Phoneme: the smallest sound unit that serves to

contrast/distinguish words, giving them different

meanings.
Whenever a phoneme changes the meaning of the
word changes

E.g. /p/ and /b/ are two phonemes. If one replaces

the other in a word, the meaning of the word
changes.
pit vs. bit,
pat vs bat
pet vs bet

Another example is the phonemes /n/ and /m/

nap vs map,
net vs. met,
sum vs. sun
There are 44 phonemes in English: 24 consonants
and 20 vowels.

Allophone: the variation/representation of a

phoneme
E.g. the phoneme /t/ has different allophonic
realizations:

1- Aspirated /t/ transcribed [t] as in time [t im]

2- Unreleased /t/ transcribed [t] as in hat [hat]

3- Neutral /t/ transcribed [t] as in stay [stei]

E.g. 2 the phoneme /n/ in the prefix un- may also

have different allophonic variations:
Unarmed [n] neutral
Unpleasant [m] labialized
Unfavorable [] labio- dentalized

Unthinkable [n] dentalized

Instable [n] neutral

Uncomplicated [n] velarized

Note: an allophone doesnt change the meaning of

words. Only a phoneme can change their meanings.
Minimal pairs: pairs of words that differ in only
one phoneme. They are called minimal pairs
because:
1) they are pairs (i.e. two words)
2) because they differ minimally (only one
sound/phoneme).

Examples of minimal pairs:

pet vs bet
nap vs map
cat vs. hat
Exercise: which of the following sounds is an
allophone and which is a phoneme?

/l/, //,[ l ] (dark/ velarized l as in the word pill, tall)

Answer:
/l/ and // are phonemes because they contrast
words. E.g. rip vs. lip, rot vs. lot

[l ] is an allophone: a variation of the phoneme /l/. It

doesnt change the meaning of the word when it is
used. I.e. the phoneme remains the same:

Pill [p l ], tall [t l ]

Distinctive Features: phonological features that

serve to establish a contrast between phonological
units.
E.g. [+/- voicing] is a distinctive feature, because
when voicing changes the meaning of the word
changes. Pit (p is a voiceless phoneme. If voicing
changes, the meaning changes too: bit.
Redundancy Rules: rules that include useless
repetitions.
E.g.
/p/

-voice
-nasal
+labial
-alveolar redundant features
+stop (lack of economy)
-fricative
-approximant
+central
There should be more economical feature system.
Feature Matrix

The three major class features are:

1- [+syllabic]: all vowels. Liquids /l/, /r/ and

nasal /m/, /n/, // can sometimes be syllabic
depending on the phonological environment.
consonant are described as [-syllabic]

2- [+ consonantal] all phonemes but glides /j/,

/w/ and vowels

3- [+sonorant] vowels, nasals, and all

approximants. All sonorants are voiced.
[- sonorant] are oral stops and fricatives (they
are called obstruents, which may be voiced or
voiceless)
These three major class features allow distinguishing
four major classes of segments/phonemes:

Vowels [+ syllabic, -consonantal, +sonorant]

Glides (j, w) [- syllabic, -consonantal, +sonorant]

Liquids (r, l) and nasals (m, n) [- syllabic,

+consonantal, +sonorant]

Oral stops and fricatives (obstruents) [+ syllabic, +

consonantal, -sonorant]
Manner of Articulation Features:

1- [+ Nasal] nasal Sounds

2- [+ Continuant] All but the stops which are

[- continuant] because the airflow stop
completely in the vocal tract.

3- [+delayed release] applied on to affricates

[t] and [d]: there is first a complete
obstruction of the airflow i.e. a stop, followed by
a release of the air i.e. fricative.

Generating Rules:
Consider the phoneme /n/ in the prefix un- in the
following words:
Unarmed [n] neutral
Unpleasant [m] labial
Unfavorable [] labiodental
Unthinkable [n] dental
Instable [n] neutral

Uncomplicated [n] Velar

The place of the phoneme /n/ changes depending on

the phonological environment it occurs in.
For example, when it is followed by the bilabial
sound /p/, its place moves from the alveolar ridge to
the lips, and it becomes bilabial. As in the word
Unpleasant
The rule would be as follows
Another example is when /n/ is followed by a dental
sound, such as / / it become dental; As in the word
Unthinkable.
Thus, the rule is:

The problem with this system feature is that it has

some redundant rules. Therefore there should be a
rule that holds all the rules together.
A rule that accounts for all the rules:
The phoneme /n/ simply shares the place of
articulation the consonant that follows it:
The alveolar nasal /n/ matches the place of the
following segment.

Economical features for place of articulations:

1- [+ Anterior] sounds articulated at the

alveolar ridge or further forward, which also
includes dental, labiodental, bilabial.
[- Anterior] are produced further back in the
vocal tract starting from the post-alveolar area.

2- [+ Coronal] sounds are those produced by

the tongue tip, blade, or front. I.e. the dental, the
alveolar, the post-alveolar, and the palatal
consonants.

[-coronal] are the sounds that do not involve

any of the above- mentioned parts of the tongue.
E.g. bilabial, labiodentals, velars, uvulars, and
glottal.
3- [+ strident] sounds are produced by forcing
air through a constricted passage. [+ strident]
sounds are [f, v, s, z, , , t, d]. In other
words, [+ strident] groups the fricatives and the
affricates together. All the other consonants are
[- strident]

Exercise:
The phoneme /k/ voiceless velar stop becomes
palatal when followed by the front vowel [i], as
in the word key [ki]. Write down a rule using the
feature matrix that accounts for the phonological
environment in which /k/ occur.
Natural classes: Any group of phonemes which
show the same behavior in the same contexts,
and which share the same features constitute a
natural class.

E.g. although the phonemes /p/, /t/, /k/ have

different places of articulation, they share some
common features: they become aspirated [p],
[t], [k] when they occur at the beginning of
stressed syllables. (pill, till, kill). Their
aspiration is neutralized when they are preceded
by the phoneme /s/ (spill, still, skill).
This natural class is the voiceless stops. Other
natural classes include liquids, nasals, etc.

Exercise 3 p. 52:
Exercise 5 p.51