 ml
CH3COOH 57.5 ml
HNO3 63.0 ml
NH4OH(28%) 69.0 ml
NaOH(50%) 51.5 ml
KOH(45%) 85.5 ml

ACID REGENERATION Injection or mixing-station system:

1. Simplest for small or large units is the use of eductors for Conc. HCl
or 10 to 20% H2SO4 (educting concentrated H2SO4 is not recom-
mended because of the excess heat of dilution generated at the point
of mixing).
2. Mixing station using acid metering pumps for Conc. H2SO4 requires
the following array of valves, for the three-valve leak-off system at
maximum pressure of 125 psi (1999) (for 75 gpm dilution water and
1.3 gpm H2SO4)
a. Two AR-1 & AR-2 Acid supply valves ("), Spring to close, Close-
coupled Saunders, Carpenter 20 or Durimet 20, with TFE Dia-
phragm.
b. One AR-3, ", Acid leak off, Spring to close, close-coupled Saun-
ders type valves, Carpenter or Drurimet #20, TFE Diaphragm.
c. AR-4, Dilution Water Supply, 2", Air/air close-coupled Saunders
type, Body CI/PPL, Std. with limit stop.
d. " Durimet or Carp. 20 check valve
e. Check Valve, 2" steel/brass for water supply.
f. Acid supply Pressure Switch, Barksdale or equal to be placed before
the back-pressure valve
g. Back-pressure valveDurimet 20
To be sized & set 10 psi below maximum pressure of pump
h. Paddle wheel flow meter with alarm for water supply, 2" brass or
PVC for the water

7
 i. Mixing tee, 2" PPL, flanged PPL
Mixing section above teespool pc 5 ft long
Dilute acid piping to regeneration tank-PPL
j. Piping from AR-4 to Tee, Spool pc. 12" flanged
k. Acid fittings Durimet 20: nipple " 10" lg
Five required threaded ends (may be back welded)
l. Acid leak off Tee, " Durimet 20
m. " Tee for Barksdale Pressure Switch, Durimet 20 & Bushing "
", diaphragm isolation TFE
n. Flanges, Seven (7) required, " threaded all Durimet 20reducing
flange 2" "
o. Pulsatrol Damper for diaphragm pumpsLapp Model No. 76
p. Milton Roy Meter pump for 1.3 gpm
q. Acid Conductivity Probe & Monitor/Signet
r. Solenoids for air control of valves, 3 reqd.
s. PLC by customer Air tubing & air supply by customer
t. Skid/assemblylabor/service

ACID RETARDATIONStrong acids are retarded relative to the move-

ment of the salts, when the acid/salt solution is passed through a bed of
Type 1 strong-base anion resin. Best to use the finer cut of resin beads60
to 80 mesh or uniform beads. This is performed by applying a void vol-
ume of the salt/acid mixtures, then displacing with water to perform the
separation.

Examples: Separations of sodium chloride or ferrous chloride from

hydrochloric acid, or ferric nitrate from nitric acid, copper from nitric
acid, magnesium from acetic acid, Al2(SO4)3 from sulfuric acid, ferrous
sulfate from sulfuric acid, etc. Ref. Hatch & Dillon, Independent Engi-
neers Chemical Process Design Development 2, no. 4 (1963), p. 253.

WEAK ACIDITYWhen the pH is below 7 ranging down to 4.5, this

weak acidity is due to dissolved free carbon dioxide; however, the ratio of
free carbon dioxide (CO2) to bicarbonate (HCO3) determines the pH, such
relationships are best found in The Nalco Water Handbook, The Permutit
Handbook, or others.

8
With the absence of bicarbonate in pure water, the pH varies with CO2 as
follows:

pH CO2 ppm Conductivity mmhos

5.0 10 4.2
5.5 1.4 1.4
6.0 0.2 0.44
6.5 0.02 0.14

STRONG ACIDITY, Free Mineral Acidity

Below pH 4.5, the acidity is due to free mineral acidity* (FMA) H2SO4,
HCl, HNO3, etc. approx. as follows:

pH FMA ppm as CaCO3 Conductivity mmhos

5.0 0.4 ppm 3.0 mmhos
4.0 4.0 ppm 30.0 mmhos
3.0 40.0 ppm 300.0 mmhos
2.0 400.0 ppm 3000.0 mmhos

Acidsconductivity vs. PPM of various acids are as follows:

HCl 1 ppm as CaCO3 8.3 mmhos

H2SO4 1 ppm as CaCO3 7.0 mmhos
Mix ppm HCl & ppm H2SO4 7.6 mmhos

i.e., Water containing 10 ppm HCl and 10 ppm H2SO4 (both as CaCO3)
will have a conductivity of 20 7.6 = 152 mmhos.

The FMA in Effluents from hydrogen SAC resins and the total alkalinity
(measured in the Raw Water) when added together will give

Total Anions (TA):

Alkalinity ppm as CaCO3 + FMA ppm as CaCO3 + leakage* = TA Then
Total Anions = Total Cations

* Cation Leakage from H+ beds, all as CaCO3.

9
ACMITENa2O.Fe2O3.4SiO2 water-formed deposit

ACRYLIC WEAK-BASE ANION RESINSAmberlite IRA-67RF,

IRA-68, ResinTech WBACR1, Tulsion A-10X, Diaion WA10, Ionac
A-265, Purolite

These are classed as non-fouling, organic releasing by caustic regeneration,

etc. (Type 2 SBA may also be used as weak base anion resins with caustic
dosage at 4 lbs/cu ft and are non-fouling resins.) Excess caustic dosage
may cause, acrylic WBA resins, with excess rinsing problemsbest to
limit caustic dosage to 3.0 lbs/cu ft or 5% more than the operating capacity.

ACRYLIC, Amberlite IRA-458 Strong-Base Anion (SBA) Resins

ANION-EXCHANGE CAPACITY ratings

Table A-1
DOWNFLOW- Co-Current Operation-

DOSAGE, 5% SiO2 5% SiO2 5% SiO2

NaOH lbs./CF (15 to 45% SO4) (75% SO4) (0% SO4)

3 14.2 Kgrs. 15.6 Kgrs. 15.1 Kgrs.

4 15.3 16.9 16.3
5 16.3 17.9 17.4
6 17.3 19.0 18.5
8 18.3 20.0 19.5
10 18.9

Silica Leakage: Dosage at 90 F at 75 F at 60 F

At 5% Silica- 3 0.93 ppm 0.10 ppm 0.198 ppm
Influents 4 0.043 0.05 0.057
6 0.15 0.02 0.024
8 0.015 0.015 0.020
At 15% Silica- 4 0.21 0.22 0.24
Influents 6 0.07 0.075 0.09
8 0.04 0.050 0.07
At 25% Silica- 6 0.07
Influents 8 0.055
10 0.045

10
Table A-2
UPFLOW CCR/PACKED BED Capacities: with acrylic SBA
Silica leakage- below 0.025 ppm (endpt. 0.20 ppm)

DOSAGE, 20% Silica at 90 F Regen. Temp.

NaOH
lbs./CF Weak Acids 25% Weak Acids 50% Weak Acids 75%

3 16 Kgrs 17.2 Kgrs 17.5 Kgrs

4 17 18.3 18.8
6 18.9 19.6 20.0

ACTIVATED ALUMINAAlcoa F-1, 28 48 mesh is principle product

used for removals of humic color, fluoride, silica, and arsenic from water.
Reynolds Metal also has equivalent product.

1. Alcoa, 181 Thornhill Rd., Warrendale, PA; Kathy Tricarico

2. Selecto, Inc.; Source of zeolites & Activated Alumina; 800 635 4017
Clifford et al., Act. Alumina-Rediscovered Adsorbent for Fluoride, Humic
Acids, and Silica, Industrial Water Engineering, p. 6, Dec. 1978.

Fremovals:
Activated alumina: Alcoa F-1, 2848 mesh, 27 bed minimum at 1.5 ppm
F, capacity is 3500 to 4000 gals/cu ft at 0.25 ppm endpoint; Regeneration
1.01.5 lbs NaOH/cu ft at 1%, 35 min ct; acid rinse 1.62.0 lbs/cu ft at
0.25% H2SO4;
Higher capacity is obtained at higher F influent. Leakage 0.050.2 ppm
(capacity at 1.5 ppm F inlets: 0.1 lbs/cu ft)

References
1. EPA /600/S2-85/094, Sept. 1985; Pilot Study for Removal of Arsenic from
Drinking Water at Fallon, Nevada Naval Air Station, Rubel Jr. & Hathaway
2. EPA /600/S2-83-107, Feb. 1984; The Equilibrium Arsenic Capacity of Acti-
vated Alumina, Rosenblum & Clifford
3. Hathaway & Rubel Jr.; Removing Arsenic from Drinking Water, p. 61,
AWWA Journal, Aug. 1987
4. Choi & Chen; Removal of Fluoride from Water by Adsorption, p. 562,
AWWA Journal, Oct. 1979

11
5. Rubel Jr. & Woosley; Removal of Excess Fluoride from Drinking Water by
Activated Alumina, p. 45, AWWA Journal, Jan. 1979
6. Clifford, Matson, Kennedy; Activated Alumina: Rediscovered Adsorbent
for Fluoride, Humic Acids and Silica, p. 6, Industrial Water Engineering,
Dec. 1978
7. Robert W. Peters & B. Mo Kim, Editors; Separation of Heavy Metals and
Other Trace Contaminants, Symposium Series #243, Vol. 81, 1985, AICHE
8. Cochrane Lab tests by Davis, Crits, et al., eds.; see FLUORIDE file.

