Chapter 2 : MEMBER DESIGN

Summary:
Section needs to be classified to avoid local plate buckling
. A variety of section shapes are available for beams, choice depends on local and span.
Beams may often be designed on basis of bending moment resistance.
Stiffness under serviceability loads is an important consideration.
Beams which are unable to move laterally are termed restrained.
Moment resistance is dependent on section classification.
Co-existent shear forces below 50% of the plastic shear resistance do not affect moment resistance.
Beams bent about the major axis may fail by buckling in a more flexible plane
This form of buckling involves both lateral deflection and twisting - lateral-torsional buckling
The applied moment at which a beam buckles by deflecting laterally and twisting reached is the elastic
critical moment
A design approach for beams prone to failure by lateral-torsional buckling must account for a large number of
factors - including section shape, the degree of lateral restraint, type of loading, residual stress pattern and
initial imperfections
Stocky beams are unaffected by lateral torsional buckling and capacity is governed by the plastic resistance
moment of the cross section
Slender beams have capacities close to the theoretical elastic critical moment
Many practical beams are significantly adversely affected by inelasticity and geometrical imperfections, hence
elastic theory provides an upper band solution.
A design expression linking the plastic capacity of stocky beams with the elastic behaviour of slender beams
is provided by a reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling
Structural members subjected to axial compression and bending are known as beam columns.
The interaction of normal force and bending may be treated elastically or plastically using equilibrium for the
classification of cross-section.
The behaviour and design of beam-columns are presented within the context of members subjected to uniaxial
bending, whose response is such that deformation takes place only in the plane of the applied moments.
In the case of beam-columns which are susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling, the out-of-plane flexural
buckling of the column has to be combined with the lateral-torsional buckling of the beam using the relevant
interaction formulae.
For beam-columns with biaxial bending, the interaction formula is expanded by the addition of an
additional term.

Objectives:
explain the procedure for section classification
explain the procedures used to design restrained beams,
design a beam for bending resistance,
check a beam for compliance with serviceability criteria,
describe how to reduce the bending resistance of a beam to allow for high shear loads.
describe the difference in behaviour of stocky and slender columns
recognise the sources of imperfection in real columns and the need for a probabilistic approach to design
compare the ECCS column curves
calculate the non-dimensional slenderness of a column
calculate the reduction factor for the relevant buckling modes for columns of different cross-sectional shapes
calculate the in-plane bending and axial compression force for beam-columns
calculate the lateral-torsional buckling of beam-columns
calculate the biaxial bending and axial compression force for beam-columns

References:

Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures Part 1.1 General rules and rules for buildings
 2- 1

The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures, N S Trahair and M A Bradord, E & F Span, 1994.
Galambos, T.V., Structural Members and Frames, Prentice-Hall, 1968
Narayanan, R., Beams and Beam Columns - Stability and Strength, Applied Science, London, 1983

Contents:
1. Section classification
2. Compression members
3. Restrained beams
4. Unrestrained beams
5. Members subjected to axial force and moments
 2- 2

Chapter 2 Member Design

1 Local Buckling and Section Classification

1.1 Introduction.
Local buckling is a phenomena which affects all thin materials when subjected to a
compressive force. Its effect is to cause wide plate elements within a member to buckle before
they reach the design strength. A typical pattern of local buckling in the outstand flange of a
beam in bending is shown in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 typical pattern of local buckling in outstand flange:

1.2 Section Classification.

BS 5950 prevents local buckling of the various elements of the cross section by classifying
each element according to its b/t or d/t ratio, then designing the cross section accordingly.

It is therefore necessary to define the parts of the cross section which are to be considered.
Figure 5 of BS 5950- 1 defines the various elements in a number of cross sections. For the
purpose of this lecture two particular shapes will be considered, a universal beam and a hot
finished hollow section as shown in Figure 1.2:
 2- 3

b b
T Outstand Flange

r
Web
Web t
D t D
d d

B B

Universal Beam For a Hot finished hollow section

b = B/2 d=D-2(T + r) b=B-3t d=D-3t

Figure 1.2 Section shapes

The classification of sections is carried out according to tables 11 and 12 of the code parts of
which are shown in Table 1.1 of these notes.

Table 1.1 - Limiting width to thickness ratios for H- or I-section or sections other than
CHS and RHS

Compression element Ratio Limiting values

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Plastic Compact Semi-compact
Outstand element of Rolled b/T 9 10 15
compression flange section
Web (Neutral axis at mid depth) d/t 80 100 120
Web generally If r1 is d/t 80 100 120
positive 1 + r1 1 + 1.5r1 1 + 2r2
(compression)
but 40 but 40 but 40

If the b/t or the d/t for class 3 (semi-compact) semi compact sections is exceeded then the
element is class 4 (slender). i.e., it will buckle locally before full axial load is achieved.

Notes to tables:

1. The term =(275/py)1/2 is used to accommodate varying design strengths.

Fc Fc
2. For I and H sections r1 = but 1<r1 1 and r2 =
dtp yw Ag p yw
Fc Fc
3. For hollow sections r1 = ; but 1<r1 1 and r2 =
2dtp yw Ag p yw
Factors r1 and r2 allow for the applied axial load Fc
 2- 4

Where
Fc is the applied axial load (taken as +ve for compression)
pyw is the design strength of the web
Ag is the gross area of the cross section

The four classes of cross section given in the code are as follows:

Class 1. Plastic cross sections are those in which all elements subject to compression are
relatively stocky (small width to thickness ratios) and can sustain high strains without local
buckling. In a class 1 (plastic) cross section plastic hinges can be developed with sufficient
rotation capacity to allow redistribution of moments within the structure. Only class 1 (plastic)
sections should be used at plastic hinge locations in structures using plastic analysis.

Class 2. Compact cross sections contain elements which are less stocky, although the cross
section can develop the full plastic moment capacity. However local buckling of the section
will prevent development of a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to permit plastic
analysis. Class 2 (compact) sections can be used without restriction except that they may not
be used in plastic design.

Class 3. Semi-compact sections are those in which all elements subject to compression can
reach the design strength at the extreme fibres but local buckling may prevent the development
of full plastic moment. Class 3 (semi-compact) sections are subject to limitations on their
moment capacity which are given in clauses 3.5.6, 4.2 and 4.3.

Class 4. Slender sections are those which contain slender elements when subject to
compression due to moment or axial load. Local buckling will prevent the stress in a slender
section from reaching the design strength. Design of class 4 (slender) sections is considered in
section 3.6 "Class 4 (slender) cross-sections.

In general sections will be classified in accordance with the highest classification of any of the
elements. For example a beam with a class 1 (plastic), flange and a class 2 (compact) web will
be classified as class 2 (compact).

The above classification of cross sections implications as far as the design of the member is
concerned. These implications will be dealt with in detail during the lectures on each type of
member.

1.3 Class 3 (Semi-compact) and Class 4 (Slender Sections)

1.3.1 Class 3 (Semi-compact sections)
For class 3 semi-compact sections subject to bending the elastic section modulus (Z) should
be used for bending calculations. Alternatively an effective section modulus (Seff )may be
used. The code gives formulae for calculating Seff for various sections in clause 3.5.6. For an
I or H section the formulae are given as:
 2- 4

2
3 w 1 3 f 1
d /t
S x ,eff = Z x + (S x Z x ) but S x ,eff Z x + (S x Z x ) b / T
2
3 f
3 w 1 1
2 w 2f

3
f 1
S y ,eff = Z y + (S y Z y ) b / T
3 f
1
2f

where:
2f is the limiting value of b/T for a class 2 compact flange
2w is the limiting value of d/t for a class 2 compact web
3f is the limiting value of b/T for a class 3 semi-compact flange
3w is the limiting value of d/t for a class 3 semi cmpact web
Sx and Sy are the plastic moduli
Zx and Zy are the elastic moduli

1.3.2 Slender sections

BS 5950 deals with class 4 (slender) elements in cross sections by the use of effective section
properties:

Effective area - The effective area should be taken as shown in Figure 8 of the code
and the examples shown in Figures 1.3 and 1.4 of these notes.

20t 20t

20t
20t

t
t
20t 20t

Rolled I Section Hot finished RHS

Figure 1.3 Effective cross section subject to pure compression for determining Aeff
 2- 5

20t 20t
20t 20t

20t

D
t
t
20t

Major axis bending Minor axis bending

Figure 1.4 Effective cross section subject to pure moment for determining Zeff

Effective modulus when the web is not slender under pure bending.(i.e. only the
flanges are slender).This should be obtained by using Figure 8b in the code and Figure
1.4 of these notes. If the section is not slender when subject to bending about the other
axis the full value of the elastic section modulus (Z) should be used when considering
bending about that axis.
Effective modulus when the web is slender under pure bending. The effective section
modulus should be obtained by considering an effective cross section as shown in
Figure 9 of the code and Figure 1.5 of these notes. Where:

120t
be ff =
f cw f tw f tw
1 + 1 +
p yw f cw
where:
fcw and ftw are the maximum compressive sress and the maximum tensile stress in the
web calculated on the gross cross section.
0.4beff
fcw
Non effective Zone

0.6beff

Elastic neutral axis Elastic Neutral axis

of gross section of effective section
f tw

Figure 1.5 Effective width for slender web under pure bending
 2- 6

1.3.3 Section Subject to Axial Force and Moments

When dealing with members which are subject to axial load and biaxial bending, the
classification of the cross-section should be based upon the combined effects of the axial and
bending actions. The effective cross-sectional area Aeff and the values of effective section
modulus Zeff for bending about the major and minor axes should be determined from separate
effective cross-sections as detailed in Clause 3.6.

Sections with slender webs under bending should be avoided in beam columns.

1.4. General Guidance when using the Deign Tables in the Appendix (see
Handout)
None of the universal beam and column sections in grade S275 and S355 are slender
under bending only.
None of the universal columns can be slender under compression only, but some
universal beams and hollow sections can be slender. Sections that can be slender
under axial compression are marked with * in the design tables.
None of the sections listed in the design tables are slender due to the flange being
slender. Under combined axial compression and bending, the section would be
compact or semi-compact up to given F/Pz limits.

1.5. Examples of the use of Tables 11 and 12 from BS5950-1:2000

The use of these tables can be demonstrated as follows:

1.5.1 Consider a S275 steel 457x152x52 universal beam subject to bending about the
major axis

T b

D t
d

Universal Beam
b = B/2 d=D-2(T + r)

Figure 1.6 Universal Beam

T<16mm therefore py=275N/mm2 from table 9

 2- 7

275 275
= = =1
py 275

From section tables the flange b/T = 6.99 and the web d/t = 53.6

From table 11 the limit for a class 1 (plastic) rolled flange is 9 the flange is therefore
class 1 (plastic)

From table 1 the limit for a class 1 (plastic) rolled web with the neutral axis at mid depth
is 80 the web is therefore class 1 (plastic)

Both the flange and the web are class 1 (plastic). Therefore the section is class 1 (plastic)
when subject to bending

Design strength = 275 N/mm2 since T = 10.9mm < 16mm

Plastic modulus Sx = 1100 cm3
For compact section:
Bending Moment Capacity = py x Sx = 275 x 1100x 103 x 10-6 = 302 kNm

Using Design Table Page 197

For a S275 steel 457x152x52 universal beam under pure bending
Section classification is plastic.
Moment capacity is 301 kNm

1.5.2 Consider the same beam (S275: 457x152x52) when subject to an axial load of
800kN and a bending moment about the major axis.

