]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W




W
K







K

? ? ?
K?



K

W
K




W K

KKKKK

E F

K
K

W

K

K
W
KW .
W
.
F
KE
KW .
W
.
K

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

--


W
W
K .
K .

W
K

W
K??

--


W K
EF

EF

W

K
W K
K
WQualitative Analysis
FQualitative analysis
WKE

W
.
F
KE
K
W .

KKKK
K

WQuantitative Analysis
Quantitative analysis
Quantitative chemical analysisW

KQuantitative instrumental analysis

--


WQuantitative Chemical Analysis

W

yY + xX P

XReagentY
KP

E FX
KVolumetric analysis
PX
KGravimetric

K
K

WQuantitative Instrumental Analysis
FPhysical Properties
WK
E

. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
Physico-chemical Methods
K2CrO4Cr3+
K

--


W
W
K .
K .
K .
K .
K .
K .

WDefining the problem

W
K .
W .
K K
K K

K K

K K


W .
K K
K K

K K

K K

K K

--


WSampling
Bulk
HomogeneousKMaterial
Heterogeneous
KEKKKF
K

WWater sampling
K
WEKKKF-
450EPyrexF
K24
PTFEWJ
Kpolytetrafluoroethylene

WKE45F
KBiodegradation 4
K

K(pH = 2)

WSoil sampling
E 10FE30F
E2 1F
K
KPolyethylene

--


WSample preparation
110100
WWeighingDrying K
KDessicator 21
K

WSample ashing K
EF
WEF
700400WDry ashing
K24
WWet ashing
SulfuricNitric acid
K

WSample dissolution K

W
K
K


K(HCl-HNO3; 1:3)Aqua Regia
W



K

--


EaF

KK2S2O5
EbF


KNa2CO3
EcF

KNa2O2

K
WEliminating interferences

.
.Electrodeposition

Ion ExchangeChromatography .
KExtraction
KMasking .
WMeasurements

K .
K .
K .

--


W
.
KAutomatic methods
WCalculations and reporting data
Analyte
KRelative methodAbsolute method
Parts per percent
Kmillion
Replicate analysesE F
KMeanStandard deviation
K
KDeterminate errorRandom error

--


K
K K
K K
K K
K K
K K
K K

--


K
KEFEF

K
K
W K
WEKKKFJ
450EPyrexF
K24
PTFEW J
Kpolytetrafluoroethylene

WKE45F
KEbiodegradationF4
K

K(pH = 2)

K K
W K
K
W
K
K

- -


W

W K
E
F
K

2. G.D Christian: Analytical Chemistry, 5th edition, John Wiley &Sons, Inc, International
edition, 1994.

3. G.H. Jeffrey, J. Bassett, J. Mendham, R.C. Denney: Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative

Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989.

4. D.A. Skoog, D.M. West and F.J. Holler, Analytical Chemistry An Introduction,
Saunders College Publishing 6th edition, International edition, 1994.

- -


- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

F
KE

W
W
K .
K .
.
K
K .
K .

W
K

W
K??

- -


W

Volumetric Analysis - An Introduction
W K

E

F
W
KEF
W

K
K

:
()

:

)
(

- -


WEquivalence pointEnd point K

WEnd point

WK

KEF .
K
KpH-meter
WEquivalence point
Stoichiometric
K

W
W

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

KE1:1FNaOHHCl

W
W

2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O

FNaOHH2SO4
KE2:1
- -


W K
K .
K .
KEF .
K .
W .

A+B C+D
WStandard solutions K
W

KPrimary standard .
KSecondary standard .
WPrimary standard
K


K .
K .
K .
K .
K .
K .

W
W .
KSodium carbonate, Na2CO3 K

- -


KSodium tetraborate, borax, Na2B4O7.10H2OEF K

W
KOxalic acid, H2C2O4 K
KC6H5COOH K

KPotassium acid phthalate,KH(C8H4O4) K

WSecondary standard

EF
KStandardization

NaOH
NaOH
NaOH

KH2SO4
W K
W .

K
K

W

KAcid-base titrations .
KPrecipitation titrations .
KComplexometric titrations .
KOxidationreduction titrations .

- -


W K
E F
EFEF
E
F EF
W
M1 V1 = M 2 V2

W
0.1FH2SO4 NaOH10
W9E

K K
KNaOH K

W
K
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O4
1 mole : 2 moles

K
number of mmoles of NaOH 2
=
number of mmoles of H 2SO 4 1

M NaOH VNaOH 2
=
M H SO VH SO 1
2 4 2 4

M NaOH 10 2
=
0.1 9 1
0.1 9 2
M NaOH = = 0.18 M
10 1

- -


W
WMole
K

WEF
KW
. . . .
58.49 . NaCl . . .

158.04 . KMnO4 . . .

194.20 . K2CrO4 . . .

40.00 . NaOH . . .