ACTIVATED CARBONActivated carbon is commercially available as

a powder, granular, or pellets. The powder can be applied to water in a
batch/stir/settling process, in a clarifier, ahead of a filter, or precoated on
septa or frame filters. The dosage of PAC (powder activated carbon) in
water treatment for odor control ranges from 15 to 100 ppm. For organic,
color or volatiles, the dosage may be as high as 500 ppm.

Granular carbon for water treatment is made from coal, peat, coconut
shells, and wood. The coal carbons have the highest activity. The coconut
carbon is stronger with less dust throw. Sizing is 8 30, 12 40, 20 50,
mesh.

Suppliers:

American Norit Co. (Peat)

ICI/Hydrodarco (Lignite)
Calgon (Coal)
Ceca, Inc. (Coal)
Westvaco (Coal & wood)
Pica USA, Inc. (sales)
Barnebey/Sutcliffe Corp; Columbus,
ResinTech (Medical)
Westates
Enirotrol
CEI
Carbon Activated Corp., Compton, CA.
Carbochem, Inc., Ardmore, PA
Sinocarbon Inc. (China carbons)

12
 CarbonUSA
Carbon Link Corporation, OH
H2O Filter Warehouse, Marietta, GA
Macadamia Carbon
Big Island Carbon building $35 million plant to make activated Carbon
from macadamia shells. Plant to produce by second half of year 2011.
Calgon Carbon certified for activated carbon (for drinking etc.) NSF/
ANSI Standard 61; Water Conditioning & Purification, Aug. 2010, p. 12

ACTIVATED CARBON [AQUABOND]by Omnipure Filter Co.

Customizing Particle Bonded Media:
Binding heavy metal sorbent onto carbon to reduce:
arsenic, cadmium, chloramines, chromium, lead, mercury, THMs, ura-
nium, volatile organic compounds, etc.
Knowing what carbon is available: According to Neal Megonnell of Cal-
gon Carbon Corp., one should pay attention to getting what you pay for:

1. Buy only ISO-certified products

2. Know the base material of any activated carbon you purchase.
Is it a high-performance, reagglomerated carbon, or the inexpensive,
direct activated carbon?
3. Require vendors to disclose where and how their carbon is manufactured.
4. Select suppliers with more than 10 years experience in carbon and
water treatment
5. Check out technical resources and lab supporting the supplier.
6. Request a specification.
7. Choose a vendor that offers a broad product line.
8. If a premature breakthrough/exhaustion occurs, investigate the reason
not necessarily that the water quality has changed.

Ref. Neal Megonnell, Why some products dont measure up,

Water Conditioning & Purification, p. 32, March 2003.
Reagglomerated vs. Direct activation carbon:
Direct activated products may be lower than 10% in capacity.
Less abrasive

13
 Ash levels may be 50 to 100% higher.
Leachables may be higher.
They may not be recommended for potable or food-grade applications.
Floaters due to non-wetting may cause more losses on BW.
They may not be certified ISO-certified.
Reagglomerated are high-performance carbons.

CarbonASTM tests:
Iodine No. AWWA B604
Abrasion No. D3802
Moisture as Packed % maximum D2867
Apparent Density, g/cc D2854
Ash, maximum 1% D2866
MeshUSD Sieve
Surface AreaBET N2

Carbon, potable water activated carbon analysis:

1. Surface area
2. 72 hour DI water extraction for:
Iron
Al
As
Antimony
3. Water extraction taste
4. Sieve analysis
5. AdsorptionChloriform/VOC
Act Carbon Filter Cartridge Elements
Test for free chlorine reduction at rated flow
Lead reduction at rated flow at low pH & high
VOC (Chloriform) at rated flow

Applications:

Surface water organics, humic/fulvic are removed by carbon at about

50%. However, best to remove most of the easily coagulable color/

14
 organic matter first by alum/iron coagulation, Direct filtration, or Lime
precipitation process, being about 50% effective in these processes.
Then the residual organic after coagulation is further reduced 50%
by activated carbon, so for both processes the reduction in organics is
approximately 75%.

Organic volatile compounds such as chloroform, benzene, carbon tet-

rachloride, tri-chloroethylene DDT, DDE, phenol, etc. are removed by
carbon to 1 ppb levels; but the influent must not contain high values
above 500 ppb, which will overwhelm the carbon. Best to degasify by
forced air or vacuum towers the main quantity and treat the residual with
carbon. The activated carbon may be steamed to remove the volatiles to
the atmosphere or to a condenser for recovery.
See also Rohm & Haas adsorbents XAD, Ambersorb 563, etc.
Activated carbon will also be used for:
Removal/reduction of H2S, free chlorine, bromine, ozone
Removal/reduction of lead, mercury, silver
Removal/reduction of arsenic (with iron assist)
Reduction of chromate, Cr-6
Removal/reduction of Cd, Se, Ag, Co, Sb, Sn, Ni, Ti, V, Fe
Removal at lower activity: Cu, Cd, Zn, Be, Mo, Mn, W

For best results and capacity, flow rates to carbon must be held to below
1 gpm/cu ft. For organic and volatiles removals, flows below 0.50 gpm/cu
ft are recommended.
For these special applications pilot testing in small 1" columns is recommended.

Surface water organic removals: (after service time as indicated)

Flow Rate (service) Organic Reduction (KMnO4)

at 2.0 gpm/cu ft 25% after 4 months
at 1.0 gpm/cu ft 40% after 4 months
at 0.5 gpm/cu ft 50% after 6 months

As a rule GAC beds should be replaced every 6 or 12 months depending

on the service flows used, if organic removal is the main requirement.
For chlorine removal, life extends to 3 years or more.

15
 Deleterious effects of inorganic compounds during thermal regenera-
tion of GAC is covered in depth by Steve D. Lambert, G.S. Miguel, and
Nigel J.D. Graham in article in AWWA Journal, pp. 109119, Dec. 2002.
Must read this if you are considering thermal regeneration of GAC.

Activated carbon beds applied to special removals or reductions should

be pilot tested (with various carbons) to obtain data for designing large
plants.

Crits, G.J., Granular Activated Carbon in Water Treatment, AMFE-

SAAC, 9th Annual Meeting; Mexico City, 1990

Sigworth & Smith, Adsorption of Inorganic Compounds by Activated

Carbon, N.C. Section Meeting of AWWA, Nov. 9, 1971

Chloramines are not effectively removed by some activated carbons, and

particularly the coarse carbons larger than 12 mesh.

Leakage of chloramine may appear after 4 months or so or even with new

carbons when the flow rate is above 1 gpm/cu ft.

Monitoring Activated Carbon Drinking Water Filters, Nowicki et al.,

Water Conditioning & Purification, Oct. 2009; pp. 4043

Water treated by activated carbon must not be previously softened since

the organic molecule may be extended into a long-chain configuration
thus preventing adsorption. The presence of hardness causes the organic
molecule to curl up into a small particle form, thus aiding the removals.

Although activated carbon requires replacement every 6 or 12 months for

organic removal, its life may exceed 5 years if used primarily for chlo-
rine or ozone removal. Exhausted carbon by chlorine capacity ranges
from 1 to 2.5 grams Cl2/gram carbon.

Silver impregnated Activated carbon is available from Ionics, Inc. for

producing bacteria free water, to a degree. Silver on carbon may be in
the range of 0.1% to 1.0% or more.
Silver carbon is also available from NSF, NICHEM CO. and Bestech, Inc.

16
Silver carbon will not remove pathogenic bacteria of total coliforms.
They can be used for inhibition or retardation of non-pathogenic bacteria.
In-depth study.

Performance of Silverized GAC vs. Silver zeolite treated GAC, feature

article by David Pickering, Water Treatment, pp. 2628, July 2011

Ozone-Activated Carbon treatment:

Application of ozone before GAC has been found to enhance removal of

organics significantly. Not only is some of the organic matter is burned by
the ozone thus lessening the organic loading on the carbon, but the carbon
(TOC) leakage was lowered from the GAC beds. It was thought that the
residual and cleaved organics after ozone were more adsorbable. In Culp-
Hansen studies, the organic COD was reduced from 36 ppm to 6 ppm
(at 10 ppm ozone feed) vs. the control carbon bed without ozone organic
reduced from 39 to 11 ppm.

Home carbon units such as POU units and industrial units are subject to
sliming and accumulation of bacteriaso they must be sanitized regu-
larly, such as every few days to 7 days. Hot water or heat above 160F+
should be applied for a few hours.