From section tables the flange b/T = 6.99 and the web d/t = 53.6 and has been shown to
be 1.

From table 11 the limit for a class 1 (plastic) rolled flange is 9 the flange is therefore
class 1 (plastic).

From table 11 the limit for a class 1 (plastic) rolled web (generally) is

80 Fc
where r1 =
1 + r1 dtp yw
800 x10 3
Therefore r1 = = 0.93 and the d/t limit = 41.5
407.6 x7.6 x 275

53.6>41.5 the web is not therefore class 1 (plastic)

by inspection it can be seen that the section is not class 2 (compact)

120 Fc
. The limit for a class three web is where r2 =
1 + 2r2 Ag p yw
 2- 8

800 x10 3
r2 = = 0.44 and the limit = 64
66.6 x10 2 x 275

The web is therefore semi -compact

The section has therefore got a class 3 (semi-compact) web and a class 1 (plastic) flange
and should be treated as a semi compact section.

If the axial load were increased to 1500kN it can be shown that the web becomes class 4
(slender)

Using Design Table Page 247

For a S275 steel 457x152x52 universal beam under axial load = 800kN and bending
about major axis,
Section is at least semi-compact when F/Pz is less than 0.619
Section is at least compact when F/Pz is less than 0.268
Pz = 1830kN
Upper limit of F for semi-compact section = 0.619 x 1830kN = 1133kN
Upper limit of F for compact section = 0.269 x 1830kN = 492kN

Since F = 800kN is between 1133kN and 492 kN, section classification is semi-compact

Note that when axial load is increased to 1500kN, the section becomes slender.

1. 6 Summary of design procedure

1 Select, from experience, a suitable section based on the factored load effects

2 Determine the section classification from Table 11 or 12

3 If necessary calculate effective plastic modulus for Class 3 (semi-compact) sections

4 If necessary calculate effective section properties for class 4(slender sections)

5 Proceed with design procedures suitable for the section classification

 2- 9

2. Compression members
In order to perform satisfactorily, a compression member must not fail due to:

(i) Local buckling

(ii) Overall yielding
(iii) Overall buckling

These effects will be examined by reference to BS 5950.

2.1 LOCAL BUCKLING

In order to ensure that a member does not fail due to local buckling, the elements of the cross
section should be classified by reference to Tables 11 and 12 of the BS code and designed
accordingly. If the classification is 1, 2 or 3, the design method is the same. When the section
is class 4 then the design differs slightly and these differences will be noted in this lecture. It
is therefore important to identify whether or not the section is class 4.
b

275 I and H Sections

=
py t b/t < 15
d
120 but <40
d/t <

Fc T 1+ 2.0 r
2
r2 =
Ag p y

b Hot finished
Rectangular Hollow Sections

b/t < 40
t
d D d/t < 120
1+ 2.0 r
2

but <40
B
b=B-3t
d=D-3t

Figure 2.1 Classification of class 3 section

If the class 3 limit is exceeded for any element, the cross section should be classified as class
4 (slender) and an effective area used throughout the design in accordance with clause 3.6.

2.2. OVERALL YIELDING

Theoretically, the designer should check that the design stress is not exceeded on the gross
area of the section. This check, however, is not necessary in practice because the check for
overall buckling will satisfy this condition.

2.3 OVERALL BUCKLING

2.3.1 Slenderness
The resistance of the member to overall buckling depends on the slenderness ().
 2- 10

For class1, 2 and 3 cross sections the slenderness is taken as = LE/r

For class 4 (slender) cross sections the slenderness is taken as taken as (Aeff /Ag)0.5
Where

LE = the effective length which is a function of the actual length of the member between
restraints

r = the radius of gyration, which is a tabulated section property and is different for
each axis of buckling.

2.3.2 Compressive Strength and Resistance

The designer will select a compressive strength (pc in N/mm2) from Table 24 based on the
design strength and the slenderness and hence calculate the buckling resistance (Pc kN) from
clause 4.7.4.
i.e.:

For class 1 2 or 3 sections the capacity Pc = Ag pc

For class 4 (slender) cross sections Pc = Aeff pc

where
Ag is the gross area of the section
Aeff is the effective cross sectional area of the section
pc is the compressive strength based on and py
pcs is the compressive strength based on (Aeff/Ag)0.5 and py

2.4. Use of strut table 23 and compressive strength table 24

When referring to compressive strength table 24 it will be noticed that there are four tables
one for each strut curve (a) to (d). The four different curves are used for different shaped
sections and differences in their buckling behaviour about each principle axis, caused by
imperfections such as out of straightness and residual stress. A more detailed explanation of
why this occurs is given in appendix A of these notes. It is essential however to use the
correct compressive strength table in accordance with the appropriate strut curve as indicated
in Table 23 of the code, part of which is reproduced in Table 2.1 of these notes.

Table 2.1 Allocation of strut curve

Type of Section Thickness Axis of Buckling

mm x-x y-y
Hot finished hollow section (a) (a)
Cold formed hollow section (c) (c)
I Section (e.g. Universal < 40mm (a) (b)
beam) >40mm (b ) (c)
H section (e.g.Universal < 40mm (b) (c)
column) >40mm (d) (d)
Welded I or H section <40mm ( b) (c)
>40mm (b) (d)
Angles, Channels and (c)
T-Sections
 2- 11

Fabricated Sections should, in theory, need the use of a further set of strut curves but, for
simplification, the use of one of the above tables is used with a reduced value of design stress
2
taken as (py - 20) N/mm where py is the design stress of the original plate section.

2.5 Effective Length

The effective length of a compression member is a function of the actual length between
restraints and its value depends on the type of restraint provided, i.e. rotational and/or
positional restraint (see Figure 2.5).

Restraint Position Position Position

Direction Direction Direction

Restraint Position Position Position Position Position

Direction Direction Direction
Practical 1.0 L 0.85 L 0.7 L 2.0 L 1.2 L
LE

Figure 2.5 Effective lengths

In the majority of cases in simple construction, the effective length will be determined from
Table 22 of the code (part of which is reproduced below as Table 2.2). Discontinuous angle
channel or T section struts and laced and battened members are treated separately, as are
members in continuous construction.

Table 2.2 Effective length of members

Restraint (in the plane under consideration) by the other parts of the LE
structure
Effectively held in position Effectively restrained in direction at both ends 0.7L
at both ends Partially restrained in direction at both ends 0.85L
Effectively restrained in direction at one ends 0.85L
Not restrained in direction at either end 1.0L

2.6 Members in Lattice Frames and Trusses

Members in lattice frames and trusses using angles channels and T sections are treated in the
same way as other compression members, apart from the method of determining the
slenderness. For this, reference should be made to Clause 4.7.10 and Table 25.

At first glance, this procedure appears very complex. It has, however, been justified on the
basis of test work carried out on large lattice frames and towers and it allows for such things
as:

(i) The effective length being influenced by the type of connection.

 2- 12

(ii) The eccentricity caused by using a double angle or a single angle and whether the
gusset plate is between or on the back of the angle.

(iii) The possibility of short members buckling about the stronger axis due to a flexible
gusset plate at the end.

For double angles and channels and laced and battened sections, additional rules are also
given to ensure that the connection is adequate, eccentricities are allowed for and that proper
allowance is made for changes in slenderness about the axis perpendicular to the battens. See
Clauses 4.7.8 to 4.7.13. The rules are clearly laid out based on experimental evidence and do
not require a detailed explanation in this lecture.

2.7 MEMBERS IN CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION

The design of members in continuous construction is dealt with in Section 5 of the code. The
procedures depend on considering the frame as a whole and the stiffness of individual
members framing into the column.. The subject is too large to cover as part of this lecture, but
it is important to recognize that the simple approach to effective lengths, as given in Table 22,
is not applicable to members in continuous frames. Appendix E of the code gives figures to
determine the effective length of members in continuous construction

2.8 SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR COMPRESSION

MEMBERS
1. Select section and determine the value of design strength. Table 9
2. Determine if the section is class 4 (slender) Table 11 or 12
3. For slender class 4 (slender) sections, calculate the effective area Clause 3.6
4 Determine the effective length (LE).
For simple members Table 22
For members in continuous construction Appendix E
5. For class 1,2 and 3 sections Calculate = LE/r Clause 4.7.4
6. For members in lattice frames and trusses determine able 25

7. For class 4 (slender sections) calculate = LE/r (Aeff/Ag)0.5 Clause 4.7.4

8. Select appropriate strut curve according to section shape and
axis of buckling Table23
9. Obtain the compressive strength from the appropriate strut table
and the appropriate value of design strength. Table 24
10. Calculate the compressive resistance from the product of the
area (effective area for slender sections) and the
compressive strength. Clause 4.7.4.
 2- 13

2.9 EXAMPLES

Q1. Check the column shown in S275 steel. It is pin-ended about both x-x and y-y axes and
the load shown is factored and includes self weight. The section is classified as not slender.

2500 kN

356 x 360 x 129 UC

6m

Solution
356 x 368 x 129 UC, Grade S275
T = 17.5 mm, Ag = 164 cm2, rx = 15.6 cm, ry = 9.43 cm

Flange thickness T > 16 py = 265 N/mm2 Table 9

The section is NOT slender, therefore Pc = Ag pc 4.7.4

For buckling about the x-x axis, use strut curve (b) Table 23
For buckling about the y-y axis, use strut curve (c) Table 23
L EX 6000
Slenderness x = = = 38.5
rx 15. 6 10

L EY 6000
y = = = 63.6
ry 9. 43 10

For x = 38.5 and py = 265 pcx = 243 N/mm2 Table

24(b)
For y = 63.6 and py = 265 pcy = 188 N/mm2 Table
24(c)
pc is the lesser value of pcx or pcy
 2- 14

Pc = 164 x 102 x 188/103 = 3083 kN

Since Fc < Pc

i.e 2500 < 3083

Therefore, section OK

Design using Design Table

356 x 368 x 129 UC, Grade S275, Effective length = 6.0m
Note that all UC sections are non slender under pure compression
From Page 224 of the design table, Le = 6.0m
Pcx = 3990kN
Pcy = 3090kN (Control!)
 2- 15

3 Restrained Beams

3.1 Introduction
In order to perform satisfactorily a restrained beam must be checked for:
i) Adequate lateral restraint
ii) Local Buckling
iii) Shear
iv) Bending and combined bending and shear
v) Web bearing and buckling
vi) Deflection

3.2 Lateral Restraint

When a beam is in bending, there is a tendency for the top flange, which is in compression, to
pull the section out of plane and cause buckling. In order to prevent this and allow the section
to achieve its full moment capacity it is important that the compression flange is restrained so
that only vertical movement of the beam is allowed

Full lateral restraint is defined in clause 4.2.2 as follows:

"Full lateral restraint may be assumed to exist if the frictional or positive connection of a floor
(or other) construction to the compression flange of the member is capable of resisting a
lateral force of not less than 2.5% of the maximum force in the compression flange of the
member, [under factored loading]. This lateral force should be considered as distributed
uniformly along the flange.........."