W
W K
K23=
K16=
K1=
40K 40=
KNaOH

W K
46=23C2=NaC2
12=12C1= CC1
48=16C3 = OC3
K106=
- -


W

Acid-Base Titration Neutralization Titrations
W K

KOH-H+

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

Na+ + OH- + H+ + Cl- Na+ Cl- + H2O

W
OH- + H+ H2O

KpH
pH-

Kmeter
W K
WArrhenius definition

Arrhenius

KHydronium ion, H3O+

HCl + H2O Cl- + H3O+

Arrhenius

KOH-

NaOH Na+ + OH-

- -


WBrnsted-Lowry definition
Brnsted and Lowry
KEF

HA H+ + A-

B + H+ BH+

HA + B BH+ + A-

WLewis definition
W Lewis
Electron acceptor
KElectron donor

W
H3N: + BF3 H3N+ + BF3

- -


W K
pH
K
K

W
0.150HCl

WK
K10090605551504840200

W
K0=NaOH
K0.1= HCl
pH = log[H + ]
pH = log(0.1)
pH = log(101 )
pH = (1) = 1

KNaOH20
WReacted HClmillimoles

Reacted HCl (millimoles) = 20 0.1 = 2 mmoles

KHCl

no. of HCl mmoles = 0.1 50 = 5 mmoles

- -


Wunreacted HCl mmolesEFHCl

no. of unreacted HCl mmoles) = 5-2 = 3 mmoles

WHCl

no. of mmoles
Molar HCl =
volume(ml)
3
Molar HCl = = 0.04 M
70
WpH

pH = log(0.043)
pH = (1.37) = 1.37

pH
WEFNaOH
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

0 20 40 60 80 100
14 14

12 12

10 10
(8.3-10)
8 8
pH
6 6

4 (3.3-4.4) 4

2 2

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
( )
- -


NaOHHClW

Equivalence point
K
K10.73.3
KMethyl OrangePhenolphthaleinW
K

W K
KEFW

CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O

14

12

10

8
pH
6

0 20 40 60 80 100
( )

- -


WCH3COONa

CH3COONa + H2O CH3COOH + Na+ + OH-

10.77.7
K

W K
KEFW

NH4OH + HCl NH4Cl + H2O

12

10

pH 6

0 20 40 60 80 100
( )

- -


H+

NH4Cl
W

NH4Cl + H2O NH4OH + H+ + Cl-

W K
KEF W

CH3COOH + NH4OH CH3COONH4 + H2O

12

10

8
pH 6

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
( )

- -


KMethylene blueNeutral blue

W K

K
K
WChemical equilibrium law
FW
E
K

W

A + B C + D

FDCEFBAW
KE

v1 = k1 X [A] X [B]
v2 = k2 X [C] X [D]

k2k1
K

Wv1 = v2

k1 X [A] X [B] = k2 X [C] X [D]

- -


k1 [ C][ D ]
=
k2 [ A ][ B]

Kk2k1
KChemical equilibrium constant
W

aA + bB cC + dD

Kdcba

W

[ C] [ D]
c d

K=
[ A ] [ B]
a b

W
Le ChatelierK
KW

W
W

HIn H+ + In-
EF EF

- -


[H + ] [In ]
K In =
[H In ]

KOH-H+
W
KH+H+
KEFln-

HIn H+ + In-
EFH+EF

HIn H+ OH-
KEF

HIn H+ + In-
EFOH-EF

W
K

W
W

OHIn OH- + In+

- -


OH-H+W
In+ OHIn
K
In+OH-W
OHIn

K

W
K

. . .
.

. . 2.9 . Methyl .
4.0 yellow
. 3.1 . Methyl .
.
4.4 orange

. . 6.8 . Phenol .
8.4 red
8.3 . .
. .
10.0 Phenolphthalein
. . 7.2 . Cresol .
8.8 red

- -


W

Precipitation Titrations
W K

BAK
KC,

A + B C + D


Silver nitrate, AgNO3
WSilver chloride, AgCl

AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

K

W K
Mohr's W
K
KFajan's methodVolhard's methodmethod
WMohr's method
Chromate ion,CrO42-
K E
KEF

- -


Ag+

Cr2O42- Cl-

KMohr's methodW

E F
K
E F
K
Ag+ + Cl- AgCl (1)

EFEF
E2FE1FK
K

2Ag+ + CrO42- Ag2CrO4 (2)

- -


W
WpH = 8

.
.

CrO42- + 2H+ Cr2O72- + H2O

K
K
Ag+ + OH- AgOH
WVolhard's method
Fe3+
KEFThiocyanate ion, SCN-
WK
W
KEF

- -


SCN-

Fe3+ Ag+

KW

E F K
KAg+

- +
SCN + Ag AgSCN (3)

Ag+
WEFFe3+

Fe3+ + SCN- Fe(SCN)2+ (4)

KEFE3F
W
Chloride, Cl-Halides
KThiocyanate, SCN-Bromide, Br-
KE
Cl-F
KEF

- -


Ag+ EF + Cl- AgCl (s) + Ag+ EF

K
KBack titration

SCN- + Ag+ EF AgSCN (s)

WEF

Fe3+ + SCN- Fe(SCN)2+

W
W

F W
0.1234E
12.2E F
MillimolesK0.930Molarity
K300
- -


W
W

aA + bB +A ()
EF EF EF

cC + dA ()
EF EAF

WBA

Number millimoles A = ( volume A Molar A ) ( volume C molar C )

b
Number millimoles B = number millimoles A
a
b
Number millimoles A atomic weight A 100
%B = a
Sample weight
KWCWBWAW
W