To inspect for slime in activated carbon tanks, disassemble the piping

at the bottom or exit end of the tank and feel for slime on the inner
pipe walls.

ACTIVATED CARBON BLOCK FILTER: There are two types based

on coconut shell or bituminous coal. Micropores present are about 50%
greater than in bitumen coal-based AC.

Type Carbon Iodine Number (mg/g) Total Ash %

Coconut 1,1001,300 <3
Bit. Coal 8501,000 815% (<7 acid washed)

Additives: Polyphosphate silicate to prevent downstream scaling, silver

for bacteriostatic properties, another uses a patented antimicrobial agent
impregnated in the AC.

17
Since there are many types of these, one should test any for the desired
results.
NSF/ANSI Std. 42 addresses reduction of aesthetic contaminants like
chlorine, taste, odor, color, and particulate removal. There are various par-
ticulate reduction classes: I, II, III, VI.
Ref. A POU WorkhorseThe Carbon Block Filter, Robert Potwora,
Water Technology, pp. 4243, March 2009.

Granular Activated Carbon filter CrO4-6 vs. SO2 dosages:

5 ppm 8.8: 1 380% excess

10 ppm 5.35: 1 190% excess
20 ppm 3.2: 1 95% excess
50 ppm 2.55: 1 38% excess
100 ppm 2.2: 1 19% excess
500 ppm 1.9: 1 4% excess
Theoretical SO2/Cr = 1.85

Activated carbon granules added to home cation resin softeners

(0.2 cu ft carbon to 1 cu ft cation resin) has the following advantages:

1. Improves taste of the treated water due to organic substances.

2. Removes free chlorine, which is oxidative/damaging to cation resin.

These two materials have about the same density, so eveNTUally the two
media will intermix. The activated carbon may exhaust in a year or, so one
may have to decide on replacement of the bed.

Match Treatment Type to Carbon Type, Ken Schaeffer, Water Technol-

ogy, Jan. 2008, pp. 3436. Has much of what is reported above but worth
reading. A good activity carbon with a surface area of 1000 m2/g would
have a 125 acres of surface area per pound.

ACTIVATED CARBON REMOVAL [CHLORAMINES]a carbon

enhanced for chloramines removal, supplied by Carbon Resources Co.

18
ADHESIVES ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

ANAEROBICS
Advantages:
Moderately priced Limited gap cure
High strength on some substrates
Flexible for form-tough bonds, generally brittle
Good solvent & temperature resistance
Range of viscosities
Non-toxic materials
No mixing required
Single component
Indefinite pot life
Dispenses easily from package
Limitations:
Not recommended for many Easily automated plastics or rubber substrates
Wont cure where air contacts adhesive
300400F temperature limitation

CYANOACRYLATES
Advantages:
Rapid cure at room temperature
Single component adhesive
Excellent adhesion to rubber
Good adhesion to metal
High tensile strength
No mixing required
Indefinite pot life
Dispenses easily from package
Limitations:
Higher price
Limited gap filling & cure

19
Low solvent resistance
Low temp. resistance
Bonds skin
Poor impact and peel resistance

EPOXIE
Advantages:
Low price
Good gap filling
Wide range of formulations
Versatile
Good temp. & solvent resistance.
Limitations:
Creates thinning of adhesives during curing
Two components mixing and measuring required
Exact proportions required
Single component required refrigeration
Needs heat curing
Slow fixing, short pot life
Special equipment & handling
Note: Best to use the amine hardeners for chemical and water use and
flame any plastic surface to carbonize for better adhesion.

HOT MELTS
Advantages:
Good gap filling
Rigid to flexible bonds available
Fast setting
Limitations:
Low strength, poor wetting
Poor creep resistance
Low solvent resistance

20
 Index
Note: Entries for figures or tables are indicated with an f or a t respectively.

A air
absolute filter rating, 3, 270, 372 binding, 2627
acetic acid, 35 blower, 2728
acid conductivity, 250253 bubbles, 2728
acid eye protection, 5 composition of, 2425
acid reclaiming, 57 discharge, 28
acid regeneration, 78 domes, 2829
acid retardation mixing, 31
strong acidity, 9 purification, 3233
weak acidity, 89 scour, 33, 344
acids, disinfectants, 292 solubility of, 25
acmite, 10 supply, 35
acrylic strong-base anion resins, 10 wastewater treatment, 3537
acrylic weak-base anion resins, 10 to water, 35
activated alumina, 11 weepage, 37
activated carbon weight of, 24
applications, 1417 Air Bump Rinse Operation (ABRO), 13
block filter, 1718 air flotation clarification, 29
definition of, 12 air flow, in pipes, 29
particle bonded media, 1314 air lance, 2930
removal, 18 air operated valves, 32
suppliers, 1213 air stripping of VOC in water, 3335
activated carbon units, steam, 872 airwater, 35
activated silica, 833834 Alcoa F-1, 28-48 mesh, 11
additives, 653654 alcohols, disinfectants, 292
adhesives aldehydes, disinfectants, 292
anaerobics, 19 algae
cyanoacrylates, 1920 oil fixing, 3839
epoxie, 20 volvox, 38
hot melts, 2021 in water sources, 37
methacrylates, 21 algenol, 39
silicones, 2122 alkalides, disinfectants, 293
urethanes, 22 alkalinity
aeration, 2224 description, 3940
aged mixed beds, 577579 reduction/removal, 4145
aged resin, 37 all-volatile treatment (AVT), 45, 94, 325326
agglomeration, 37 alpha particles, 743

1040
alum, 45 anion-exchange capacity ratings, 1011
aluminum, 4546 anion exchangers
Amberlite IRA-900, 84 strong basic anion, 68
Amberlite IRA-910, 85 type 1, gel/macro organic traps, 6970
Amberlite IRA-938, 173, 222 type 1, gel, non-porous S-DVB SB
Amberpak, 2829 anion resins, 69
Ambersorb, 46 type 1, gel, porous S-DVB SB anion
American Public Health Association resins, 69
(APHA), 114 type 2, SBA resins, 70
American Standard Testing Material weak basic anion, 68
(ASTM), 9093 anionic detergent, 286
Aminophosphonic acid groups, 169 anion leakage, 71
ammonex procedure, 4751 anion regeneration tank, 705
ammonia anion resin cross contamination, 71
in chloramines, 177 anion resins
hydrolysis, 51 acrylic strong-base, 7475
raw condensate, 232233 bi-function SBA/WBA, 77
recycling, 751 capacity test, 6062
ammonium hydrochloric acid decontamination, 447
dissolved monitor, 51 ion exchange, 488
removals, 5253 iron decontamination, 510
ammonium hydroxide solutions, 52 layered weak, 520
amoebas, 46 low chloride, 7172
amorphous clay, 208 mixed-bed condensate polishing, 246
AMSEP process, 5354 nitrate selective, 171
anaerobics, 19 nuclear, 630
analytical instruments, 54 with polyvinylpyridine, 72
analytical laboratory tests, 5460 spec for CPP, 763
analytical labs, 54 sulfated macroporous, 782783
analytical resin type 1 and type 2, 933
anion hydroxide analytical column, 62 type 1, gel/macro organic trap type
anion resin capacity test, 6062 resins, 74
cation resin ultimate capacity test, 60 type 1, gel non-porous, DVB/styrene,
strong bases-total exchange capacity, strong base, 7273
6264 type 1, gel porous, DVB/styrene, strong
water analysis, 65 base, 73
weak-acid & weak-base resins, 64 type 1, macro, DVB/styrene, strong
weak bases-total exchange capacity, base, 73
6465 type 2 gel strong-base, 7576
anion bed fouling, 6566 type 2 macro strong-base, 76
anion caustic-salt treatments, 7783 ultimate exchange capacity, 937
anion effluent weak-base, 76
dip conductivity, 289291 anion SBA exchange capacities, 8385
strong-base, 990 anion zeolite, 85
weak-base, 990 anthracite granular filteration, 242243

1041
anthracite underdrains, 963 batch contact, 106
anthrafilt, 85 Bayer
apple juice treatment, 85 chelating resins, 107108
aquabond, 1314, 86 ion exchange systems, 106107
aquamatic, 86 Lewatit resins, 107108
aquarium water, 378 bayerite, 109
aquatic bacteria, 99 Baypure CX 100, 712
arsenic, 8690 Baypure DS 100, 712
Asahi process, 90 bead count, 109
assisted countercurrent cation regeneration, beaker-stirring test, fouled resins, 109
2526 bed depths, 109
assist in resin removal, 25 bed expansion, 109110
atmospheric water, 35 bed void volume, 110
atrazine, 93 bed volume (BV), 110
attrition, 9394 benzene, 110
BETA emitters/radioisotopes, 110111
B beta particles, 743
bacicity exchange capacity, 95 beverages, 111
backflow preventer, 95 bicarbonate alkalinity, 111112
backwash bicarbonate hardness, 111112
description of, 9596 bifunctional exchanger, 112
enhanced, 9697 biguanides, disinfectants, 293
screen, 98 biocides, 112
second, 9798 bio-control, 113
bacteria biodegradable substances, 113
aquatic, 99 biofilters, 361
campylobacter, 101102 biofiltration, 113
C. difficile, 102103 biological fouling, 114
grow-through, 100101 biologically active carbon (BAC), 95
iron, 99 biological oxygen demand (BOD),
neurocysticercosi, 103 114, 638
S. marcescens, 100 biplastic strip, 114115
stressed, 101 BIRM, 115116
sulfur, 98 Bi-Sul process, 492493
tub system, 101 blue-green water stains, 116, 866867
bacteriostatic water, 688t boehmite, 116
bag filters, 103, 802 boilers
bakeries, 104 carryover from, 161162
ballasted sedimentation, 104 causticity attack, 119
Bally Ribbon Mills, 104 chemical cleaning, 175176
barite, 105 copper in, 124
barium, 105 corrosion, 125
barium carbonate, 105 cyclic operating, 118, 233
base exchange, 106 deposits, 125
base loading, 106 dissolved silica reduction, 123t