In practice most floor constructions would be considered adequate to carry this force, but care
should be taken with timber floors, where positive fixing should be considered.

Where a check is required the maximum force in the flange can be approximated by:

Applied Force = Maximum Moment / Depth of section

Frictional Force = Total load on beam x Coefficient of friction / Length of beam

3.3 Local Buckling

Local buckling is prevented by the correct classification and design of the cross section. The
cross section should be classified as plastic, compact, semi-compact or slender and the section
designed accordingly. Reference should be made to Tables 11 and 12 of the code and Figure
3.1 of these notes.

Consider first a class 2 (compact) cross section where the breadth to thickness ratio of the
flange outstand (b/T) is less than 10 and the depth to thickness ratio of the web(d/t) is less
than 100. In this case the elements of the cross section are relatively stocky and are able to
sustain relatively large strains. The stress is able to distribute throughout the section to form a
rectangular stress block. The moment capacity
Mc = pySx. Most universal beams and columns can be classed as compact cross sections.

If the section were a class 1 (plastic) section where the b/T is less than 9 and the d/t less than
80 the moment capacity would still be taken as Mc=pySx, although the section has additional
 2- 16

rotation capacity. This is not needed for normal design purposes but, if plastic analysis of the
structure is used, it would be essential to have a plastic cross section to allow the necessary
rotation at the hinge position.

b
T

t
d

a) Class 1 Stress = py M
Mc = py S
b/T < 9 Mc = py Z
Rotation capacity
d/t < 80

Rotation

Stress = py M
b) Mc = py S
Class 2
b/T <10 Mc = py Z
d/t < 100

Rotation

Stress = py M Mc = py S
c) Semi - compact Mc = py Z
b/T < 15
d/t < 120
Rotation

Stress = py M Mc = py S
d) Slender Mc = py Z
b/T > 15 Mc = py Zeff
d/t >120
Rotation

Figure 3.1 Section classification of rolled sections

Consider next a class 3 (semi-compact) cross section in which the extreme fibres are able to
withstand a design strength of py without buckling. In this case the cross section can attain an
elastic stress distribution although local buckling would occur before the attainment of a
rectangular stress block.
The moment capacity is then given by Mc= py Zx or alternatively by pySeff

Finally consider a class 4 (slender) cross section in which one or all the elements exceed the
limits given for a semi compact section. Such elements will buckle locally before the full
capacity of the section is obtained and effective section properties must be used. The effective
section properties can be obtained from tables can be obtained from the expressions in section
3.6 of the code. The moment capacity is then given by Mc= py Zeff.
 2- 17

This situation will never occur for beams employing universal beam and column sections. But
rectangular hollow sections may need more attention.

The classification of the whole section will be governed by the lowest classification of any of
the elements (i.e. a section with a class 4 web, but class 3 flanges will be classed as a class 4
section).

Having carried out this classification and used the design procedure appropriate to the cross
section, then if local buckling is an issue an appropriate allowance will have been made.

3.4 Shear
Two modes of shear failure are envisaged by the code, first shear failure due to the shear
capacity of the web being exceeded and second shear buckling. The latter will only become a
design criterion when the web is relatively thin i.e. when d/t >70 for rolled sections and
d/t>63 for welded sections. As such webs only occur in fabricated sections they will not be
considered further in this lecture.

The shear capacity of the section is defined in clause 4.2.3 as:

Pv = 0.6 py Av
where Av is the shear area.
For rolled I and H sections Av is simply the product of the overall depth of the section and its
thickness.

3.5 Bending and Shear

The code deals with this in one of two ways depending on the level of the shear.

3.5.1 Moment capacity with low shear load:

If the shear load (Fv) is less than 60% of the shear capacity (Pv) the effect of shear on the
bending capacity is so low that it may be ignored.

Thus the moment capacity is given in clause 4.2.5.2 as:

For Class 1 or Class 2 sections Mc= py S
For Class 3 sections Mc = pyZ or alternatively Mc= py Seff

For Class 4 sections Mc= pyZeff

Where S and Z are defined in section tables and Seff and Zeff are explained in the lecture on
local buckling.

In order to prevent permanent deformations at working load the moment capacity of simply
supported beams and cantilevers employing Class 1 and Class 2 sections should be limited to
1.2 py Z.

3.5.2 Moment capacity with high shear load:

If the shear load is greater than 60%of the shear capacity the effect of shear should be taken
into account when calculating the moment capacity according to clause 4.2.5.3 as follows:
 2- 18

For Class 1 or Class 2 sections is given by Mc= py (S-Sv )

For Class 3 sections Mc = py(Z-Sv/1.5 ) orMc= py (Seff-Sv)

For Class 4 sections Mc= py(Zeff-Sv/1.5 )

Where

takes account of the level of shear in the section i.e. = (2 (Fv/ Pv) - 1)
2

Which tends to zero at Fv=0.5Pv although the reduction is trivial until Fv>0.6Pv.

Sv is, for a section with equal flanges, the plastic modulus of the shear area
i.e the plastic modulus of the shear area Dt for a rolled section
2
i.e.S v = 2((D/2 . t) D/4) = D t / 4.

3.6 Deflection
Deflection is a serviceability limit state and in general calculations should be based on
unfactored imposed load and compared to the suggested limits given in Table 8 of BS 5950
Part 1 Part of which is shown in Table 3.1 of these notes.

Table 3.1 Suggested deflection limits

Deflection on beams due to unfactored imposed load

Cantilevers length/180
Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish span/360
All other beams span/200
Crane girders
Vertical Span/600
Horizontal Span/500

These limitations are based on commonly accepted principles, but the clause recognizes that
circumstances may arise when greater or lesser values may be more appropriate. The code
also makes it clear that the limitations are given to ensure that finishes are not damaged. For
example the traditionally accepted value of span/360 for beams, is based on prevention of
damage to plaster ceilings below the beam. In other cases a more relaxed limit of span/200 is
allowed.

Vertical and horizontal deflection limits are given for crane gantry girders, which appear
rather restrictive (span/600 and span/500 respectively). It is recommended that the
manufacturer is consulted to ascertain the actual deflections that the crane can tolerate during
operation. It should be noted that in this case the total load of the crane as well as the lifted
load should be treated as imposed load

In some cases it may be necessary to calculate deflections due to dead load, to ensure that the
structure has an acceptable appearance or that any clearance or tolerance requirements are
met. This may be a wise precaution when using long slender composite beams, as high
 2- 19

deflections can result due to the weight of the concrete on the non composite beam. This is of
particular significance if there are no ceilings beneath the beams. In some case, such as portal
frame rafters and lattice girders the dead load deflection can be 'removed' by carefully
presetting members. In the case of long members dead load deflection can be dealt with by the
use of pre-cambering, but cambers less than span/100 are unlikely to be successful.

Deflections at the serviceability limit state can be calculated for simply supported beams,
from the following standard formulae:

5 Wl 3
For a udl with total load of W kN =
384 EI

1 Wl 3
For a central point load of W kN =
48 EI

23 Wl 3
For point loads of W kN at 1/3 points =
648 EI

3.7 Establishing the Amount of Camber in Beam

Beams can be cambered to accommodate part of the dead-load deflection, the full deadload
deflection, or dead-load deflection plus part of the live-load deflection, at the discretion of the
engineer. This can be influenced by the relative percentages of dead and live load, the
probable frequency and intensity of live load, the performance history of similar members,
aesthetics, or other pertinent factors. As previously mentioned, determining the amount of
camber is a very inexact process. After the cambering process, performance of the member
often is not according to the script. In general, the anticipated amount of beam deflection does
not occur. This probably is due to some degree of end fixity of the beam connections.

3.8 Additional checks.

Checks may be required for the buckling and bearing capacity of the web and the effect of
holes in the web. As these checks are common to both restrained and unrestrained beams they
will be dealt with in a separate lecture.

3.9 Summary of Design Procedure:

1. Select the section and determine the value of py Table 9

2. Determine the section classification Tables11&12

3. For class 4 (slender) sections calculate effective modulus Clause 3.6

4. Check the shear capacity Clause 4.2.3

5. Check the moment capacity

with low shear Clause 4.2.5.2
with high shear load Clause 4.2.5.3
2- 20
 2- 21

3.9 Example
Consider a simply supported beam 914 x 419 x 388 UB, S275 steel subjected to a factored
shear force of 2500kN and moment of 4000kNm. Check the shear and bending resistance of
the beam if it is fully restrained against lateral-torsional buckling.

Section classification
The beam section is classified as plastic Table 11
Check for b/T and d/t

Section properties

Since T = 36.6 y = 265N/mm2 Table 9

3
Sx = 17,700cm
Zx = 15,600cm3

Check for Shear

d 799
= = 37.2 < 70 i.e. beam problem
t 21.5

Av = Dt = 920.5 x 21.5 = 19,791mm2

Pv = 0.6yAv = 3147kN
Fv = 2500kN < Pv = 3147kN Shear is OK

Check for Moment

0.6Pv = 0.6 x 3147 = 1888.2kN

Since Fv = 2500kN > 0.6Pv = 1888.2kN
Moment capacity needs to be reduced due to high shear

tD 2
Mc = y(S - Sv) 1.2yZ, Sv = = 4554cm 3
4
2 2
F 2500
= 2 v 1 = 2 1 = 0.347

Pv 3147

Mc = 265 (17700 4554 x 0.347) / 103 = 4191 kNm

1.2yZ = 4961 kNm
Mc = 4191 kNm
> 4000 kNm (factored moment) OK!

Using Design Table

914 x 419 x 388 UB, S275 steel under pure bending
Page 196: Section is plastic
Mcx = 4680kNm
Pv = 3130kN
Note that the moment capacity given in the table is for low shear.
The above handle calculation procedure needs to be applied for high shear case.
 2- 22

4. UNRESTRAINED BEAMS

4.1. Introduction
When designing a steel beam it is usual to think first of the need to provide adequate strength
and stiffness against vertical bending. This leads naturally to a member in which the stiffness
in the vertical plane is much greater than that in the horizontal plane. Sections normally used
as beams have the majority of their material concentrated in the flanges which are made
relatively narrow so as to prevent local buckling. In addition the need to connect beams to
other members suggests the use of open sections i.e. I or H sections. The combination of all
these factors results in a section whose torsional stiffness is relatively low, this has a major
bearing on the strength of an unrestrained member.