Number millimoles AgNO3 = ( 40 0.1234 ) (12.2 0.093)

Number millimoles AgNO3 = 4.94 1.13
Number millimoles AgNO3 = 3.81 millimoles

W
1
Number millimoles Cl- = 3.81
1
Number millimoles Cl = 3.81 millimoles
-

- -


W
3.81 35.4 100
% Cl- =
300
% Cl = 44.96%
-

WFajan's method
Fluorescein indicatorE
F

KEF

Ag+

In- Cl-

KW

KIn-

- -


Cl- W

Adsorbed
KEF

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+
Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl-
Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl-Ag+ Cl-
Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+
KW

AgCl
Ag+
KEFIn-

In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In- In-
+ + + + +
Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag Ag + + + + +

Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl-Ag+ Cl-
Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+ Cl- Ag+
KW

- -


W

Reduction-Oxidation Titrations
W .

K
K
K
EFW
EFEF EF EF
K
EFEFW
K

WOxidation and reduction .
WOxidation

K
W
o 2+ -
Zn Zn + 2e
WReduction


K
W
Cu2+ + 2e- Cuo

- -


WOxidizing and reducing agents .

WOxidizing agent

K

Aox + ne- Ared
WReducing agent

K

-
Bred Box + ne
WOxidation number .

S2-Fe2+
WK
KS8P4,Ar, Cl2
Peroxides)(2-)
K(1-)

KH2O, Fe2O3W(2-)
H2O2, Na2O2W(1-)

K(1-)(1+)

KH2S, NH3W(1+)
BaH2, LiHW(1-)

- -


K

KClO4- Cl W
W
KCl=x

(4*-2) + x = -1
(-8) + x = -1
x = +7


KCr2O72- Cr W
W
KCr=x
(2x) + (7*-2) = -2
2x 14 = -2
2x = -2 + 14
2x = +12
x = +6
WHalf-reactions .
W
Fe3+ Fe2+
Fe3+ + e- Fe2+
Cl2 Cl-
Cl2 2Cl-
Cl2 + 2e- 2Cl-
W
WPermanganate ion (MnO4-)J
MnO4- Mn2+
MnO4- + 8H+ Mn+2 + 4H2O
MnO4- + 8H+ +5e- Mn+2 + 4H2O

- -


WDichromate ion (Cr2O72-)J

Cr2O72- Cr3+
Cr2O7-2 + 14 H++ 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Cr2O7-2 +14H++ 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
W
WW
l2 l-
S2O32 S4O62-
l2 + 2e 2l- (i)
2S2O32- S4O6-2 + 2e- (ii)

W(ii)(i)
l2 + 2S2O32- S4O6-2 + 2I-

WW
MnO4- Mn2+
Fe2+ Fe3+
W
- + - 2+
MnO4 + 8H + 5e Mn + 4H2O (i)
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e- (ii)

W(ii)

2+ 3+ -
(iii) 5Fe 5Fe + 5e

W(iii)(i)

MnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ Mn2+ +5Fe3+ +4H2O

WW
MnO4- Mn2+
C2O42- CO2

- -


W
- + - 2+
MnO4 + 8H + 5e Mn + 4H2O (i)
C2O42- 2CO2 + 2e- (ii)

W(ii)(i)

2MnO-4 + 16H+ + 10e- 2Mn2+ +8H2O (iii)
5C2O42- 10CO2 + 10e- (iv)

W(iv)(iii)

2MnO4- + 5C2O42- + 16H+ 2Mn2+ + 8H2O +10CO2

WW
Cr2O72- Cr3+
Fe2+ Fe3+
W

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O (i)

Fe 2+ Fe3+ + e- (ii)

W(ii)

6Fe3+ 6Fe3+ + 6e- (iii)


W(iii) (i)

Cr2O72- + 6Fe2+ + 2Cr3+ 7H2O + 6Fe3+

- -


W .
KCe4+100Fe2+100
KNernst equation

RT [Ox ]
a
E = E0 + ln
nF [Re d ]b

E = E0 +
0.0591
log
[Ox ] a

n [Re d ]b
K=E
K=E0
8.314 JK-1mol-1=R

K=[Ox]
K=[Red]
K96485 C (coulombs)=F
K=T
Klog2.303==ln
K=n

WCe4+ Fe3+

Fe2+ Fe3+ + e- [E0 = 0.75V]
Ce4+ + e- Ce3+ [E0 = 1.45V]

- -


WFe2+Ce4+10

10
E = 0.75 + 0.0591log
90
E = 0.69V

WEF

1.5

1.3

1.1
E, Volt

0.9

0.7

0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Cerium (IV), mL

Ce4+W

W .
WPotassium permanganate

%2
StandardizationK
KFe2+
K
- -


W(i)
MnO4- + 8H+ +5e- Mn+2 + 4H2O

W (ii)

MnO4- -
+ 2H2O + 3e MnO2 + 4OH -

W(iii)