1042
 drum-type, 118 CAIROX, 144
external water treatment, 119 cake layer, 144
feedwater quality, 117t calcite, 145147
feedwaters, 121123 calcium
feedwater treatment, 118 addition, 148
industrial, 118 alkalinity, 148149
internal treatment, 116 description of, 148
phosphate in, 691692 fouling, 149
shutdown, 126127 calcium aluminate, 149
silica tolerance vs. boiler operating calcium bicarbonate, 149
pressure, 123t calcium carbonate, 149
startup, 125126 calcium fluoride, 149
total organic carbon, 916 calcium hydroxide, 150
utility, 125126 calcium hypochlorite, 150
water treatment, 118 calcium oxide, 150
boiling water, 127128 calcium phosphate, 150
boiling water reactor (BWR) calcium sulfate, 150152
nuclear condensate purification, 141 CALEX, 152153
nuclear power plants, 630 campylobacter, 101102
process descriptions, 142143 cancrinite, 153, 155
boric acid, 128132 capacity, 153155. See also ion-exchange
bornite, 132 capacity
boron, 130 capillary, 155
boron selective chelating resins, 171 carbonate hardness, 112
boron selective resins, 130 carbon block filters, 342
Boyles law, 400 carbon dioxide
brackish water softening, 132133 aeration of sodium bicarbonate
brass, 133 solutions, 159
breakpoint chlorination, 134 changes due to storage/shipping,
breakthrough, 134 156157
breakthrough capacity, 135 free, 155
breweries, 135136 gas, 157
brine(s), 136137 methods for removal/reduction, 157
brine injection system, 306 in pharmaceutical installations, 157
brinelling, 138 in pure water, 158
brine miser, 137138 removal in packed tower, 160
brine softening, 138140 solubilities, 158159
briquetted salt, 806 in titration, 156
brochantite, 140 carryover from boilers, 161162
bromate, 140 cartridge elements, 361, 363
bromine, 140 cartridge filters
buffer solution, total hardness, 917 applications, 163164
definition of, 162
C disposable elements, 165
cable ties, 144145 pleated types, 162
cadmium, 144 resin-bonded types, 163

1043
 spun polypropylene type, 163
suppliers, 164
catalyst type cold lime softener, 863865
catalytic bed, 654
cation conductivity, 248, 250253
cation conductivity column, 253
cationic detergent, 286
cation polishers, 711
cation regeneration tank, 705
cation resins
color throw from, 225226
for CPP, 763
hydrochloric acid decontamination, 447
ion exchange, 487488
iron decontamination, 510
iron fouling, 504510
mixed-bed condensate polishing, 246
ultimate capacity test, 60
ultimate exchange capacity, 937
caustic distributor, 165
causticity attack, 119
caustic-salt treatments, 165167
caustic soda, 167
cavitation, 167168
CDI. See electrode-ionization (EDI)
celestite, 168
Celgard, 654
cell constant, 256
cementite, 168
cements, 815816
Charles law, 400
Chatillon instrument, 168
check valves, 168169
chelating resins, 107108, 818819
aminophosphonic acid groups, 169
applications, 173175
boron selective resins, 171
Dow chelating resins, 171172
Duolite CS-346, 172
iminodiacetic acid groups resins,
169170
lead removal resins, 172173
mercury selective resins, 170
nitrate selective anion resins, 171
chelation, 169
chemetrics, 175
1044
chemets, 175
chemical additives, 653
chemical cleaning, 175176
chemical costs, 176
chemical feeders
dry feeders, 176
gas feeders, 176
wet feeders, 175176
chemical feed pumps, 176177
chemical feeds, 199
chemical oxygen demand (COD), 220, 638
chloramines, 16, 18, 177178
chloride anion de-alkalizer, 178180
chloride trace ions, 180181
chlorine
dosage determination, 181
mixed oxidants, 182184
odor detection, 181182
sodium bisulfite reducing agent, 184
sulfite reducing agent, 184
sulfur dioxide reducing agent, 184
testing, 184185
chlorine ammonia, 185
chlorine dioxide, 185186
chromatography, 187
chrome
in baths, 189190
destruction, 190192
chromium, 187189
circular settling clarifier, 193
circulating fluidized bed (CFB), 716717
citric acid, 193, 393
clarifier(s)
chemical feeds, 199
circular settling, 193
coagulation, 218
collector drives, 199200
design evaluation, 194198
flow variations, 200201
horizontal shaft, 194
plant survey data, 537538
removal, 201202
sampling the influent, 201
in sidestream cooling towers, 206
sludge blowdown, 201202
sludge densities, 202203
 sludge recirculation, 201 compressed salt, 806
startup instructions, 206207 concrete tanks, 226228
suppliers, 203206 condensate. See also raw condensate
vertical shaft, 193194 cation conductivity, 250253
clay filtration and demineralization, 243
classification of, 208209 flows, 234
definition of, 208 treatment, 238239
clay minerals, 208 condensate mixed bed polishers (CMBP),
clay soil, 209 118
clinoptilites, 52 condensate polishing. See also mixed-bed
Clostridium difficile, 102103 condensate polishing
coagulant aids, 210212, 215 deep-bed purification system, 234
coagulants, 209 powdered resin septum filtration, 239
coagulation pressure loss, 237238
in clarifiers, 218 prices/costs, 725726
direct filtration, 219220 proprietary and other features, 234235
factors influencing, 212215 sizing of service vessels, 236237
purpose of, 212 vessel design features, 235236
coalbed methane (CBM), 220 Condensate Polishing, 153
coal carbon, 12 condensate purification process (CPP)
coated sand, 351 cation resins, 763
coconut carbon, 12 description, 48
co-counter flow regeneration (CCFR), 6 resin specs for, 762
co-current process, 220 rinsing, 785
coke tray aerator, 24 side stream, 829
COKE tray aerators, 220221 condensation polymerization, 228
cold lime process, 530532 condenser, 250
silica reduction, 836838 conductance, 255
coliforms tests, 222 conductivity
College of American Pathologist (CAP), 153 cation, 248
colloidal matter, 222 dip, 289291
colloidal removal resins, 222223 electrolytic, 255256
colloidal silica, 222, 832833 instrument suppliers, 255
colloids, 222 reference solution, 254
color specific, 256
and organic matter, 638 vs. pH, 254
removal, 226 conductivity factor, 253255
in water, 224226 continuous de-ionization units, 736
color coding, 223224 copper
color throw in boilers, 124
from cation resins, 225226 description, 257
from resins, 226 corrosion
combined heating & power (CHP) units, boilers, 125
186187 design, 260262
combined water treatment (CWT), 267 homes, 257
combustion method, 640, 916 rate of attack, 258259

1045
 table, 263264 demineralized water, 309310, 328
types, 259260 demineralizers, rubber lining, 802
in water, 257258 desalination system, 517
water piping, 264 DESAL process, 279280, 517
crevice attack, 260 de-silicizer
Crits ring test, 781782 alkalinity reduction, 285286
cross-flow filtration (CFF), 264, 365367 definition of, 280
CRUD description of, 281282
corrosion products, 265266 design features, 284285
leakage, 266 other design information, 282284
loading, 266 detention time, 286
release, 266 detergents, 286287
cryptosporidium, 267 dezincification, 133, 259
crystalline clay, 208 dialysis, 287288
cuprite, 267 diatomacea, 637
cyanide diatomaceous earth filtration, 288289
description, 267268 diatomite, 288
destruction system, 268 diffusion, 289
segregation, 269270 dip conductivity, 289291
cyanoacrylates, 1920 direct filtration
cyanobacteria, 270 flocculation viewer, 292
cyclic operating boilers, 118, 233 inline coagulation, 219220, 291292
CYST NSF Standard 53, 271 discharge pipes, 695
cyst reduction, 270271 disinfectants, 292293
cyst test dust reduction, 271 disinfection
description, 293
D reverse osmosis, 776
Daltons law, 400 displacement, 847, 859
de-aerating heaters, 653 disposable elements, cartridge filters, 165
de-aeration, 272 dissolved air flotation (DAF), 293294
de-aerator, vacuum dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 294
customer preference, reasons for, dissolved oxygen (DO), 295296
272274 dissolved oxygen generator
design features, 276279 (DOG), 652
test setup, 275 distillates, 328
decalcification process, 883884 distilled water
decarbonator, 160 description, 296298, 326, 328
de-chlorination, 279 vapor compression, 298
decolorization distilled water plants. See ice
definition of, 279 manufacturing plants
sugar, 884 dithizone reagent, 298299
decontamination, radioactive, 744 dolomite, 299
de-cross-linking, 279 dolomitic lime, 299
deep-bed CPP systems, 728730 double regeneration, 299
de-ionization, 884 double shuffle, 760
demineralization, 711712 Dow chelating resins, 171172