M M

(a) Elevation (b) Cross Section

Pins prevent end rotation

but allow end warping

(c) Plan
u

y z

z
x (c) Deformation at centre span

Figure 4.1 Lateral Torsional Buckling

It can be seen from considering the behaviour of struts that whenever a structural member is
loaded in its stiff plane (axially in the case of a strut) there is a tendency for it to fail in a more
flexible plane (by deflection sideways in the case of a strut). When applying this principle to a
beam in bending it can be seen that by loading the member in its stiffer plane (the plane of the
web) the compressive force in the unrestrained flange causes the member to fail in its weakest
direction (by deflecting sideways and twisting) (See Figure 4.1)

Many types of construction effectively prevent this type of failure, thereby enabling the
member to be designed by considering its performance in the vertical plane only. Normal
beam and slab construction is an example of a situation where the member is restrained to
prevent buckling, but even here it should be recognized that during erection the member may
be unrestrained. Hence although the load may be less than the final design loading, checks on
the stability of the member should be carried out at this stage.
Situations where lateral torsional buckling has to be taken into account are less common, but
typical examples are gantry girders, runway beams and members supporting walls and
cladding.
 2- 23

4.2. Factors influencing buckling resistance

1. The unbraced span , the distance between points at which lateral deflection is
prevented.
2. The lateral bending stiffness (E Iy)
3. The torsional stiffness (G J)
4. The shape of the moment diagram i.e. members which are subject to non uniform
moments will have a varying force in the compression flange and will therefore be less
likely to buckle than members where the compression is uniform.
5. The conditions of restraint provided by the end connection
6. The level of the applied load and whether or not it is free to move as it buckles.

4.3. Behaviour of beams

Three distinct stages of failure can be identified depending on the slenderness of the member
(see Figure 4.2).

Short stocky members will attain the full plastic moment Mp.
Slender members will fail at moments approximately equal to the elastic critical moment
ME. (This is the theoretical value which takes no account of imperfections and residual
stress.)
Beams of intermediate slenderness fail through a combination of elastic and plastic
buckling. In addition, imperfections and residual stresses are most significant in this
region

Mp
Plastic
Failure
Elastic Critical
Resistance Elasto - Plastic Moment M
E
Moment Mb Region

Elastic Failure
Practical Region

35 150
Slenderness = L/ry

Fig. 4.2 Behaviour of beams with regard to slenderness

The code deals with this complex situation by expressing the buckling resistance moment
(Mb) as the lowest root of the Perry type equation i.e.
(ME - Mb)(Mp- Mb) = LT ME Mb
ME is the elastic critical moment
M = p
2
E LT2 p
y
LT is an expression which reflects the length and slenderness of the beam

Mp is the plastic moment ( = py Sx)

 2- 24

LT is a coefficient which takes account of imperfections, residual stresses, and strain

hardening

Further details are given in appendix A of these notes and Appendix B of the code.

4.4 Code requirements

4.4.1 Moment capacity

The section classification and moment capacity of the section should be found and
checked in the same way as for restrained beams. Any reductions for high shear forces
should be included in this check, .i.e. Mx < Mcx

4.2 Buckling resistance moment

The buckling resistance of the section between the either the ends of the section or any
intermediate restraints should be checked as follows:

Mx < Mb/mLT

Where Mx is the applied moment

Mb is the buckling resistance moment
mLT is the equivalent uniform
.

The buckling resistance moment Mb is calculated as follows:

For class 1 and class 2 cross sections Mb = pb Sx

For class 3 cross sections Mb = pb Zx

For class 4 cross sections Mb = pb Zx,eff

For cross sections with class 1
or class 2 flanges but class 3 webs Mb = pb Sx.eff

where
pb is the bending strength
Sx is the plastic modulus
Zx is the elastic modulus.

The value of the bending strength pb is obtained from tables 4.5 and 4.6 and depends on the
value of the slenderness LT. Between the points of restraint

LT. = u v .w1/2

where
u is a tabulated section property
v is obtained from table 4.7 and depends on / x
x is a tabulated section property
is the slenderness = LE/ry
LE is the effective length between points of restraint
ry is the radius of gyration about the minor axis and is a tabulated section property
 2- 25

For class 1 and class 2 cross sections w = 1.0

For cross sections with class 1 or class 2 flanges but class 3 webs w= Sx.eff/ Sx
For class 3 cross sections w = Zx / Sx
For class 4 cross sections w = Zx,eff /Sx

For a quick conservative design for rolled I and H sections with equal flanges:
u may be taken as 0.9
v may be taken as 1.0
x may be taken as D/T where D is the depth of the section and T is the thickness of the
compression flange.

4.5 Moment Gradient factor (mLT)

The theoretical values of the buckling resistance moment are based on a beam subject to
uniform moment . Members which are subject to non uniform moments are less likely to
buckle as the compressive force in the flange varies. The factor which takes account of this is
mLT which may be obtained from table 18 of BS 5950. Consider the beams shown in Figure
4.3

Beam A has a central point load which does not restrain the beam. The unrestrained length
is therefore equal to the length of the beam (A-D) The compression flange is subject to a
varying compression and the equivalent uniform moment factor from Table 18 is 0.85.

Beam B is subject to the same moment but the load is applied as two point loads which do
not restrain the beam. Again the unrestrained length is equal to the length of the beam (A-
D). The central portion of the beam is in uniform compression and the beam is more likely
to buckle than Beam A. In this case therefore the equivalent uniform moment factor is
0.925.

Beam C is again subject to the same moment but the load is applied as two point loads
which do restrain the beam. In this case the unrestrained lengths are between the ends and
the intermediate restraint (A-B), between the intermediate restraints (B-C) and between
the restraint and the end (C-D). The central portion of the beam is in uniform compression
and, providing the three lengths between restraints are equal, it is this length which
requires checking with an equivalent uniform moment factor of 1.0.

Consider beam D where the lengths are unequal and more than one length may have to be
checked.
The equivalent uniform moment factor for A-B would be 0.6 and the unrestrained
length would be taken as equal to the length of A-B.
The equivalent uniform moment factor for B-A would depend on the ratio of the end
moments = the smaller end moment divided by the larger, i.e.M2/M1 should
always be less than 1.0 and the unrestrained length would be taken as equal to the
length of B-C.
The equivalent uniform moment factor for C-D would be 0.6 and the unrestrained
length would be taken as equal to the length of C-D.
In each of these cases the buckling resistance moment is compared to the maximum
moment within the unrestrained length. In this case it would be M1 for A-B and B-C
and M2 for C-D. Note that in this particular case C-D would not be critical.
 2- 26

a)

A D A D M

b)

A B C D A D M
B C

c)

A B C D A D M
B C

c)
B C M1 M2
A D A D M
C
B

Figure 4.3 Effect of Moment Gradient

The equivalent uniform moment factor (mLT) therefore takes account of the shape of the
bending moment diagram between restraints and may be obtained from Table 18. The first
part of the table deals with linear moment gradients, i.e.sections with no load between
restraints. The second part deals with sections which are subject to transverse loading and the
third provides a general formula from mLT may be calculated for more complex cases such as
continuous beams and from which the values of mLT in the first two parts of the table may be
obtained.

4.6 Effective lengths

The theory of lateral torsional buckling is based on the assumption that the ends of the
member are effectively pinned in both the vertical and horizontal planes. If connections are
provided which restrict movement of the ends of the member or allow rotational movement
this needs to be considered and this is done by means of an effective length which may be
greater or less than the actual length of the member between restraints.

Values of LE are given in table 13 for beams and table 14 for cantilevers. Part of table 13 is
shown below as Table 4.1of these notes .
 2- 27

Table 4.1 Effective length for beams without intermediate restraint

Conditions of restraint at supports Loading condition

Normal destabilizing
Compression Both flanges fully restrained against 0.7Ly 0.85Ly
Flange laterally rotation on plan (1)
restrained Both flanges partially restrained 0.8Ly 0.9Ly
against rotation on plan (2)
Nominal restraint Compression flange partially 0.85Ly 1.0Ly
against rotation restrained against rotation on plan (3)
about longitudinal Both flanges free to rotate on plan (4) 1.0Ly 1.2Ly
axis

In most cases the effective length will be less than or equal to the actual length. Where the
member is torsionally unrestrained at the end, or the load is destabilizing then the effective
length may be greater than the actual length. And this is also reflected in the values given in
Tables 13 and 14

4.6.1 Torsional Restraints.

Torsional restraints may be provided by positive connection of both flanges to another part of
the structure or by bearing stiffeners which have a minimum stiffness as specified in clause
4.5.7 (see Figure 4.4).

(a) Torsional restraint using connections

Positive
Connection

(b) Torsional restraint using stiffeners

Figure 4.4 Torsional restraint

4.6.2 Destabilising loads

Destabilizing loads are loads which are applied to the beam above the shear centre and are
free to move with the beam as it deflects laterally and twists (see Figure 4.5). Such loads
increase the rotation of the beam and induce additional stresses. Where they are present the
 2- 28

effective length should be increased. Theoretically we would expect that the effective length
could be decreased if the load was applied below the shear centre but the code makes no
allowance for this.

Figure 4.5 Destabilizing loads

4.6.3 Intermediate restraints

The intermediate restraints must have adequate stiffness and strength. The code defines
adequate strength as the restraint being able to resist a force of 2.5% of the maximum factored
force in the compression flange divided between the points of restraint in proportion to their
spacing. The force in each restraint should not be taken as less than 1% of the total force.

Where several members share a common restraint the force should be taken as the sum of the
largest three forces required for each member.

If parallel members are taken as sharing the same restraint system the system should be
anchored to a robust part of the structure, or a system of triangulated bracing should be
provided in, or close to, the compression flange.

BAY 1
Triangulated

BAY 2
Tied to braced bay

Figure 4.6 Bracing of parallel members

Adequate stiffness is difficult to define but it has been suggested that this can be achieved by
making the braced element 25 times stiffer in the lateral direction than the unbraced element.
This is a good rule of thumb and is easily achieved with triangulated systems. It can however
cause problems if the element to be braced is already very stiff in the lateral direction and
therefore should be applied with care. Fig. 4.6 suggests the use of triangulated braced bay to
provide effective lateral bracing to the beam.

Generally the effective length of members between restraints should be taken as 1.0Ly for
normal load conditions and 1.2Ly for destabilizing load conditions

4.7 Special situations

Lateral torsional buckling need not be checked in the following situations:
 2- 29

Circular or square hollow sections or solid bars

When bending is about the minor axis ( a section bending only about its minor axis cannot
fail about its major axis)
1/ 2
2E
For I H or channel sections when LT is less than o = 0.4
py
RHS when LE/ry is less than the values given in table 15 for various values of D/B

4.8 Design Procedures

4.8.1 Full Design Procedure

1. Select Section - determine py Table 6

determine section class Table 7

2. Check M < Mcx allowing for shear as for a restrained beam

3. Determine actual unbraced length and effective length 4.3.5

4. Calculate slenderness = Le/ry

5. determine v using /x Table 19

4. Calculate LT = u.v.

5. Determine pb depending on LT Tables 11 and 12

6. calculate Mb from Mb = pbSx

7. Determine equivalent uniform moment factor mLT Table 18

8. Compare the maximum applied moment with Mb/ mLT

9. Check web buckling and bearing as for a restrained beam if necessary

 2- 30

4.9 Examples
4.9.1 Simply Supported Restrained Beam
The simply-supported beam shown is fully restrained along its length. Check that the shear
capacity and the moment capacity are adequate for the factored loading shown, which
includes self weight.