MnO4- + e- MnO42-
W
K1500 .
K .
F .
E
K .
.
K
E F .
K
WCerium (IV)
W

Ce4+ + e- Ce3+

- -


Sn
K, H2O2 , Fe , V , Mo, W , Ti , U
WPotassium dichromate
K2Cr2O7
KEF
W

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

K
WPotassium bromate
KBrO3
WBr2

BrO3- + 5Br- + 6H+ 3Br2 + H2O

Br2

KBr
K
WKI

- -
2I + Br2 I2 + 2Br

Na2S2O3
K

- -


WIodine

WI3-Potassium iodide, KI

I2 + I - I3-

KW
WDirect methods
As(III)
SO32-H2SSn(II)Sb(III)
K

WIndirect methods
KI
W

Aox + I- Ared + I2

KA
W

I2 + 2S2O32- -
2I + S4O62-

KCr3+Cu2+ClO-Br2Cl2Cr2O72-

W
Cr2O72-Cr3+0.2
E
I-FKI

- -


0.1SCN-
KK22.15

W
W

Cr2O72- +
+ 14H + 6e 2Cr + 7H2O - 3+
(i)
2I I2 + 2e-
-
(ii)

W3C(ii)

Cr2O72- + 6I- + 14 H+ 2Cr3+ + 3I2 (iii)

K KI-EiiiF
W

2SO32- S4O62- + 2e- (iv)
I2 + 2e- 2I- (v)

WEvFEivF

2- 2- -
2S2O3 + I2 S4O6 + 2I (vi)

W

2Cr3+ Cr2O72- 3I2 6S2O32-
W
3+
Cr : S2O32-
2 : 6
1 : 3

- -


KS2O32-

22.15
number of S2O3 2 moles = 0.1
1000
number of S2O3 2 moles = 2.215 103 moles

KCr3+
1
number of Cr 3+ moles = number of S2O3 2- moles
3
1
number of Cr 3+ moles = 2.215 103
3
number of Cr moles = 7.38 10 4 moles
3+

W

number of moles atomic weight 100
Cr 3+ (%) =
sample weight (g)
7.38 104 52.0 100
Cr 3+ (%) =
0.2
Cr 3+ (%) = 19.19%

WReducing agents and their applications .

K
W
WIron (II)
Fe2+Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2.6H2O
0.5F

KE

- -


Fe2+
K
WPotassium thiosulfate
WNa2S2O3
K .
K .

WS4O42-

2S2O32- S4O62- + 2e-

K
WRedox titration indicators .


K
K
WSelf indicator
KMnO4
WMn2+Fe2+

+ - +2
MnO4- + 8H +5e Mn + 4H2O

K
E FFe2+E F
Mn2+MnO4-

- -


MnO4-Fe3+Fe2+F
KMnO4-
WSpecific indicators
K
E F
K
EFFe3+KSCN-
E FTi3+
Ti3+Fe(SCN)2-
W
Fe3+SCN-Fe3+
W

2+ 3+ -
Fe (SCN) Fe + SCN

E F
K
WTrue oxidation-reduction indicators

K

-
Inox + ne Inred
EFEF

W

E = E 0In
0.0592 [ In ]
log red
n In ox

- -


EF(II)10,1
K(Phen)3Fe2+

N
2+
Fe
N

(II)10,1W

1.06 V
K

(Phen)3Fe3+ + e- (Phen)3Fe2+ (E0 = 1.06 V)


W
K
KE

EFCe4+Fe2+
1.10 V
KEF(II)10,1

- -


E0ln
+1.1V II{

+0.85V
+0.28V

- -


W

Complexometric Titrations
W .
Complexing

agent
KELFLigands

M(H2O)n + L M(H2O)n-1L + H2O

L
KKMLn

K
EDTA
K
W .

Lewis acidK
KLigands Lewis base
WUnidentate ligands

: NH 3 H 2 O :
K

HN3: + M H3N: M

- -


WBidentate ligands
K
EFEthylenediamine
ChelationKEF
KChelating agents

H2 C C H2
N N

KEthylenediamineW

H2 C C H2
N N
H2
N C

Co

N C
H2
N N
H2 C C H2

- -


WPolydentate ligands

EDTAEthylenediamine tetraacetic acid
KEF

HOOCCH2 CH2COOH

N CH2 CH2 N

HOOCCH 2 CH2 COOH

Coordination covalent bonds
KCarboxyl group, COOH

W .
EDTA .

K
KWEDTA .

M2+ + H2Y2- MY2- + 2H+

FNa2H2YH4Y .
KEDTA E

- -


HOOCCH2 CH2COONa

N CH2 CH2 N

HOOCCH 2 CH 2 COONa.2H2 O

Na2H2YW

WEDTA .
EDTA
K

M2+ + HY-2 MY2- + 2H+

M3+ + H2Y2- MY- + 2H+


W

K
KpH

KKMYEF

- -


KMYEDTAW
. . .
KMY . KMY . KMY .