1046
DOWNFLOW- co-current operation, epoxie, 20
10t, 67t epoxy, 314315
downflow packed beds (DFPB), 661 equilibrium leakage, 326
dragout, 299 equilibrium, values for ion exchange, 326
drawoff nozzles, 300 ethyl acetate (EA), 977
drian pipes, 696 ethylene, 403
drinking water standards, 300301 ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
drum-type boilers, 118 (EDTA), 302
dry chemical feeders, 176 European porous plastic, 908
Duolite CS-346, 172 evaporated salt, 806
Duolite GT73, 170 evaporation test, 328
Dutch porous plastic, 908 evaporators, 326328
DVB resins, 759760 exchange capacity, 329330
exchange, operating capacity, 330331
E exfoliation, 259
ECO-TEC CO., 302 exhaustion flow rates, 331
EDI/RO, 306307 extended terminal subfluidization wash
eductors, 302303 (ETSW), 97
effective size (ES), 303 external regeneration tank, 705
ejectors, 302303 external water treatment, 331
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
description, 315321 F
guidelines, 325326 favalite, 332
reviewing equipment/operating feed pumps, sizing, 733734
practices, 322325 feedwater
water chemistry guidelines review, boiler, 121123
321322 hardness, 124
electrochemical attack, 257 quality, 117t
electrode-ionization (EDI), 303306 treatment, 118
electrodialysis fiber filter media, 333
description, 307 fibers, ion exchange, 332333
purified water systems, 735 filming amine, 333334
electrolysis, 307 filter beds, granular, 334342
electrolytes, 307308 filter demineralizer mixed bed, 866
electrolytic bromine, 140 Filterex, ammonium/amine cycle hot
electrolytic conductivity, 255256 zeolite
electron exchange resins, 308309 applications, 375
electronic water purification (EWP), 309 contaminants limitations, 377
electroplating, 309310 descriptions, 375376
electro-static series, 310311 temperature limitations, 376377
embrittlement attack, 119 Filterex, sodium cycle, hot zeolite systems
endpoints, ion exchange units, 523525 applications, 372373
energy values, 311 descriptions, 373374
enhanced coagulation, 311312 filter media
enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 312313 fiber, 333
Epicor, Inc., 314 sources, 350

1047
 suppliers, 361 forsterite, 391
weights, 350 foshagite, 391
filter rating, 3, 270271, 372 foulants
filter ripening sequence (FRS), 97 removal, 393t
filters sources of, 6566
air mixing, 31 fouled resins, beaker-stirring test, 109
backwash rate, 352353 fouling
carbon block, 342 ion-exchange units, 391394
cartridge, 162165 phosphate, 692693
fiber media, 343 reverse osmosis, 778
hot water sterilization, 428429 fractal distribution system
hydraulic shock, 343344 description, 394
running time, 351 underdrain, 958
septum, 353354 freeboard, 394395
service endpoints, 353 free-living amoebas (FLAs), 46, 527
troubleshooting, 339342 freezing, ion-exchange resins, 395
washing of precoat, 354360 friability, 395
filter service, 344352 fullers earth, 395
filtration fulvic acid, 395
bio, 361 fungi, 396
cartridge elements, 361365
disposable elements, 361365 G
efficiency, 371372 galionella, 397
general notes, 367371 gamma emitters, 397
first draw, 379 gamma radiation, 743
fish hatchery, 378 garnet, 397399
fish warning system, 378379 gas chemical feeders, 176
flanges, 261 gases, 399
flocculant, 381 gas laws, 400
flocculation, 212215, 380381 gate valves, 400
floc viewer, 379380 Gaussian resins, 762
flotation, 381 gaylussite, 400
flow accelerated corrosion (FAC), 332 gear pumps, 177
flow assisted vorrosion (FAC), 332 gehlenite, 400
flow balancing, 382 gel, 400
flow equalization, 383 gelatine, 400
flowing water, 383384 gelation of silica, 400401, 834
flow meters, 383 generator stator, 401402
flow switch, 383 George Flynn patented process, 1
fluorescein, 384 giardia, 402
fluoride, 384389 giardiasis waterborne disease, 402
fluorite, 389 gibbsite, 402
fne mesh resins, 377378 glauconite, 402, 405406
food processing plants, 389390 glutaraldehyde, 402
formazin turbidity units (FTU), 512 glycerine de-ionization, 402403
formic acid, 390391 glycol, 403

1048
gold, 403404 hexametaphosphate, 414
grain, 404 high-efficiency regeneration system
granular anthracite filtration, 242243 (HES), 414
granular carbon, 12 high-efficiency separation (HES), 414
granular ferric hydroxide, 88 high-performance liquid chromatography
granular filter beds, 334342 (HPLC), 414415
granular filtration systems, 337339 high-purity water, water quality
graphitization, 260 requirements, 823825
gravel support bed, 404405 high solids waters, softening of, 859860
gravel underdrains, 962 Himsley fluidized bed contactor, 415
gray water, 405 holes, 415417
greensands, 405406 hollow fiber ultrafiltration, 417, 934
grooving, 259 horizontal shaft clarifier, 194
growing of resin beds, 406407 hot lime process, 532533
grow-through bacteria, 100101 hot lime process softeners plant survey
grow-through phenomena, 407 data, 536537
gum rubber, 804805 hot lime treatment, 428
gypsum, 407 hot melts, 2021
hot process backwash tank, 425
H hot process design notes, 418425
Hachs E-Coli, 408 hot process equipment, 417418
halite, 408 hot process softeners, 702703
halogens, disinfectants, 293 hot water sterilization, in filters, 428429
handheld test meters, 911 hot water tank, 430
hardness hot well, 250
analysis in water, 409 hot zeolite softeners, 430
calcium in water, 409 hot zeolite systems
calcium leakage, 409 application, 239240
in feedwater, 124 contaminant limitations, 242
leakage, 409410 description, 240241
magnesium, 410411 temperature limitations, 241
removal from high TDS, 411 HTH, 431
total, 408 humic acid, 431
Hasteloy B-2/C, 411 hydrated ice, 431
head loss, 411 hydrated lime, 431432
heat colors vs. temperature, 910911 hydraulic shock, 432
heater drips, 411 hydraulic shock filters, 343344
heater drips filter, 411 hydraulic water treatment
heavy metals precipitation, 412413 influent water distribution, 433435
heavy metals recovery, 413414 underdrain nozzles/strainers, 436442
hematite, 414 hydrazine, 442443
hemihydrate, 414 hydrochem industrial inhibitors, 175
hemodialysis, 287288 hydrochloric acid
Henrys law, 400 adsorption of elements, 443445, 447
heterotrophic plate count (HPC), 414, decontamination of anion resins, 447
430431 decontamination of cation resins, 447

1049
 solutions, 445446 injection system, acid regeneration, 78
spec for regenerants, 446447 inline filter coagulation, 471
hydrocyclone separator, 811 inline filtration, 471
hydroczincite, 463 inorganic ion exchange, 495496
hydrodynamic cavitation, 447 insoluble silica, 829
hydrofluoric acid, 448 interface collector, 471
hydrogen cycle exchange capacities, interface distributor, 471
448455 internal walls, tank inspection, 901
hydrogen gas, 654 interstitial void volume, 976
hydrogen peroxide, 455457 interstitial volume, 471
hydrogen sulfide, 459461 iodine, 471472
anion beds, 461 solubility, 472
cation beds, 460461 ion-exchange
manganese greensand, 460 anion resins, 488
sulfur bacteria, 461 cation resins, 487488
hydrogen zeolite split-stream process, contacts, 472473
457459 equipment, 473475
hydrologic cycle, 462 fiber filter media, 475
hydrosep, 432, 462 fibers, 475
hydrotalcite, 462 inorganic, 495496
hydroxides, 463 installation and startup notes, 476478
hydroxide solubility, 463 lab column data, 478479
hydroxyapatite, 463 neutralizer, 479485, 613618
hyperfiltration, 463 operating capacities, 485487
hypochlorous acid, 463 rinse values, 490491
hypolimnion, 463 troubleshooting, 918928
turbidity, 491
I type 2 anion notes, 491495
ice manufacturing plants, 464465 ion-exchange beds
ice skating rinks, 465 soaking, 850
Imac ion exchangers, 465466 uni-mix process, 965966
iminodiacetic acid groups resins, 169170 ion-exchange resins
improved four tank regeneration system, cleaning, 488489
893898 freezing, 395
in-bed collectors, 466467 Mitsubishi, 568
indigo carmine dissolved oxygen test, 296, oxidative attack, 651
467468 porosity, 715
industrial boilers, 118 regeneration, 754
industrial condensates, 243 salt spec for regeneration, 806807
inert resins shallow shell and Purolite, 737741
applications, 468 soaking, 849850
description, 763 suppliers, 489490
at interface, 469 ion-exchange systems
at top of packed beds, 469 liftbed process, 107
influent water distributor, 470471 maintenance, 546548
inhibitors, 469 multistep process, 107