225 kN
W = 25 kN/m

533 x 210 x 101 UB Grade S355

5m 5m
A B C

The maximum shear occurs at A and C.

25 10 225
Fvmax = + = 238 kN
2 2

The moment at A and C = 0

The maximum moment occurs at B

25 10 2 225 10
Mmax = + = 875 kNm
8 4

225
The shear at B = = 113 kN
2
 2- 31

Solution
1. Check the section classification as Class 1
2. Check the shear capacity
Pv = 0.6 py Av 4.2.3

py = 345 N/mm2 4.2.3(a)

Av = tD
Section
t = 10.8 mm Tables
D = 536.7 mm

Pv = 0.6 x 345 x 10.8 x 536.7 x 10-3 = 1200 kN

Since Fvmax < Pv , i.e 238 < 1200

Therefore, Section adequate in shear.
3. Check the moment capacity
Check whether the shear is high, i.e. Fv > 0.6 Pv 4.2.5
or low, i.e. Fv < 0.6 Pv at the point of maximum moment.

The shear at B = 113 kN

0.6 Pv = 0.6 x 1200 = 720 kN

113 < 720

Therefore, the shear is low.
For low shear, the moment capacity for a Class 1 section
Mc = py Sx 4.2.5.2

For simply supported beam Mc # 1.2 py Zx 4.2.5.1

py Sx = 345 x 2612 x 10-3 = 901 kNm

-3
1.2 py Zx= 1.2 x 345 x 2292 x 10 = 949 kNm

Therefore, Mc = 901 kNm

Since Mmax < Mc, i.e. 875 < 901

Therefore, Section adequate in bending.

Design Using Tables

533x210UB 101 S355 steel
From Design Table Page 281
Section is plastic
Shar capacity = 1200 kN
Moment capacity = 901 kNm
 2- 32

4.9.2 Simply Supported Unrestrained Beam

Consider the same beam used in Section 9.1 during construction, when no UDL load or lateral
restraint exists except at the point of the point load application B. Check the adequacy of the
unrestrained beam between A and B.

The maximum shear occurs at A&C

225 1. 4 self wt
Fvmax = +
2 2

112.5 + 0.07 = 113 kN

The maximum moment occurs at B

225 10
Mmax = + Moment due to self wt = 575 kNm
4

225
The shear at B = = 112.5 kN
2
Solution
1. Check the section classification as in Example 9.1.
The section is Class 1.
The design strength py = 345 N/mm2.

2. Calculate the shear capacity and moment capacity as in Example 9.1.

Shear capacity Pv = 193 kN
Moment capacity Mc = 901 kNm
The shear at B is low
3. Calculate the lateral torsional buckling resistance of the beam between A & B.
a. Conservatively assume the effective length factor LE = 1.0L = 5 m Cl 4.3.5.2

5000
b. = LE/ry = = 109
45. 7
109
c. /x = = 3.3
33.2
 2- 33

d. v = 0.90 Table 19
For class 1 section w = 1 4.3.6.9

e. LT = u v w0.5 = 0.874 x 0.90 x 109 x 1.0 = 86

f. for py = 345 and LT = 86 Table 16

pb = 170 N/mm2

g. For a Class 1 section, the lateral torsional buckling resistance moment

Mb = pb Sx 4.3.6.4
Mb = 170 x 2610 x 103/106 = 444 kNm

The bending moment diagram between A & B is as follows:

M A= 0
M B= 575

Therefore, = 0 mLT = 0.6 Table 18

h. The requirement is that:

Mx = Mb/mLT 4.3.6.2

and Mx < Mcx

Mx = 575 kNm < 444/0.6 = 740 kNm

Mx = 575 kNm < 901 kNm from Example 9.1

The section has therefore adequate lateral torsional buckling resistance during construction.

Design using Tables

533x210UB 101 S355 steel, effective length = 5m
From Design Table Page 281
Section is plastic
Moment capacity Mb = 446 kNm for compact section
Need to calculate mLT to complete the design
 2- 34

4.9.3 Unrestrained Propped Cantilever Beam

A propped cantilever spanning 10m is loaded by cross beam spaced at 4m and 7m from its left-
hand end. The restraint conditions at both ends of the beam and the load points may be
regarded as being fully braced laterally and torsionally. The factored bending moment diagram
is shown below. Assume S275 steel, check the adequacy of a beam consisting 457 x 152 x 60
UB against lateral torsional buckling.

Check the section classification as Class 1 Table 11

Section properties: T = 13.3 Design strength = y = 275 N/mm2 Table 9

ry = 3.23cm x = 37.5
Sx = 1290cm3 u = 0.868

The three lengths must be checked separately.

(a) Length AB

(1) LE = 4m Beams with effective lateral restraints between the supports

Clause 4.3.5.2
ry = 3.24cm
= LE/ry = 400/3.23 = 124

(2) x = 37.5, /x = 123.5/37.6 = 3.3

= 0.5 v = 0.897 Clause 4.3.6.7 or Table 19

(3) u = 0.868

(4) LT = uv w = 0.868 x 0.897 x 124 x1.0 ; w = 1.0 for class1 sec tion
= 96.5

(5) = -150/280 = -0.54

mLT = 0.44 mLT Mx = 0.44(280) = 123 kNm Table 18

(6) LT= 96.5 , y = 275 N/mm2

b = 131 Table 16

Mb = bSx
 2- 35

= 131 (10-3/10-6) x 12980 (10-6)

= 169 kNm

mLT Mx = 123 kNm < Mb = 169kNm i.e. length AB is OK!

(b) Length BC

(1) LE = 3m Beams with effective lateral restraints between the supports

Clause 4.3.5.2
= LE/ry = 300/3.23 = 93

(2 /x = 93/37.5 = 2.48
= 0.5 v = 0.935 Clause 4.3.6.7 or Table 19

(3) u = 0.868

(4) = 190/280 = 0.679

mLT = 0.87 Table 18
mLT Mx = 0.87(280) = 244kNm

(5) LT = uv w = 0.868 x 0.935 x 93 x1.0 = 75

b = 176N/mm2 Table 16
Mb = bSx
= 176(10-3/10-6) x 1290(10-6)
= 227 kNm

mLT Mx = 244kNm > Mb = 227kNm NG!

(b) Length CD

By inspection length CD is less critical than length BC.

Since CD has LE = 3m which is same length as BC, but

mLT (Mmax) = mLT (190) at length CD is less critical.

Therefore it is necessary to redesign the member for length BC only.

Try 457 x 191 x 67 and check Segment BC again

Section properties:
T = 12.7 Design strength = y = 275N/mm2 Table 9
ry = 4.12cm x = 37.9
3
Sx = 1470cm u = 0.872

/x = 72.8/37.9 = 1.92
= 0.5 v = 0.96 Clause 4.3.6.7 or Table 19

LT = uv w = 0.872 x 0.96 x 72.8 x1.0

 2- 36

= 60.9
b = 211.1N/mm2 Table 16
Mb = bSx
= 211 (10-3/10-6) x 1470 (10-6)
= 310kNm > mLT Mx = 244kNm OK!

Design using Tables

Using Design Table Page 245
457 x 191 x 67 UB S 275 Steel, Length = 3m
Mb = 310kNm for compact section
 2- 37

4.9.4 Example: Design an unrestrained beam, 6m long, simply supported at both ends, carrying
the following loads. Check that the beam can resist the design moment and shear.

Dead Load = 8 kN/m

Imposed Load = 15kN/m
S275 Steel

DL = 8 kN/m, IL = 15kN/m

6m

Factored design load= 1.4DL + 1.6IL= 35.2kN/m

WL2
Design moment = = 158.4kNm
8
WL
Design shear = = 105.6kN
2

Unbraced length = 6m

From Table 18, mLT = 0.925

From Design Table Pg. 245

Select 457x191UB67 S275
Mb = 159 kNm for Lb = 6m

Hence Mb = 159kNm > mLTMx = 0.925 x 158.4k = 146.5 Nm OK

From Page 197 Shear Check: Pvx = 636kN > 105.6kN OK

Note: No need to check high shear since it does not co-exist with maximum moment
 2- 38

5 Members Subject To Axial Load and Bending

5.1 Introduction
Theoretical approaches to the behavior of members subject to axial load and bending are, for
the most part, highly complex, yet do not match the behavior of real members even under test
conditions due to imperfections such as out of straightness and residual stresses in the
members. When members which form part of a structure framework where the conditions of
restraint and the accuracy of construction vary there is even less correlation with the theory and
virtually every code of practice including the different parts of BS 5950 and the Eurocodes
adopt a slightly different approach.

The intention of this lecture therefore is to consider the approach to members subject to axial
load and bending adopted in BS 5950 Part 1, looking at the background theory where it is
relevant to the understanding of the approach adopted.

The design of such members will be influenced by, the method of frame analysis, the shape of
the cross section used and the type of restraint provided.

In order to perform satisfactorily a member subject to axial load and bending must not fail due
to:

Local buckling
Inadequate local capacity (Tension or compression and / or bending))
Overall buckling - major or minor axis buckling due to axial load
major axis buckling due to major axis bending and axial load
minor axis buckling due to minor axis bending and axial load
minor axis buckling due to major axis bending and axial load

Clearly most situations include some combination of these effects and it is necessary to derive
equations for design which will cover such combined effects.

5.2 Section Classification

According to Clause 4.8.1, the classification of cross-section should be generally based on the
combined moment and axial force and the classification should be used in obtaining the
resistance terms, Pc, Mc Mb for use in the interaction expressions.

In order to ensure that a member does not fail due to local buckling the cross section should be
classified according to Table 11 and the design carried out according to the class of cross
section.

Classification of sections subject to axial load and has already been covered in detail in the
lecture on local buckling. The requirements of Table 11 for universal beams and columns are
shown in Figure 5.1.
 2- 39

t
d

275
T =
py

Plastic section Compact section Semi - compact section

b/t < 9 b/t < 10 b/t < 15
d/t < 80 when r2 > 0 d/t < 100 d/t < 120
1 + r1 1 + 1.5 r1 1+ 2.0 r
2

when r2 < 0 d/t < 100

1 + r1

but > or equal to 40

Where
For universal beam and column sections with equal flanges
Fc Fc
r = r2 =
1 d t py A p g y

These factors vary for different shapes of section

Figure 5.1 Section Classification for members subject to axial load and bending.

5.3 Local Capacity (Cross section Capacity)

5.3.1 Compression and tension members

Failure due to inadequate local capacity can occur in either tension or compression where
buckling is not a possibility and it will be observed that the formula used in BS 5950 Part 1
clause 4.8 are almost identical for these two cases.