5.0 . 4.2 . 1.0 .
10 Ca2+ . 18 Ni2+ . 23 Bi3+ .
x 10 x 10 x 10
4.9 . 3.2 . 1.3 .
8 Mg2+ . 16 Zn2+ . 25 Fe3+ .
x 10 x 10 x 10

MY
K Y

M + Y MY
H+}~
HY, H2Y,

W Y

K
KFe3+Bi3+

KBuffer solutions

- -


W .
EDTA
K
W
K .
K .
K .
KKMEDTA>>KInd .
W
WEriochrome black TK
KEFErio-T .
KNaH2D .
W .

pH = 6.3 pH =11.6
H 2 D 2
HD D3

OH OH

N N
NaSO3

NO2

Eriochrome black TW

- -


WErio-TK
WEFpH = 10Erio-TEDTAMg2+
Erio-T .
W

2- 2+ -
HD + Mg MgD


KEErio-TFMg2+E.DT.A

Mg2+ + EDTA Mg-EDTA + 2H+

KMgD-EDTA

MgD- + EDTA Mg-EDTA + HD2-

KEF

- -


EDTA
Erio-T

Mg2+ pH = 10

KpH = 10Erio-TEDTAMg2+W

WMurexide indicatorK
Ammonium salt of purpuric acid
W

pH = 9 pH =1
H 4 In H 3In 2 H 2 In 3

K
KCalcichromeCalmagite

- -


WEDTA .
WDirect titration

KEDTA
W
K
K EDTA
WBack titration
W

K .
K .
KEDTA .
K .

EDTA
KErio-TEDTA

W
KZr4+
E 0.0502F10W
Zr4+
2.08E 0.0540FF
Kmillimoles

W
W
- -


EDTA + Zr (IV) Zr-EDTA + EDTA EF
Bi3+ + EDTA EF Bi-EDTA

WW

Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = number of mmoles of EDTA (before reactions) - number of mmoles of Bi3+
(
Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = ( vol. of EDTA molarity of EDTA ) vol.of Bi3+ molarity of Bi3+ )
Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = (10.00 0.0502 ) ( 2.08 0.0540 )
Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = 0.502-0.112
Number of mmoles of Zr 4+ = 3.9 mmoles

W
Concentration of Zr 4+ (mg) = 0.39 91.22

Concentration of Zr 4+ (mg) = 35.5 mg

WMixture titration

W

WK
PbBi
pH = 5
EF Bi pH =2
KPb

WMasking and demasking agentsK

CN-Cyanide ion, CN-
KPb, Mg EFCo, Cu, Hg, Zn, Cd, Ni
- -


Mg(CoFCoCN-Co, Mg
K
KCoFormaldehyde, HCHO

Co(CN)42- + 4H+ + 4HCHO Co2+ + 4HO.CH2C

- -


EF

K
K .
K .
K .
K .
15CH3COOH10 .
KK0.04

- -


EF

W
0.150pH .
K55504550WNaOHK0.1
K .
K
KK
KK
KK

- -


EF

W
W .
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
KEF .
W .
KK
KK
KK
F .
KE









- -


EF

W
K .
K .
W .
KH2O2EFCr2O72-EFFe2(SO4)3EFKNO3EFFeCl3EF
W .
N2O4 N2OEFOCl- ClO3-EFSO2 SO3EFMnO2 MnO4EF

W .
Cr2O72- Cr3+
Fe2+ Fe3+
W .
KEF
KEF
KI2EFEF

- -


EF

W .
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEFK
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKEF
K .
K .
.
K .

- -


EF

W .
K .
K .
KEF .
K .
K .

W .
K .
K .
K .
K .

.
KStoichiometric

K .

K0.06 .

- -


EF

KpH = 1.00NaOH0 K
KpH = 1.09NaOH5
KpH =1.09NaOH45
KpH = 7.00NaOH50
KpH = 11.68NaOH55


KKK
H+
NH4Cl
W
NH4OH + H+ + Cl- NH4Cl + H2O

K
pHK K
K
K
WCH3COONa

CH3COONa + H2O CH3COOH + Na+ + OH-

K
K

- -


EF

KKEFKEFKEFKEFKEFKEFK
WpH = 8K
K
.
CrO42- + 2H+ Cr2O72- + H2O

K K
K

K
Ag+ + OH- AgOH

K
KWWWK
KSCN- + Ag+ AgSCNK
KFe3+ + SCN- Fe(SCN)2+K

Fluorescein indicatorE
F
K

KIn-

- -


Cl-W
Adsorbed
K

AgCl
Ag+
KIn-

- -


EF

K
K
KK
S = +6Fe = +3O = -2EFN = +5O = -2K = +1EFFe = +3Cl = -1EFK
KH = +1O = -1EFCr = +6O = -2EF
KEFEFEFEFK
KCr2O72- + 6Fe2+ + 2Cr3+ 7H2O + 6Fe3+K
EFEFEFK
KI
K

- -


EF

KEFEFEFEFEFK

KCarboxyl group, COOHK

K
HOOCCH2 CH2COOH

N CH2 CH2 N .
HOOCCH 2 CH2 COOH
.
HOOCCH2 CH2COONa

N CH2 CH2 N .
HOOCCH 2 CH 2 COONa.2H2 O
.


EFK
KEF

Erio-T .
W

2- 2+ -
HD + Mg MgD


KEErio-TFMg2+E.DT.A

Mg2+ + EDTA Mg-EDTA + 2H+

- -


KMgD-EDTA

MgD- + EDTA Mg-EDTA + HD2-

KEF

- -


W

.
E
FW
K

2. G.D Christian: Analytical Chemistry, 5th edition, John Wiley &Sons, Inc, International
edition, 1994.

3. G.H. Jeffrey, J. Bassett, J. Mendham, R.C. Denney: Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative

Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989.