1050
 performance testing, 681 Klett-Summerson spectrophotometer, 225
rinsebed process, 107 Kumin process, 517
Schwebebett WS process, 106 kynar, 517
VWS process, 106
ion-exchange systems, rinsing technology L
procedures for reduction, 794796 laboratory columns sizing, 518
recirculation, 796797 laboratory tests, analytical, 5460
recycle rinsing, 790 laboratory underdrains, 518
rinse endpoints, 790791 Lamella separators, 825
rinse flow rates, 793 Langelier index, 519
rinse volumes, 791793 laterals, 519520
troubleshooting, 797799 layered weak anion resin, 520
ion-exchange units lazurite, 520
fouling, 391394 LC50, 522
purified water systems, 735 lead, 522523
rebedding, 748749 lead removal chelating resins, 172173
ion exclusion, 496497 leakage, ion exchange units, 523525
sugar, 884885 leather plants, 525526
ion factors, 497 Legionella (L), 526527
ionic liquid, 500 Leopold filter bottom, 527
ionic solvents, 500 lepidocrocite, 527
ion leakage, 497499 less separable deep-bed resins, 527
ion retardation, 499500 level & flow control devices, 528
IR (intermittent) KMnO4 process, Lewatit resins, 107108
500501 libethenite, 528
iron, 501504 life expectancy, 528
iron bacteria, 99 liftbed process, 107
iron, cation/anion resin decontamination, 510 lime
iron-fouling description, 528529
cation resins, 504510 precipitation, 530532
sodium hydrosulfite, 510511 slaked, 538
isoporous SBA resins, 511 softening, 105
lime feed injector, 530
J lime process advantages, 426, 530
Jackson turbidity units (JTU), 512 lime process plant survey data
Japan Organo Backwash (JOBW), clarifiers, 537538
23, 512 hot lime process softeners, 536537
JAR tests, 216218 lime soap, 538
jet mixing, 512 limestone, 539. See also calcite
Johnson Well (J/W), wedge wire screening, lime warm/hot treatment, 532536
512514, 10051006 linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS), 519
liqui-cel, 539, 654
K liquid ion exchange, 539540
kaolinite clay, 209 log, 541
kinetic degradation fluxion (KDF), 515 loose media filters, 541
kinetics, 515516 loose medium, 541

1051
lowest observed adverse effect level methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE),
(LOAEL), 540 605606
low-level regenerant distributors, 541542 microfiltration (MF), 562, 935
low-pressure boilers, phosphate, 693 micron, 560
micro-organisms, 560561
M microsand, 561
macroporous resins, 543 microscreening, 562563
maghemitem, 543 microwave, 561
magnesia, 543 MILEX, 563
magnesite, 543 milk treatment, 567
magnesium milky water, 567
description, 543544 million gals per day (MGD), 560
hardness, 410411 Millipore flow index (MFI), 563566
removal from acetic acid/nitrate pickling Millipore membranes, 563
baths, 545 Millipore stain test, 566567
magnesium carbonate, 544 minicare, 568
magnesium oxide, 544545 mis-mated mixed beds, 583
magnetic devices, 545 Mitsubishi ion-exchange resins, 568
magnetite, 545 mixed-bed condensate polishing. See also
magnifloc, 546 condensate polishing
maintenance, ion-exchange systems, anion resins, 246
546548 applications, 245
manganese, 548549 cation conductivity, 248
manganese greensand, 459461, cation resins, 246
550553, 759 composition, 245246
manganite, 553 condensate purification process,
mass action regenerant recycle (MARR), 248250
553554 field testing, 248250
material safety data sheets, 554 history, 243244
membrane chemical compatibility, pH vs. conductivity, 247
779780 mixed-bed fouling, 6566, 580582
membrane filters, 562 mixed bed regeneration
membrane products & services, 554556 modifications, 585586
mercury, 556558 schedule, 586588
mercury selective chelating resins, 170 troubleshooting, 588591
merry-go-round IEX, 558 mixed-bed resin spec, 591
mesh, particle size, 558 mixed beds
meta halloysite, 558 aged, 577579
metalimnion, 558 clumping, 571572
metathenardite, 558 column lab, 572577
methacrylates, 21 condensate polishing, 582585
methane, 558560 description, 568571
methylene blue, 560 effluents, 579580
methylene blue active substances field test, 572577
(MBAS), 554 naked, 608
methyl orange, 560 non-regenerable, 629

1052
 non-separable, 629 neutralite, 147
plant service survey studys, 703704 neutralization systems, 612613
plant survey data, 592593 neutralizer, ion exchange, 479485,
polishers, 711712 613618
polishing resin units, 591592 neutralizing amines, 619
protected, 585 neutral wastes, 610612
replacement of anion only, 758 neutrons, 743
silica, 835836 Neva-Clog type underdrains, 619622
mixed oxidants, 182184, 594 nickel, 622623
mixed resins storage tank, 705 nicotine, 623
mixing, 594 nitrates, 624625
mixing-station system, acid nitrate selective anion resins, 171
regeneration, 78 nitric acid, 625626
mixing tee, 594595 nitrification, 627
moisture, 595 nitrogen, 627
moisture/DVB, 595597 nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA),
molar solution, 597 609610
molecular sieves, 597598 NM saline conversion plant, 801
MONN ion process, 598 nominal filter rating, 3, 270271, 372
monobed, 599 non-carbonate hardness, 627
montmorillonite, 599 non-chemical demineralization, 627
morpholine, 599605 non-ionic detergent, 287
morpholine regeneration, 376 non-precoat technology (NPT),
most probable number (MPN), 605 627629
multiple-effect distillers, 327 non-regenerable mixed beds, 629
multiport valve, 606 non-separable mixed beds, 629
multistep process, 107 no observed adverse effect level
municipal plants, 936 (NOAEL), 627
municipal water supplies, 606607 no observed effect level (NOEL), 627
normal operation, 629
N normal solutions, 629
naked mixed beds, 608 NTIN process, 742
nanofiltration (NF), 608609, 779780 nuclear anion resin/low chloride, 630
nanometer, 609 nuclear power plants
National Utility Service Report for water, boiling water reactors, 630
982983 pressurized water reactors, 630631
natrolite, 609
natural adsorbents, 609 O
natural clinoptilites, 53 oclays, 209
natural greensands, 1015 odors, 632
natural radium, 745 oil, 632633
negative charge, 610 oil fields in Libya, 673674
Nema enclosures, 610 oil removal
nephelometric turbidity units (NTU), 512 from condensates, 634635
Neptune/Microflocs MF 487, 964 with filtration, 633634
neurocysticercosi bacteria, 103 from water by organoclays, 635636

1053
oil test packed tank resin capacity & leakage
on resins, 636 ratings, 668671
in water, 636 packed towers, 673
oldhamite, 636 packing, 673
olivine, 636 packing cleansing method
open-end cartridges, 364 cleaning procedure, 674675
organelles, 99 oil fields in Libya, 673674
organic acids, 636637 P-alkalinity, 39
organic boiler inhibitor. See Quebracho palladium, 676
organic foulant removals, 647t palmer filter bed agitator, 676677
organic growths, 637641 paper, 731
organic matter removal, 641642 para sepiolite, 677
organic scavenger, 653654 paratacamite, 677
organic trap (OT), 642647 particle bonded media, 1314
resins, 226 particle count, 677
organic volatile compounds, 15 particle counter, 677678
organic volatiles, 648 pascal, 678
organoclays, 209 passivation, 678
orifice, 648t, 649 pathogens, 678679
water flow through, 984 pear juice treatment, 85
osmotic resin test, 828829 peat adsorbent, 679
osmotic shock, 649651 peracetic acid, 679
oxidants, 651 perchlorate, 679680
oxidation, 652 perchloric acid, 680
oxidation/reduction potential (ORP), 649 performance testing, 681
oxidative attack of ion exchange periclase, 681
resins, 651 periodic pressure correcting operation
oxidizing agents, disinfectants, 293 (PPCO), 681, 725
oxygen consumed, 652 Permutit, 681682
oxygen generator (dissolved), 652 pH, 682686
oxygen removal (from water) measurements, 55
additives, 653654 pharmaceutical plants, 686690
catalytic bed, 654 pharmaceutical water types, 688t
chemical additives, 653 phenol
contactors, 655 description, 690691
de-aerating heaters, 653 disinfectants, 293
hydrogen gas, 654 phenolphthalein, 691
vacuum de-aeration, 653 phosphate
oxygen treatment, 655 coordinated in boilers, 691692
ozone, 655659 drinking water limits, 692
fouling, 692693
P low-pressure boilers, 693
packed beds phosphoric acid, 693
downflow, 661 phosphoric acid pickling bath purification,
equipment description, 671673 693694
reverse flow, 660661 photographic standards, 694