For tension members the following expression should be satisfied

Ft M x M y
+ + 1 ------------------------- (1)
Pt M cx M cy
For compression members the following expression should be satisfied

Fc M My
+ x + 1 ------------------- (2)
Ag p y M cx M cy

F is the axial load

Pt is the tension resistance
Ag is the gross area (replaced by Aeff for class 4(slender) sections)
 2- 40

py is the design strength

Mx is the applied moment about the major axis
Mcx is the moment capacity about the major axis
My is the applied moment about the minor axis
Mcy is the moment capacity about the minor axis

For class 4 (slender) sections, the effective area Aeff should be used instead of the gross area
Ag.

The expression is derived from considering that the limit on capacity is reached when yield
stress is attained within the cross section (see Figure 5.2). In practice this would suggest that a
simple addition of stresses due to axial load and bending should not exceed yield and this is the
first and simplest approach used in the code. For class 1 and 2 cross sections a plastic
distribution of stress is used and for Class3 and 4 cross sections an elastic distribution of stress
is used.

P
Mx
Mx

Yield

+ = Elastic

Yield

+ = Plastic

P
X
Stress Distribution

FIG 5.2 Short column subject to axial load and bending.

 2- 41

Alternatively where the section is a class 1 or 2 Universal beam or column section the
following relationship should be satisfied

z2
My
z
Mx
1

+ 1 -----------------(3)
M rx M ry

where
Mrx and Mry are the plastic moment capacity in the presence of axial load.
Z1 and Z2 are empirical values varying for the type of section.
Typical values given in the code are:
Z1 = 2.0 for universal beams columns and hollow circular sections
and 5/3 for hollow rectangular sections
Z2 = 1.0 for universal beams and columns, 2.0 for circular hollow sections and
And 5/3 for hollow rectangular sections

There is an advantage in using the second expression as the first is linear and the second is non-
linear. See Figure 5.3.

Linear interaction
Non linear interaction
Ft
Pt

M
x M
cx

Figure 5.3 Linear and non linear interaction

5.3.2 Reduced Moment capacity (Mrx and Mry)

The terms Mrx and Mry require some explanation.
For plastic and compact sections the capacity will approach the full moment capacity but, due
to the effects of axial loading, the cross sectional moment capacity will be reduced to the value
of Mrx. This is calculated from the design strength multiplied by a reduced plastic modulus .i.e.
Mrx = py Srx

The reduced plastic modulus of the section is simply the plastic modulus of the area remaining
after deduction of the area required to carry the axial load. Consider the reduced plastic
modulus about the major axis Srx which may be calculated as follows for sections with equal
flanges and low axial load: See Figure 5.4
 2- 42

a
d
a

P
a=
2.t.py

FIG 5.4 Reduction in Plastic Modulus due to axial load

Assuming that the area carrying axial load can be contained in the web:

d T d d
S rx = BT + + a t a + a / 2 2
2 2 2 2

Accurate values of Srx for rolled sections are tabulated in section properties tables for varying
values of axial load although the above method can give an approximate value when the flanges
are equal and the compression area lies within the web. Values of reduced moment capacities
are given in the design tables in the appendix for given F/Pz values. More accurate
approximations for both the major and minor axis are given Appendix J of the code.

5.4 Overall Buckling of Member

5.4.1 Tension Members
Generally tension members will not be subject to buckling as the axial tension can assist in
preventing failure due to buckling caused by the bending in the section.

Theoretically it should be possible to take account of this beneficial effect but the expressions
involved are complex and it would be difficult to ensure that the correct combination of tension
and bending is used to ensure the worst effect. Therefore BS5950 simply requires that the
bending effects are checked by themselves and the member treated as a laterally unrestrained
beam. This is to be done even when the tension and bending effects cannot occur
independently.

5.4.2 Compression members

In general the following relationships should be satisfied

(i) Checking buckling about either axis due to axial load and bending.
 2- 43

Fc m x M x m y M y
+ + 1 -----------------(4)
Pc pyZ x pyZ y

Where:
Fc is the applied axial load
Pc is the minimum value of Agpcx and Agpcy
Mx is the applied moment about the major axis coincident with the force Fc
mx is the equivalent uniform moment factor taking into account the shape of the moment
diagram between restraints on the major axis
my is the equivalent uniform moment factor taking into account the shape of the moment
diagram between restraints on the minor axis

This expression is a combination of the two expressions required to prevent buckling about the
major axis due to major axis bending and buckling about the minor axis due to minor axis
bending. See Figure 5.5.

Fc + mx M x 1 For major axis bending

Ag p cx py Zx

Fc M
+ my y 1 For minor axis bending
Ag p cy py Zy
P P
Mx My
Mx My

P P
y
X

X y

Figure 5.5 Buckling in the plane of bending

(ii) Checking buckling about the minor axis due to major axis bending and axial load
This form of buckling is analogous to lateral torsional buckling in beams. The column buckles
in a mode involving twisting and minor axis bending. The twisting mode distinguishes it from
minor axis buckling and reduces the buckling load. It is significant for I and H sections
buckling at low axial loads. It is generally not relevant for tubular sections which are not liable
to suffer from lateral torsional buckling.

Fc m LT M x m y M y
+ + 1 ---------------------(5)
Pcy Mb pyZ y
 2- 44

In this case the value of Pcy is specifically used as we are considering buckling about the
minor axis. See Figure 5.6
P
Mx

Mx

Figure 5.6 Failure about the minor axis due to x-x bending (lateral torsional buckling)

More exact Approach

For I and H sections with equal flanges s the following more exact approach may be used

For members with moments about the major axis only

Fc m x M x Fc
+ 1 + 0.5 1 --------------(6)
Pcx M cx Pcx
 2- 45

The additional term after the moment is an amplification factor which allows for the additional
moment created by the axial load at an eccentricity . See Figure 5.7.
F

Secondary Moment
F

Primary Moment

Moment diagram
F
Deflected shape

Figure 5.7 Secondary moment induced by axial load acting on member deflection

Checking lateral torsional buckling about the minor axis due to axial loads and bending about
the major axis

Fc mLT M x
+ 1 ----------------------(7)
Pc y Mb

In this case the amplification effect is less significant as the axial load is likely to be much less
than the major axis strength.

For members with moments about the minor axis only

Fc m y M y Fc
+ 1 + 1 --------------(8)
Py M cy Pcy

In this case the amplification is more significant than about the major axis and the full value of
Fc
is used.
Pcy

Checking buckling about the major axis due to axial loads and bending about the minor axis
 2- 46

Fc m xy M y
+ 0.5 1 ----------------------(9)
Pc x M cy

The amplification factor is negligible and the effect of the minor axis moment is small.

For members with moments about both axis

For major axis buckling

Fc m x M x Fc m xy M yx
+ 1 + 0.5 + 0.5 1 ------------------(10)
Pcx M cx Pcx M cy

For lateral torsional buckling

Fc mLT M x m y M y Fc
+ + 1 + 1 ----------------------(11)
Pc y Mb M cy Pcy

For interactive buckling

m x M x (1 + 0.5 Fc / Pcx m y M y (1 + Fc / Pcy )

+ 1 -------------(12)
M cx (1 Fc / Pcx ) M cy (1 Fc / Pcy )

5.5 Design Summary

When a member is subject to axial load and bending a number of checks are required as
follows:

LOCAL CAPACITY CHECK

Check (1) or (2) or (3)

Ft M x M y
Tension + + 1 ------------------------- (1)
Pt M cx M cy

Fc M My
Compression + x + 1 ------------------------ (2)
Ag p y M cx M cy

Alternatively where the cross-section is class 1 or class 2

z2
My
z
Mx
1

+ 1 -----------------------(3)
M rx M ry
 2- 47

OVERALL BUCKLING

Tension s check moment capacity and resistance

Compression

Generally:
Check both (4) and (5)

Fc m x M x m y M y
+ + 1 ----------------------------(4)
Pc py Z x pyZ y

Fc m LT M x m y M y
+ + 1 ------------------------(5)
Pcy Mb py Z y

Alternatively for I and H sections with equal flanges

For members with major axis moments only check both (6) and (7)

Fc m x M x Fc
+ 1 + 0.5 1 --------------(6)
Pcx M cx Pcx

Fc mLT M x
+ 1 -------------------(7)
Pc y Mb

For members with minor axis moments only check both (8) and (9)

Fc m y M y Fc
+ 1 + 1 --------------(8)
Py M cy Pcy

Fc m xy M y
+ 0.5 1 ------------------(9)
Pc x M cy

For members with moments about both axis check (10), (11) and (12)
 2- 48

Fc mx M x Fc mxy M y
+ 1 + 0.5 + 0.5 1 ------------------(10)
Pcx M cx Pcx M cy

Fc m LT M x m y M yx Fc
+ + 1 + 1 -------------------------(11)
Pc y Mb M cy Pcy

m x M x (1 + 0.5 Fc / Pcx m y M y (1 + Fc / Pcy )

+ 1 --------------(12)
M cx (1 Fc / Pcx ) M cy (1 Fc / Pcy )
 2- 49

5.6 EXAMPLES
1) What is the axial load capacity of a 203 x 203 UC 60 of 3.1m height assuming that the
column is subject to equal end moments of 41.8kN producing a single curvature bending about
the minor axis? Steel grade is S275.

Design using the design tables

203x203 UC 60, S275 Steel My =
41.8 kNm
Section is plastic for all axial load
Effective length = 3.1m
From design tables in Page 263
L = 3m, Pcy = 1570 kN,
41.8 kNm
L = 3.5m, Pcy = 1430 kN,
L = 3.1m, Pcy = 1542 kN,
pyZy = 55.3kNm
Overall buckling check: Simplified equations
F mx M x myM y
+ + 1.0 (Major axis buckling does not control!)
Pc x Z x y Zy
Overall buckling check involving minor-axis moment only:
F mx M x m yM y F 1.0 41.8
+ + = +0+ =1
Pcy Mb y Z y 1542 55.3

gives F = 376kN

Local Capacity Check: use simplified formula

From design tables in Pages 262263

Mcy = 66.3 kNm, Pz = Agpy = 2100 kN

F M My F 41.8
+ x + = +0+ =1
A g y M cx M cy 2100 65.3
F = 756kN
i.e. Overall buckling controls!!
 2- 50

2) Bending about the major axis - lateral torsional buckling

What is the axial load capacity of a 203 x 203 UC 60 S275 of 3.1m height assuming that the
column is subject to end moments of 168kN producing a double curvature about the major
axis?

F?
Design using the design tables (Page 263)
203x203 UC 60, S275 Steel
Mx =168 kNm
Section is plastic for all axial load
Effective length = 3.1m
L = 3m, Pcy = 1570 kN, Mb = 169 kNm
L = 3.5m, Pcy = 1430 kN, Mb = 161 kNm
L = 3.1m, Pcy = 1542 kN, Mb = 167 kNm 168 kNm
pyZy = 55.3kNm
= -1 (double curvature bending)
From Table 18 my = 0.44

Overall buckling check using simplified formulas

F mxMx myMy
+ + 1.0 (By inspection this equation can never Control the design!)
Pc x Z x y Zy
The following equation is the most critical case:
F mxMx myM y F 0.44 168
+ + = + +0
Pcy Mb y Z y 1542 167
F 73.9
= + +0 = 1
1542 167
gives F = 859kN
Note: the use of more exact equations given in BS 5950 clause 4.8.3.3.2 gives less conservative
estimate (i.e., higher value of F).