4. D.A. Skoog, D.M. West and F.J. Holler, Analytical Chemistry An Introduction,
Saunders College Publishing 6th edition, International edition, 1994.












- -


W
W
















W

- -


W









W








- -


W





- -


K




EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF

- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
W
K .
K .
K .
K .
K .

W
K

W
K??

- -


Gravimetric Analysis
W .

K
K

K
K
K

W .
W
WSample dissolution
K120100 .
.
K .
W
W
K K
K K
K K
K K
WPrecipitation

- -


WIgnitionDrying
120100

K

W
Fe(OH)3
K
Al(OH)3
KPrecipitated form
Al2O3Fe2O3
W

2Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 + 3H2O
2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O

F
IgnitionE
Weighed
KAl2O3 Fe2O3Kform

W .
KEF K

K
KFilter
K K
K K

- -


WSolubility Product Rule .

W
K
AaBb
K

AaBb aAm+ bBn-

WKEF


a b
A m + Bn
K= (1)
[ AaBb]

A m + Bn = K [ AaBb ]
a b
(2)

kK AaBb
W[AaBb]
W(2)

a b
A m + Bn = kK (3)

Solubility product KspkK
Wconstant

- -


a b
Ksp = A m + Bn (4)

WW


2+ -
Ba(IO3)2 Ba + 2IO3

WKsp

Ksp = [Ba2+] [IO3-]2


WAgClAgClSW

Ksp = 1.02 x 10-10
Ag+ = SCl- = SW

K sp = Ag + Cl
K sp = S S
K sp = S2
K sp = 1.02 1010 = S2
S = 1.02 1010 = 1.01 105 mol / L

(BaSO4)SO42-W
KBaSO4KL1.14 X 10-5

- -


WW

BaSO4 Ba2+ + SO42-

K sp = [Ba 2+ ] [SO 4 2 ]
K sp = (1.14 10 5 ) (1.14 10 5 )
K sp = 1.3 10 10

W .
W
K
W
KBaSO4H2SO4

BaSO4 Ba2+ + SO42-

H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-

Ba2+SO42-

K
W
K
W
W
K
W

KGravimetric factor
WGravimetric factor
WGravimetric factor (GF)

- -


MW (or atomic weight) of analyte a
GF=
MW of weighed substance b

W
KWMW
KWanalyte
KWWeighed substance
KWa
KWb

K

AgCl Cl-

Fe2O3 Fe

Hg5(IO6)2 HgO

- -


W
W

Weight of analyzed substance (g) = GF weight of precipitate (g)

W
W

GF weight of precipitate (g)
Weight % of analyzed substance = 100
weight of sample (g)


0.204W
35.5
Cl143.3
AgCl(AgCl)
K0.5

W
35.5
GF =
143.3
GF = 0.2478
Weight of Cl- = 0.2478 0.204
Weight of Cl- = 0.05 g
0.2478 0.204
Cl- (%) = 100 = 10.11%
0.5

- -


W
K .
K .
Ag2CrO4(S) .
KKsp = 1.9 x 10-12
Fe2O3Fe0.2010 .
KK0.1106

- -


KEFEFEFEF K
K
KEF K
K
K(Filter)
K K
K
K

K
K
K7.8 X 10-5=S K
K38.49=0.07735= K

- -


W

W K
E
F
K

2. G.D Christian: Analytical Chemistry, 5th edition, John Wiley &Sons, Inc, International
edition, 1994.

3. G.H. Jeffrey, J. Bassett, J. Mendham, R.C. Denney: Vogel's Textbook of Quantitative

Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989.

4. D.A. Skoog, D.M. West and F.J. Holler, Analytical Chemistry An Introduction,
Saunders College Publishing 6th edition, International edition, 1994.

- -


- -

]<gj]<]<j<^]<]

W
K

W
W
K
K

W
K

W
K?? K
K K
K K

- -


W .

K

K

K
K
K

WSolubility product rule .
KEF

WCommon ion effect .
WEFAgCl

AgCl(s) Ag+ + Cl- (1)

KNaCl

NaCl Na+ Cl-

- -


(1)
KCl-K

W
Pb(NO3)2PbI2S
KKsp(PbI2) = 1.4 X 10-8K0.1
W

. . . .


0.1+S 0.1* . +S . 0.1 . Pb2+ .
2S . +2S . 0.0 . I- .

K0.1S*
WKsp(PbI2)

Ksp = [Pb2+] X [I-]2

WI-Pb2+Ksp

Ksp = (0.1)(2S)2 = 1.4 X 10-8
4S2 = 1.4 X 10-7
S2 = 3.5 X 10-8
S = 1.9 X 10-4 M

- -


WFormation of precipitates .