1054
picocurie (pCi), 694 ports, resin removal, 760761
pilot plant, 694695 potable water supplies, 606607
pilot sand filter, 292 potassium, 715
pipes potassium chloride, 715
air flow, 29 potassium permanganate, 715716
discharge, 695 pot feeders, 716
drian, 696 powdered resin filters (PRF). See Powdex
frictional water loss per 100 ft, powdered resin septum filters, 726
696698 powdered resin septum filtration, 239
resin removal, 760761 Powdex
sizes, 699701 advantages, 719720
weight of water, 1006 calculations, 719
plant service survey study conditions, 718
cation & anion-exchange units, 701702 description, 717718
hot process softeners, 702703 disadvantages, 720
MCS plant survey study, 705706 specification, 720724
mixed beds, 703704 suppliers, 724
polishing mixed resin units, 704705 power plants, 716717
plate settlers, 706, 825 PQ Systems, Inc., 731
plating plants, 707 pre-boiler system, 725
platinum, 707 precoat filters, 357360
PLC manufacturers, 725
design/spec, 708710 material suppliers, 730
suppliers, 707708 prices/costs, 725730
pleated cartridges, 362 pre-filters/membrane combination, 730
pleated type cartridge filters, 162 pressure vessels, reverse osmosis, 781
pleated types, 363 pressurized water reactors (PWR),
plug type dezincification, 259 630631
POE/POU, 710711 primary wastewater treatment, 981
point of discharge (POD), 711 process condensate, 731
polishers producer water, 731
cation, 711 prokaryotes, 99
mixed bed, 711712 protective coatings, 258, 262
poly aluminum chloride (PAC), 291 pulp, 731
polyaluminum chloride (PAC), 712713 pump efficiency, 734
polyaluminum hydroxy sulfate (PAHS), pumping costs, 732, 734
675676 pumping hp, 734
polyaspartic acid, 712 pump repair service, 735
polyelectrolytes (PE), 713 pumps favored by water treatment
polymers industry, 732734
in filtration, 713714 PUR, 735
suppliers, 714 pure water, 158, 735. See also ultrapure
in supply water, 714 water (UPW)
polyphosphates, 715 purified water (PW), 688t
polysulfone, 779 purified water systems, 735736
porosity, 715 Purolite A-555, type 3 resin, 88

1055
Purolite S-108, 130 recharge area, 750
Purolite-shallow shell ion-exchange resins, recirculation, 796797
737741 reclaiming HCL, 750
reclaiming sulfuric acid, 750
Q recovery of water, 750751
quartz, 742 recycle rinsing, 790
quaternary ammonium, 742 recycling ammonia, 751
quaternary ammonium compounds red brass, 133
(QACs), 293 redox resin, 751752
quats. See quaternary ammonium reduction, 752
compounds (QACs) red water, 751
Quebracho, 742 regenamine, 752
quicklime, 742 regenerant distributor
quiescent, 742 co-current regenerations, 752753
design, 753754
R regenerant levels, 754
radioactivity, 743745 regenerant reuse, 754
radionuclides, 745 regeneration
radium, 744745 ion exchange resins, 754
radon, 745746 models, 755
rain water, 746747 sequences, 756
rainwater harvesting, 747 service, 756
RAM effect, 747 thoroughfare, 756757, 912913
Ranney collector, 747 relative biological effectiveness
Ranney well, 747 (RBE), 743
rare earths, 747 remisol, 757
rate of attack, 258259 rental/exchange service, 757
ratio of silica, 747748 replacement of resins, 758
ratio of sodium, 748 residual resins removal from tanks,
raw condensate 758759
ammonia, 232233 resin
corrosion products, 230 anion, 763
cyclic operating boilers, 233 cation, 763
during normal operation, 230232 cleaning, 759
silica contamination, 229230 Gaussian, 762
turbine washdown, 229 inert, 763
raw surface water, 328 life expectancy, 528
raw water plants. See ice manufacturing oil test on, 636
plants ratio, 760
reactor, water treatment, 748 replacement, 758
re-aeration, 748 storm(s), 763764
rebedding storming, 764
loading resin, 749 testing, 764765
resin removal, 748 transfer, 768
reboiled cation conductivity, 252 utilization, 770
recarbonation, 749 zwitterion, 10191020

1056
resin beds, growing of, 406407
resin-bonded cartridge filters, 163
resin bonded fiber, 362
resin-bonded types, 363
resin on resin (RoR), 760
resinous softeners, 780
resin removal ports and pipes, 760761
resins prior to synthetic styrene, 759760
resin test procedures
anion resin evaluations, 767
cation resin tests, 765
sampling, 765
sieve/microscopic examination, 766
total exchange capacity, 766
resin traps
after cation units, 768769
CPP mixed beds, 769
definition, 768
sump, 769770
resistivity, 770772
resistor color code, 772
retardion, 772773
retrofitting, 662
return line corrosion, 773
reuse of wastewater, 773
reverse flow packed beds (RFPB),
660661
reverse osmosis (RO), 87
cleaning, 773774
control panels, 775776
disinfection, 776
flux guidelines, 776778
fouling mechanisms, 778
membrane chemical compatibility,
779780
polyamide-urea membranes, 780781
pressure vessels, 781
scaling, 774
servicing, 774775
silting index, 779
suppliers, 775
ring test, 781782
rinsebed process, 107
rinsing
after standby condition, 789790
CPP, 785
mixed-bed polishers, 785
recycling/refluxing, 785789
in SAC, 783
in silica gelation problems, 783
sulfated macroporous anion resins,
782783
technology in ion-exchange systems,
790799
values in ion exchange, 784
volumes in ion exchange, 784785
rinsing technology, ion-exchange systems
procedures for reduction, 794796
recirculation, 796797
recycle rinsing, 790
rinse endpoints, 790791
rinse flow rates, 793
rinse volumes, 791793
troubleshooting, 797799
riverbank filtration (RBF), 747
riveting, 260
rock salt, 806
Roentgen, 743
Roentgen equivalent man (REM), 743
Roentgen equivalent physical (rep), 743
Rohm & Haas (R&H) Co., 799800
Ronningen-Petter (RP) unit, 802
Roswell, NM saline conversion plant, 801
rotameters, 801802
rubber lining
description, 802803
factors effecting, 803804
specification guidelines, 804
rubber tubing, 804805
S
salt, 806
salt cake, 806
salt spec, 806807
salt splitting, 807
salt-splitting exchange capacity,
807809
salt water, 809
sampling
of resins, 809
resin system, 810
size reduction, 809
1057
sand shallow well, 828
settling velocity, 811 shock resin test, 828829
transport with water, 810 side stream CPP, 829
traps, 811 sieve size, 829
scale analysis, 811812 sight glasses, 829
scavengers, 812 silica
schmutzdecke, 812 activated, 833834
Schwebebett WS process, 106 analysis by Klett-Summerson, 831
screening colloidal, 832833
covering for laterals, 813814 contamination, 229230
of various waters, 814 gelation, 834
screen size, 829 insoluble, 829
screwed pipe joint, 261 leakage in CPP, 834835
SDI vs. turbidity, 815 in mixed beds, 835836
sealants, 815816 removal from soft water, 839
seawater, 816 in rivers, 831
seawater regeneration of SAC resins, solubility, 830
816817 test solution, 842843
secondary wastewater treatment, 981 silica reduction
second backwash (BW2), 9798, 817818 in cold lime process, 836838
sedimentation, 818 with ferric sulfate, 838839
selective resins, 818819 silica tolerance vs. boiler operating
selectivity, 819820 pressure, 843
selenium, 820821 silicones, 2122
semiconductor silt, 843
description, 821825 silt density index (SDI), 843844
grade resins, 108 silting index, reverse osmosis, 779
plants, 821 silver, 844845
separation, 825 silver carbon, 1617, 845
separation regeneration tank, 705 silver-impregnated activated carbon, 845
sepiolite, 826 silver recovery, 845
septum filters, 353354, 726 single-effect evaporators, 326
serpentine, 826 siphoning method, 845846
Serratia marcescens, 100 Sirotherm, 846
service flow change, 783784 slow rinse, 847, 859
service report, 839842 sludge blanket, 847
service run, 826 sludge dewatering vessels, 847848
settlement basins, 826 sludges, 848849
settlers, 825 slurry, 849
sewage snake-cage ion exchangers, 849
one tank treatment, 826 soaking, 795
treatment, 826827 ion-exchange beds, 850
water treatment, 827828 ion-exchange resins, 849850
shallow gravel underbed, 404405 soaking regenerants, 586
shallow shell ion-exchange resins. soap hardness titration test, 850
See Purolite soap usage, hardness in water, 851