Local Capacity Check - Simplified formula

Mcx = 180 kNm, Pz = Agpy = 2100 kN (from design tables in Pages 262--263)
F M My F 168
+ x + = + + 0 =1
A g y M cx M cy 2100 180
F = 140kN
i.e. local capacity controls!!
 2- 51

Example 3: Biaxial bending

Check a 254 x 254 x 167UC of length 5 metre in S275 Steel to resist the following factored
axial loads and moments
Factored axial load: F = 1000kN,
Factored moments: M x = 300kNm M y = 50kNm
Assume that the moments are applied at one end of the column and that the other end is pinned,
and the effective length is 5m about both x and y axes. Use the more exact interaction
equations to check the cross section capacity and overall buckling.

Design Strength
Flange thickness T = 31.7 y = 265 N / mm 2 Table 6

Section Classification
Section is classified as compact.

Local Capacity Check

Use Exact Equation
1
Mx My
2

+ 10.
M rx M ry
F /(A g y ) = 1000 / 5640 = 0.18
From design table (Page 262)
F/Pz = 0.1, Mrx = 627 and Mry = 237
F/Pz = 0.2, Mrx = 580 and Mry = 237
Interpolate for F/Pz = 0.18 gives Mrx = 589 kNm and Mry = 237 kNm

Check the more exact interaction equation for plastic section

2
300 50
+ = 0.47 < 1
589 237
Section is adequate for local capacity

Overall Buckling Check

Fc mx M x Fc mxy M y
+ 1 + 0.5 + 0.5 1 ------------------(10)
Pcx M cx Pcx M cy

Fc mLT M x m y M y Fc
+ + 1 + 1 -------------------------(11)
Pc y Mb M cy Pcy

m x M x (1 + 0.5 Fc / Pcx m y M y (1 + Fc / Pcy )

+ 1 --------------(12)
M cx (1 Fc / Pcx ) M cy (1 Fc / Pcy )
 2- 52

For L Ex = L Ey = 5.0m , from design table in page 263

Pcx = 5090kN
Pcy = 3610kN
M b = 602kNm
From design table in page 262
Mcx = 642 kNm
Mcy = 237 kNm
M
Equivalent Uniform Moment Factor m

Assuming the column is pin-supported at the base

for = 0
=0
Table 26 gives m x = m y = m xy = 0.6
Table 18 gives mLT = 0.60
M=0

Fc m x M x Fc m xy M y
+ 1 + 0.5 + 0.5
Pcx M cx Pcx M cy
1000 0.6 300 1000 0.6 50 OK
= + 1 + 0.5 + 0.5
5090 642 5090 237
= 0.196 + 0.308 + 0.0633
= 0.57

Fc m LT M x m y M y Fc
+ + 1 +
Pc y Mb M cy Pcy
1000 0.6 300 0.6 50 1000 OK
= + + 1+
3610 602 237 3610
= 0.278 + 0.30 + 0.16
= 0.74

m x M x (1 + 0.5Fc / Pcx m y M y (1 + Fc / Pcy )

+
M cx (1 Fc / Pcx ) M cy (1 Fc / Pcy )
0.6 300(1 + 0.5x1000 / 5090) 0.6 50(1 + 1000 / 3610) OK
= +
642(1 1000 / 5090) 2370(1 1000 / 3610)
= 0.383 + 0.224
= 0.607

Section is adequate for buckling

 2- 53

Example 4: Biaxial Bending

Check the ability of a S275 steel column of 203 x 203 x 60 and length 3.1m long to carry a
compressive load of , assuming that the axial force acts at an eccentricity of 150mm from the
column face such as to produce single curvature minor-axis bending and double curvature
major-axis bending. Use the simplified equations for local capacity and overall buckling
checks.
Section is class one section
A = 75.8cm2,rx = 8.98cm, Sy = 652cm3
L/ry = 3100/51.9 = 60
Overall buckling check
0.15m
Fc m x M x m y M y
+ + 1 . (1)
Pc pyZ x pyZ y 340kN

0.15m
Fc m LT M x m y M y
+ + 1 . (2)
Pcy Mb pyZ y

To find Agpc
= L/ry = 3100/52.0 = 60 (Note that minor axis buckling control!)
Select strut curve from Table 23. The column curve c is appropriate.
The corresponding value of c from Table 24c for L/ry = 60 and py = 275 N/mm2 is
c = 200N/mm2.
Agpc = 76.4 x 200 x 10 1 = 1528 kN
To find yZx & yZy
yZx = 275x 584x10 3 =161 kNm
yZy = 275 x 201 x 10 3 = 55.2 kNm
To find Mb
LT = uv
u = 0.846, x = 14.1
= L/ry = 60, /x = 4.26
v = 0.85 Table 19
LT = uv = 0.846 x 0.85 x 60 = 43.1
From table 16, corresponding value of b = 255N/mm2
 2- 54

Mb = 255 x 656 x 10-3 = 167 kNm

To find mx my, and mLT

x = -1.0 (double curvature bending) mx = 0.40 Table 26
y = 1.0 (single curvature bending) my = 1.0 Table 26
= -1 (double curvature bending) mLT = 0.44 Table 18

Flexural buckling check:

F m x Mx myMy Mx
+ + My
Pc yZx yZy
340 0.40 x 340 x 0.15 1.0 x 340 x 0.15
= + +
1528 161 55.2
= 0.223 + 0.126 + 0.924
= 1.27
Lateral torsional buckling:
F m LT Mx myMy
+ +
Pcy Mb yZy
340 0.44 x 340 x 0.15 1.0 x 340 x 0.15
= + +
1528 167 55.2
= 0.223 + 0.134 + 0.924
= 1.28

The check is not satisfactory. A larger column size is required. Alternative you may try to use
the more exact equation for buckling checks.

HOMEWORK: Check local capacity

 2- 55

Example 5
Check the adequacy of the lattice girder top chord shown below.
1.8 m 1.8 m 150 x 150 x 5 RHS in S275

11.2 kN 11.2 kN 11.2 kN Factored

loads

A B C

Assumptions

The chord member is a 150 x 150 x 5 RHS in S275 steel.

The lattice frame is analysed and designed according to the empirical design rules 4.7.10
given in Clause 4.7.10 of BS 5950.
The web members connections are taken as nominally pinned.
The chord member is continuous and the moment generated by the purlin load =
WL/4.
Max purlin spacing = 1.8 m.
Loading

From analysis, the factored axial load in ABC = 598 kN.

The factored bending moment diagram is

5.04 B 5.04

A C

5.04

You will need to check:

The section classification. 4.8.3.2
The cross section capacity.
The buckling resistance by the general method 4.8.3.3.1.
 2- 56

Solution
150 x 150 x 5 RHS S275 steel
Area of section Ag = 28.7 cm2
Depth to thickness of sides d/t = 27.0
Radius of gyration r = 5.9 cm
Elastic modulus Z = 134 cm3
Plastic modulus S = 156 cm3
Web depth (D 3t) d = 135
t=5
Design Strength
Wall thickness = 5 mm < 16 mm

Therefore, design strength py = 275 N/mm2

Section Classification
275 275
= = = 1. 0
py 275

'Flange' Flange b/t = d/t = 27.0

The limitation for a Class 1 section = 28. The flange

'Web' is therefore Class 1.

Web d/t = 27.0

The limitation for a Class 1 section is

64
d/t =
1 + 0. 6 r1

Fc
r1 = 1 but -1.0 < r1 1.0
2d t p y

598 10 3
r1 = = 1.6 therefore r1 = 1.0
2 135 5 275

64 64 1
limit = = 40
1 + 0. 6r1 1 + 0. 6 1. 0

27.0 < 40 Therefore, web class 1

 2- 57

Both the flange and the web are Class 1, therefore the section is Class 1.
Shear
Maximum possible shear when the purlin is adjacent to a node, say Fv = 11.2 kN

Shear capacity Pv = 0.6 py Av

AD 28. 7 10 150
2
4.2.3
Av = = = 1435 mm2
D + B 150 + 150

Pv = 0.6 py Av Pv = 0.6 x 275 x 1435/103

= 237 kN

Fv < Pv 11.2 kN < 237 kN

Section adequate in shear

Bending
If Fv < 0.6 Pv 11.2 < 0.6 x 237
11.2 < 142
Then Mc = py Sx for class one sections with low shear 4.2.5.2

Also, Mc < 1.5 p Z 4.2.5.1

Mc = py Sx = 275 x 156/103 = 42.9 kNm

Mc = 1.5 py Z = 1.5 x 275 x 134/103 = 55.3 kNm

Therefore, Mcx = 42.9 kNm

Mx < Mcx 5.04 < 42.9

Section adequate in bending

Combined Axial Load and Bending

Local Capacity Check 4.8.3.2
Generally:

Fc M My
+ x + 1
Ag p y M cx M cy

598 10 3 5. 04 0
+ + = 0.76 + 0.117 + 0 = 0.88 < 1
28. 7 10 275 42. 9 M cy
2

Therefore, capacity adequate.

 2- 58

Overall Buckling
Simplified method

F mx M x m y M y 4.8.3.3.1
+ + 1
Pc py zx py zy
(No lateral torsional buckling for square hollow section)
Slenderness
The effective length in plane taken between the nodes
LEx = 0.85 x 3.6 = 3.06 m

The slenderness in plane

L 3. 06 10 3
x = Ex x = = 51. 9
rx 5. 9 10

The effective length out of plane between the purlins

LEy = 1.0 x 1.8 = 1.8 m

The slenderness out of plane

L Ey 1. 8 10 3
y = = y = = 30. 5
ry 5. 9 10

Pc is the lesser of Pcx and Pcy

For rx = 51.9 py = 275 pcx = 249 N/mm2 Table 24a

Pcx = Ag pcx = 28.7 x 102 x 249 x 10-3 = 715kN

mx is determined between restraints on the x axis, i.e. A and C

5.04 0 0 5.04
M1 M2 M4 M5
5.04
M3

0.1 M 2 + 0.6 M 3 + 0.1 M 4 Table 26

mx = 0.2+ = 0.8
M max

Therefore, using the simplified method.