KKsp

a b
A m + Bn > Ksp

Cl-Ag+E25FW
K1X10-4
W
K25KspAgCl = 1.7X10-10 EF

[Ag+] X [Cl-] = (1 X 10-4) X (1 X 10-4)
[Ag+] X [Cl-] = 1 X 10-8

KKspAgCl[Ag+] X [Cl-]
WPrecipitation of chlorides
KPb2+, Ag+, Hg22+W
W
1.7X10-10EF
K1.7X10-10[Ag+] X [Cl-]
0.1HCl
KK0.01Cl-

WK(Ag+, Cl-)

- -


K(Ag+, Cl-) = [Ag+] X [Cl-] = 0.1 X 0.01

K(Ag+, Cl-) = 1 X 10-3

KK(Ag+, Cl-) > Ksp(AgCl)

WPrecipitation of sulfides
Cu2+, Cd2+, As3+, Sb3+,
Zn2+, Sn4+, Hg2+,Bi3+
KMn2+, Co2+, Ni2+
WH2S

H2S 2H+ + S2- (1)

WH2S
[H + ]2 [S2 ]
K= (2)
[H 2S]

1.1X10-23K
K0.125

[H + ]2 [S2 ]
K= = 1.1 1023
0.1
[H ] [S2 ] = 1.1 1022
+ 2

W[S2-]

1.1 1023
[S2 ] = (3)
[H + ]

- -


H+S2-
KH+
W
S2-
W

W
-28
Ksp(CdS) = 1 X 10
Ksp(Bi2S3) = 1 X 10-97
Ksp(CuS) = 9 X 10-36
Ksp(HgS) = 4 X 10-53

KHCl
H2S 2H+ + S2-
HCl H+ + Cl-

H+HClLe Chatelier
K
KS2-
KHCl 0.3
W(3)S2-

1.1 1023
[S2 ] =
[H + ]
1.1 1023
[S ] =
2

0.32
[S2 ] = 1.2 1026

- -


K1.0 X 10
WMSM2+

Ksp(MS) = [M2+] X [S2-]

Ksp(MS) = (1 X 10-4) X (1.2 X 10-22)
Ksp(MS) = 1.2 X 10-26

K

W
K1.2 X 10-26

W
S2-EF
W

Ksp(ZnS) = 1 X 10 -21
Ksp(MnS) = 1.4 X 10-15
Ksp(NiS) = 3.0 X 10-19
Ksp(CoS) = 5.0 X 10-22

H+
WNH4OH + HN4Cl

- -


WNH4OH
NH4OH NH4+ + OH- (1)

WH2S

H2S 2H+ + S2- (2)

H+FH+NH4OH
(2)EOH-
S2-
K

W
FE F
KE

WPrecipitation of hydroxides

NH4OH + NH4ClKAl3+, Cr3+, Fe3+, Fe2+W

K

K
KOH-

- -


WPrecipitation of carbonates
Ammonium carbonate

(Ca2+, Ba2+, Sr2+)

K
W

(NH4)2CO3 2NH4+ + CO32- (1)

W

NH4Cl NH4+ + Cl- (2)

CO32-NH4+(2)(1)

W

Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3 ([Ca2+] X [CO32-] > Ksp(CaCO3))
Ba2+ + CO32- BaCO3 ([Ba2+] X [CO32-] > Ksp(BaCO3))
Sr2+ + CO32- SrCO3 ([Sr2+] X [CO32-] > Ksp(SrCO3))
Mg2+ + CO32- MgCO3 ([Mg2+] X [CO32-] < Ksp(MgCO3))

W

- -


NH4OH NH4+ + OH-

NH4Cl NH4+ + Cl-
Mg2+ + 2OH- Mg(OH)2
[Mg2+] X (OH-]2 < KspMg(OH)2

W .

KK
a b
A m+ Bn < Ksp

K

K
W
K K
K K
K K
K K
WFormation of a weak electrolyte
KW
WAg3PO4AgNO3

2Na2HPO4 + 3AgNO3 Ag3PO4 + 3NaNO3 + NaH2PO4

WAg3PO4

Ag3PO4 3Ag+ + PO43-

- -


PO43-W
Ag3PO4
WH3PO4H+

PO43- + 3H+ H3PO4

Ksp[Ag+]3 X [PO43-]PO43-
WKAg3PO4

Ag3PO4 + 3H+ 3Ag+ + H3PO4

WFormation of a precipitate
K0.2KClAg3PO4W
KCl
W
Ag3PO4 3Ag+ + PO43-
KCl K+ + Cl-
Ag+ + Cl- AgCl

WNaIAgCl

AgCl Ag+ + Cl-
A+ + I- AgI

AgIAgCl
Ksp(8.5 X 10-17)KspW
K(1.7 X 10-10)

- -


WFormation of a complex ion

KAgClW
WHCl

AgNO3 + HCl AgCl + HNO3

W

AgCl Ag+ + Cl-

WNH4OHAgCl

Ag+ + 2NH3 [Ag(NH3)2]

W

NH4OH NH3 + H2O

Ag+
WKsp

[Ag+] X [Cl-] < Ksp(AgCl)

- -


WValence change of an ion

KEF
K

WEFW
S2-
WS

CuS Cu2+ + S2-
3S2- + 2NO3- + 8H+ 3S + 2NO + 4H2O

- -


W
KAl(OH)3Ksp K
0.001 K
KEFEF K
KK
KK
KK
KKSpK
KKspK
K
K K

- -


Ksp = [Al3+] X [OH-]3 K
KKsp[Ag+] X [Cl-] K
F[Ag+] X [Cl-]1.7 X 10-10KspEF
KKspE1.0 X 10-6
K K
K
K
KOH-
EFEFEFEF K
K