1058
soda ash, 851 spun polypropylene cartridge filters, 163
sodium spun polypropylene type, 363
analyzers, 851852 stainless steel, 867
flame test, 852 passivation of, 678
leakage, 856857 stains, 866867
sodium aluminate, 851 standby unit, 867868
sodium bisulfate, 852 static mixer, 868
sodium bisulfite reducing agent, 184 stator cooling water chemistry, 401402,
sodium cycle 868869
application, 239240 steam, 869872
contaminant limitations, 242 steel mill scale filters, 872873
description, 240241 sterile purified water, 688t
temperature limitations, 241 sterile water
sodium hydroxide for inhalation, 688t
for condensate polishing mixed beds, for injection, 688t
855856 for irrigation, 688t
description, 852853 sterilization
materials compatibility, 854855 chemical/chlorex sterilization, 875
solutions, 854 chlorex of activated carbon units,
spec for regenerants, 855 874875
sodium salt, 712 demineralizer resins, 876
sodium sulfite, 887 with formaldehyde, 876877
sodium zeolite split-stream process, 457459 with peroxide, 877
softener sizing, 858859 resin degradation, 873874
softening of high solids waters, 859860 stills, 877
softening waters storage tanks, 877878
with iron and manganese, 857 purified water systems, 736
softening with styrene, 858 strainers, 436442, 878879
soft water, 309310 strata-bed, 879
silica removal from, 839 streaming current detector, 879
solar salt, 806 stressed bacteria, 101, 879
solenoid valves, 860 string wound fiber filter, 363
solka-floc, 860 strong acid capacity, 880
solvents, 860 strong acid cation (SAC), 880883
specific conductivity, 256 strong acidity, 9
sphalerite, 860 strong-base anion effluent, 990
spherical polishers, 860861 strong basic anion (SBA) exchangers, 68
spherical tanks, 861863 strontium, 883
spiractor, 863865 study report, 839842
spiral wound electrode-ionization subsurface washer, 343344
(SWEDI), 898 sucrose, 883
splash guards, 5, 865 sugar
split bed mixed-bed polishing, 866 decalcification process, 883884
split beds, 865866 decolorization, 884
spores, 866 de-ionization, 884
spun-bonded fiber filter, 362 ion exclusion, 884885

1059
Sul-Bisul process, 885 tank inspection, internal walls, 901
sulfamic acid, 886 tanneries, 525526
sulfate, 886 tap water, 907
sulfate bacteria, 886 TDS creep, 907
sulfated macroporous anion resins, 782783 Tekapor, 908
sulfide temperature
detection, 887 effect in CPP, anion beds, cation beds,
removal by SBA resins, 886887 909910
sulfite reducing agent, 184 vs. heat colors, 910911
sulfite, sodium, 887 temporary hardness, 112
sulfonated coal, 887888 tenorite, 911
sulfur bacteria, 98, 461, 888889 tertiary treatment, 911
hydrogen sulfide, 459461 tertiary wastewater treatment, 982
sulfur dioxide, 889 teschemacherite, 911
sulfur dioxide reducing agent, 184 test meters, handheld, 911
sulfuric acid test strips, 911
description, 889890 textile plants, 911
materials compatibility, 891 thermocline, 912
neutralization, 892 thermonatrite, 912
regenerants, 892893 thin-film composite (TFC) membrane, 912
solutions, 890891 thiobacillus, 912
spec for regenerants, 891892 thoroughfare regenerations, 912913
SURESEP, 893898 tilt switch, 913
SURESEP regeneration system, 47 tin, 913
surface re-aeration, 748 titanium, 913
surface runoff, 898 titanium tubing, 913914
surface washer, 343344 total capacity, 917
surface water organics, 1415 total exchangeable anion (TEA), 907
suspended solids (SS), 120 total hardness, 408
sweetening off/on, 898 total hardness buffer solution, 917
swelling, 898899 total organic carbon (TOC), 640, 914916
swimming pool tower packings, 917
water, 899900 toxic metals, 917
swimming pool disinfection (SPD), 899 transfer of particles, 917
synthetic gel, 10151016 triammonex, 918
syrups, 900 trihalomethanes (THM), 912
tritons, 287
T troilite, 918
talc, 901 trona, 918
tangential filtration, 264 troubleshooting, ion exchange, 918928
tank tub bacteria, 928929
coating suppliers, 907 tuberculation, 259
pressure for homes with wells, 902 tube settlers, 825, 929930
sizings, 902905 tubular filter, 802
suppliers, 907 turbidex, 930
thickness, 905 turbidity, 930932

1060
TV plants, 933 uranium, 744, 966967
Tygon, 296, 805 urethanes, 22
Tygon tubing, 805, 932933 utility boilers, 125126
type 1 anion resin, 933 UV reaction method, 640, 916
type 2 anion resin, 933
typical horizontal filter, 335 V
vacuum de-aeration, 653
U vacuum de-aerator
ultimate exchange capacity, 937 customer preference, reasons for,
ultrafiltration (UF), 934937 272274
ultrapure water (UPW), 937943 design features, 276279
ultrasonic resin cleaner (URC) test setup, 275
description, 943948 vacuum degasifier, 968
flows & costs, 948949 vacuum lab pilot setup, 968
frequency, 949 vacuum regions, 968970
ultraviolet vacuum steam ejectors, 970
description, 950953 valve leakage, 971
lamps, 954 valves favored by water industry, 970971
suppliers, 953955 Van der Waals, 971
UltraViolet Devices, Inc. (UVDI), 954 vegetable tanning process, 526
ultraviolet units, purified water systems, velocities in water treatment, 971973
736 vermiculite, 973
underdrain Versene, 973974
anthracite, 963 vertical shaft clarifier, 193194
bottom collection system, 956957 vessel drawoff nozzles, 300
collector inspection, 957958 vinegar, 392, 974
fractal distribution system, 958 vinyl chloride, 975
Neva-Clog type, 619622 virus removal, 975976
nozzles, 436442 vivianite, 976
pilot lab columns, 958 void volume, interstitial, 976
polishers in CPP, 959961 volatiles
preparation methods, 954956 solvent substitute, 977
problems/issues, 961962 in water, 976977
quartz/gravel, 962963 volume of rinse water, 977
sealants/adhesives, 963964 volvox, 38, 978
stabilization of gravels, 964 vortex, 978
underground storage tanks (UGST), 937 VWS process, 106
underlay, 965
uniformity coefficient (UC), 965 W
uniform size ion exchangers, 965 warm-lime process, 428
uni-mix procedure, 794795 warm lime treatment, 428
uni-mix process, 965966 warm water, 979
upcore, 966 wastes
UPFLOW- co-current operation, 11t, 68t neutral, 979980
upflow regeneration downflow service regenerants balanced, 980981
packed bed, 662668 from regeneration, 980

1061
wastewaters iron fouling, 998999
description, 981 operating capacity, 996998
market forecasts, 983 Weak acidity, 89
reuse of, 773 weak-base anion effluent, 990
wastewater treatment weak base anion (WBA) exchange,
air for, 3537 9991004
types, 981982 weak-base organic traps, 1005
water weak basic anion (WBA) exchangers, 68
bacteriostatic, 688t weddellite, 1005
bloom, 983 wedge wire screening, 10051006
color in, 224226 weighting agents, 215
corrosion in, 257258 weight of water, pipes, 1006
demineralized, 309310 weir flows, 1006
density, 983 welding, 261
flow through orifices, 984 welding stresses, 261
glass, 985 well
hammer, 985986 class vs. injection, 1007
hardness, 985 specific yield, 1007
molecule size, 986 wellwater, 1007
National Utility Service report, wet chemical feeders, 175176
982983 Whey de-acidification, 10071008
oil test, 636 white rubber lining, 804
piping corrosion, 264 white water, 27, 1008
purified, 688t wikeite, 1008
quality requirements, 821825 willemite, 1008
red, 751 wine treatment, 10081009
sand transport with, 810 wood-slat tray aerator, 23
soap usage by hardness, 851
soft, 309310 X
spotting, 986 XAD adsorbents, 10101012
swimming pool, 899900 xenobiotics, 10131014
transfer of particles with, 917 XL electropure, 1014
warm, 979 xonotlite, 1014
wastewater market forecasts, 983 X-ray radiation, 743
water for injection (WFI), 984985
waterline attack, 259 Y
watershed, 986 yellow brass, 133
water treatment
methods, 986990 Z
pumps favored by, 732734 zeolite, 759, 780
reactor, 748 anion, 85, 1015
velocities, 971973 natural greensands, 1015
WBA traps, 647 synthetic gel, 10151016
weak acid cation (WAC) exchange zero D, 1017
applications, 994996 zero discharge water, 1017
description, 991994 zero liquid discharge (ZLD), 1017

1062
zeta potential, 10161017 zincosite, 1019
zinc, 10171018 zone of aeration, 1019
zinc cyanide, 10181019 zone of saturation, 1019
zinc dust, 1019 zooplankton, 1019
zincite, 1019 zwitterion resins, 10191020

1063