 2- 59

Fc m x M x m y M y 4.8.3.1
+ +
Pc py z x py z y

598 0.8 5.04 10 6 0

+ + = 0.84 + 0.109 + 0 = 0.95
715 275 134 10 3
py z

Also check Lateral Torsional Buckling

Fc m LT M LT m y M y
+ + 1
Pcy Mb py z y

mLT is determined between restraints on the y-y axis, i.e. A and B (or B and C) 4.8.3.3

For RHS, LTB need not be checked unless L/ry exceeds the limiting value given in 4.3.6.1 &
Table 15. Table 15
Mb = py Sx

M = 5.04 M = -5.04 Therefore, = -1 mLT = 0.44 Table 18

For y = 30.5 py = 275 N/mm2 pcy = 266 N/mm2 Table 24a

Pcy = Ag pcy = 28.7 x 102 x 266 x 10-3 = 763kN

Fc m LT M LT m y M y 598 0.44 5.04 0

+ + = + + = 0.84
Pcy Mb py zy 763 42.9 py zy

Both of these factors are below unity. Therefore, the section will not fail due to
either in-plane or lateral torsional buckling.
 2- 60

Example 6 A cantilever column is subject to factored axial load of 610 kN and horizontal load
of15 kN as shown. The top of the column is free to deflect in plane but is braced laterally to
prevent out-of-plane deflection. Check the adequacy of a UB 305 x 127 x 48 Grade 43 member
in terms of strength and stability. If the member is found to be inadequate, check whether an
additional lateral bracing at point C as shown in the figure is sufficient to enhance the buckling
resistance of the column.

F = 610 kN

H= 15kN B

1.5 m
Add one additional lateral bracing
C here if necessary

3.5m
Figure Forces acting on cantilever column

UB 305 x 127 x 48 Grade S275

A

M Fixed
F

Given F = 610kN
Mx = 15 x 3.5 = 52.5 kNm
Lex = 2 x 3.5m = 7m (cantilever)
Ley = 0.85 x 3.5m = 2.975 3m (bottom end is fixed and the top end is pinned)

For UB 305x127x48 Grade S275 steel section

Section is plastic (use design table Page 253)
Lex = 7m Pcx = 1500 kN
Ley = 3m Pcy = 759 kN
LLT= 3m Mb = b Sx = 118kNm
pyZx = 169 kNm
Pz =Agpy = 1680 kN

Local capacity
F/Agy + Mx/Mcx = 610/1680 + 52.5/195 = 0.36 + 0.27 = 0.63 OK!

In-plane buckling
Determining mx,
=0 mx= 0.6. However, for cantilever column, mx should not be smaller than 0.85 (Clause
4.8.3.3.4), thus mx=0.85
 2- 61

F/Pc + mxMx/ pyZx = 610/759 + 0.85x52.5/169 = 0.802 + 0.264 = 1.06 <1 OK!
For cantilever without intermediate restraint, mLT = 1.0 (see footnote on Table 18 of BS code)
Lateral Torsional Buckling without intermediate bracing
F/Pcy + mLTMx/Mb = 610/759 + 1.0x52.5/118 =0.802 + 0.445 = 1.25 > 1 NG

Provide a lateral bracing at 1.5m from the top

Check bottom segment AC
Ley = 2m
Pcy = 1200kN
Mb = 156kNm
Moment at the bracing point = 15 x 1.5 = 22.5kNm
=22.5/52.5 = 0.43, from table 18 we have mLT = 0.71

Lateral Torsional Buckling with one intermediate bracing

F/Pcy + mLTM/Mb = 610/1200+ 0.71x52.5/156 = 0.508 + 0.24 = 0.75 OK

Check top segment BC

Ley = 1.5m
Pcy = 1400kN
Mb = 178 kNm
= 0, mLT = 0.57
Lateral Torsional Buckling with one intermediate bracing
F/Pcy + mLTM/Mb = 610/1400+ 0.57x22.5/178 = 0.436 + 0.072 = 0.51 OK

Therefore provide the lateral bracing point at a distance 1.5m from the top.
 2- 62

HOMEWORK 1: BEAMS
1 A compound beam consisting of rolled steel beam 610 x 305 x 149 UB and two flange cover plates of 300mm x
30mm is designed for a factored load of 142 kN/m uniformly distributed over a span of 10m. Assuming s275
steel, full lateral support along the length. The beam is supported on a plate with stiff bearing length of 216mm,
check the adequacy of the beam in respect of (a) shear and bending, (b) web bearing, and (c) web buckling (1992
supplementary exam.).

2 A simply supported universal beam spanning 12m is loaded by two concentrated factored loads as shown in
Fig.2.
(i) Assuming the beam is fully restrained against lateral torsional buckling, design the beam in S275 steel for shear
and bending.
(ii)Assuming the beam is braced laterally and torsionally only at the supporting ends and at the intermediate load

points, check the design for lateral-torsional buckling

Fig. 2

3 The beam shown in Fig. 3 is fully restrained along its length against lateral-torsional buckling. For the
loading shown check the adequacy of a beam section of 610 x 305 x 179UB (S355 steel) in respect of
(a) maximum shear,
(b) maximum moment with co-existent shear, and
5wL4 PL3
(c) beam deflection max = + .
384 EI 48 EI

Fig. 3

Unfactored Loads:
Dead Load: Wd =5kN/m; Pd= 500kN
 2- 63

Imposed Load: WI = 10kN/m; PI = 1050kN

4 The beam shown in Fig. 3 is laterally restrained at the ends and at the two cross beams which carry
uniformly distributed load. For the bending moment diagram shown, design the beam in S275 steel to
resist bending only.
(Hint: use a trial section UB 457 x 152 x 60kg/m)

Fig. 4

5 An universal beam of 457 x 191 x 74kg/m (S275 steel) is simply supported at both ends and subject to a
concentrated factored force of 300kN at the mid-span, as shown in Fig. 3.5. The beam is braced laterally
at the supports and at the load point only. Neglecting the self weight, check the adequacy of the beam in
bending and shear.

6 Design an unrestrained beam spanning 6.0m to support an uniform distributed load of the total mass
(including mass of beam and casing) of 160kN as shown in Figure 6. Assume the ends of the beam are held
against torsion, i.e. a full depth end plate welded against the flanges. The steel is S275 (BCSA, 1991,2nd.
Ed.)

Fig. 6

7 A laterally unrestrained beam of 457 x 191 x 67 UB S275 Steel is spanning 12m and
carrying secondary beam at third points loaded as shown in figure 7. (1) Check the
bending resistance of beam assuming (a) lateral support at the intermediate point loads,
and (b) no lateral support at the point load positions. Also check the web against
bearing and buckling if the stiff bearing length at the load points and supports is 150mm
 2- 64

Fig. 7

8 Determine the buckling resistance moment for a 356 x 127 x33 UB in S275 steel for a span of 4.2m,
assuming that the applied loading produces moments which vary linearly from a maximum at one end to one
quarter of this value at the other, both values being in a clockwise sense (Figure 3.8).

Fig. 8
 2- 65

HOMEWORK 2: COMPRESSION MEMBERS

1 A column carrying a floor load is shown in Figure 1. The column can be considered as
pinned at the top and at the base. It is laterally restrained at 3.5m height from the column base
to prevent movement in the y direction as shown in Section AA. Design the column using
S275 steel for a factored floor load of 2500kN

Figure 1

2 Determine the compression resistance of a column of UC 254 x 254 x 89 with a clear

height of 6m. The top of the column is effectively held in position but not restrained in
direction. The bottom of the column is connected to a rigid foundation.
 2- 66

HOMEWORK 3: MEMEBRS SUBJECT TO COMPRESSION AND

MOMENTS

1 Design a UC column of length 5 metre in S275 steel to resist the following factored loads:
Factored axial load F = 1000kN; Factored Moments: Mx = 300kNm and My = 50kNm. Assume
that the moments are applied at the top of the column. The bottom of the column is pin-
connected. The effective length may be assumed to be 5m about both x- and y-axes. Check
local capacity and overall buckling.

2 Check the suitability of a 533 x 210 x 82 UB in S355 steel for used as the column in a portal
frames of clear height 5.6m if the factored axial compression force is 160kN, the factored
moment at the top of the column is 530kNm and the base is pinned. Both ends of the column
are adequately restrained against lateral displacement. If the UB section is not suitable,
determine whether an intermediate lateral restraint located at 1.6m below the top of the column
is sufficient to provide resistance for column buckling.
160 kN

530 kNm
1.6m

5.6m

Fig. Q2
 2- 67

3 A typical column in a multi-storey braced frame is subject to a compression force F = 610 kN

and Mx = 64 kNm in Fig. Q3. The column is laterally braced at the ends and at the mid-
height. Assume that the ends are simply supported, design a suitable UC section for the
column member and check its adequacy for strength and stability. (You may use the simplified
method or the more exact approach for member capacity check).

Mx

Lateral bracing
4m

2m
Figure Q3 Forces acting on the column

Mx

F
 2- 68

4 Design the beams and columns for the structure steelwork shown below.

Unfactored floor loading:

Imposed load = 5kN/m2; Dead load (including estimated self-weight) = 3kN/m2

Column tops are pinned connected to the beams.

Column bases are fixed.
All steels are S275.
Use UC and UB sections only.

Evaluate the two floor options and

determine which option is more efficient in 3.5m
terms of steel usage.

6m 9m

Floor plans:

Option A

6m

3m 3m 3m

Option B
3m

3m

9m
 2- 69

5 Design the canopy system consisting of beam, column and tie for the given loading shown
below:

Tie Lateral restraint

1.5m

Beam

3m
Column IL = 30kN; DL = 50kN

4m
 2- 70

6 A one-storey and two-bay frame consists of 9 floor beams, 6 columns and 3 bracing members
are required to support a floor slab with unfactored dead load of 5 kN/m2 and imposed load of
3.5 kN/m2 as shown in Fig. 6. The dead load includes the self-weight of the steel structure. The
column bases are assumed to be rigidly connected to the foundations. All other members are
assumed to be pin-connected. The column top is braced to prevent side sway in the y-direction
but is free to deflect in the x-direction causing major-axis bending.

a) If the secondary beams are laterally restrained by the slab and the primary beam are
laterally unrestrained, select a suitable UB section of S355 steel for both the primary and
secondary beams and checks its bending and shear resistance.

Assuming that the column is subject to compression and a notional horizontal load (1.5%
factored gravity load), select a suitable UC section S275 steel to resist the combined axial force
and moment.

Secondary beams

3.5m
2.5m Primary
beams

x
9m

y
5m 9m

Fig. 6(a) Overall view of the steel structure

2.5m

2.5m

x
9m 9m
y
Fig 6b Plan View
 2- 71

7 A steel tower supports a water tank of size 4.5m x 2.5m x 3.0m is shown in Fig. 7. The self
weight (DL) of the water tank is 60kN when empty. The column top is braced to prevent side
sway in the y-direction but is free to deflect in the x-direction causing major-axis bending.
Assuming that weight of water (imposed load, IL) = 9.81 kN/m3, horizontal load is negligible
and all steel sections are S275:
a) select a suitable UC section for the column member, and check its buckling resistance
against the factored gravity loads (i.e., 1.4DL + 1.6 IL)
b) select a suitable RHS section for the beam, and check its bending and shear resistance

State your assumptions clearing with regard to the idealization of beam-to-column connections
and column base connections.

Water tank

4.5m
One
way

RHS Box a) Plan View

beam 2.5m of water tank
3.5m

RHS Box beam

Universal 4.5m
column

Fixed at base
x Universal
2.5m
column

y Figure 7 Steel tower supporting a water

tank b) Beam-to-column connection