- -


W

K

W

K

- -


- -


E25FKspWEF

Ksp
1.7X10 -10
AgCl
1.6X10-5 PbCl2
2.0X10-18 Hg2Cl2
3.2X10-25 AuCl2
5.0X10-15 AgBr
2.1X10-6 PbBr2
8.5X10-17 AgI
1.4X10-8 PbI2
3.5X10-8 MgCO3
9.0X10-9 CaCO3
9.3X10-10 SrCO3
8.9X10-9 BaCO3
7.4X10-14 PbCO3
1.0X10-97 Bi2S3
1.0X10-28 CdS
9.0X10-36 CuS
8.0X10-28 PbS
1.410-15 MnS
4.0X10-53 HgS
1.0X10-49 Ag2S
1.0X10-21 ZnS
7.1X10-12 Mg(OH)2
6.5X10-6 Ca(OH)2
2.0X10-15 Fe(OH)2
1.1X10-36 Fe(OH)3
2.0X10-33 Al(OH)3
5.0X10-26 Sn(OH)2
1.2X10-11 Mn(OH)2
1.6X10-14 Ni(OH)2
4.8X10-20 Cu(OH)2
4.5X10-19 Zn(OH)2
2.0X10-4 CaSO4
3.2X10-7 SrSO4
1.5X10-9 BaSO4
6.3X10-7 PbSO4
1.5X10-5 Ag2SO4
1.0X10-4 CaCrO4
2.4X10-10 BaCrO4
1.9X10-12 Ag2CrO4
1.8X10-14 PbCrO4
2.3X10-3 AgC2H3O2

- -


THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
IA 0
1 2
Metals Semimetals Non-metals
H He
1.01 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4.00
3 4 Atomic number 11 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Chemical symbol Na B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 Atomic weight 22.99 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg ---------------------------------Transition metals -------------------------------- Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 98.91 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.75 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba *La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.20 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.20 208.98 208.98 209.99 222.02
87 88 89 104 105 106 107
N o b le G a s e s

Fr Ra **Ac Unq Unp Unh Uns

H a lo g e n s

223.02 226.03 227.03 261.11 262.11 162.12 262.12

A lk a liin e M e ta ls (E x c e p t H

A lk a lin e E a r th M e ta ls

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu a n id
e
n th
140.12 140.91 144.24 144.91 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.5 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97 La

** 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

.Halogens : - Noble gases :
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr ti n id
e
232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 244.06 243.06 247.07 247.07 242.06 252.08 257.10 258.10 259.10 260.11 A c
- Transition metals : - Alkaline earth metals : - Alkaline metals :
Non-metals : - Metalloids or semimetals : - Metals :

- -


WEF

Anion Name of Anion Cation Name of Cation

Br-
Bromide Al3+ Aluminum
Cl- Chloride Ba2+ Barium
F- Fluoride Bi3+ Bismuth
H- Hydride Cd2+ Cadmium
I- Iodide Ca2+ Calcium
N3- Nitride Cu+ Copper(I) or cuprous
S2- Sulfide Cu2+ Copper(II) or cupric
O2- Oxide Au3+ Gold(II1)
S2- Phosphide H+ Hydrogen
Fe2+ Iron(II) or ferrous
Fe3+ Iron (III) or ferric
Pb2+ Lead(II) or plumbous
Pb4+ Lead(IV) or plumbic
Li+ Lithium
Mg2+ Magnesium
Anion Name of polyatomic anion Hg22+ Mercury(I) or mercurous
C2H3O2- Acetate Hg2+ Mercury(II) or mercuric
NH4+ Ammonium Ni2+ Nickel(II)
CO32- Carbonate K+ Potassium
ClO3- Chlorate Ag+ Silver
ClO2- Chlorite Na+ Sodium
CrO42- Chromate Sr2+ Strontium
CN- Cyanide Sn2+ Tin (II) or stannous
SCN- Thiocyanate Sn4+ Tin(IV) or stannic
Cr2O72- Dichromate Zn2+ Zinc
HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate
HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate
HSO3- Hydrogen sulfite or bisulfite
OH- Hydroxide
ClO- Hypochlorite
NO3- Nitrate
NO2- Nitrite
C2O42- Oxalate
ClO4- Perchlorate
MnO4- Permanganate
PO43- Phosphate

SO42- Sulfate

SO32- Sulfite

S2O32- Thiosulfate

- -


W

WK
EF
K
K
W
K

3. G.D Christian: Analytical Chemistry, 5th edition, John Wiley &Sons, Inc,
International edition, 1994.

4. G.H. Jeffrey, J. Bassett, J. Mendham, R.C. Denney: Vogel's Textbook of

Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, Longman Scientific & Technical,
1989.

5. D.A. Skoog, D.M. West and F.J. Holler, Analytical Chemistry An

Introduction, Saunders College Publishing 6th edition, International edition,
1994.

- -


W
W
















W






W









W





W










K




EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF
EF


EF
EF
EF

W





















EF

GOTEVOT appreciates the financial support provided by BAE SYSTEMS