SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES

Here are solutions to some of the problems in Munkres. There may be other, and
perhaps better, ones. They are sometimes more detailed than absolutely necessary,
but not excessively so.

S 13.1. For each x A, choose an open set Ux with x Ux A. Then

Problem
A = xA Ux , which is open because it is a union of open sets.
Problem 13.3. We have X X = , which is countable, so X Tc , and X = X,
so Tc . Next suppose thatS U Tc for in some index set J. If all U are
empty, so is their union, so J US Tc . Otherwise, there isSsome J such that
X U is countable.
S Since X J U X U , X J U is countable,
and again J U Tc . Finally, suppose U, V Tc . If either of U and V is
empty, so is U V . Otherwise, X U and X V are countable, and hence so is
X (U V ) = (X U ) (X V ), and U V Tc . This completes the proof that
Tc is a topology.
The collection T is not a topology, in general. For example, take X = R. Then
(, 0) and (0, ) are in T , but (, 0) (0, ) = R {0} is not. (In fact, T
is a topology iff X is finite, in which case it is the indiscrete topology, but a single
example is all thats needed.)
Problem 13.8. (a) Certainly B is a collection of open sets in the standard topology.
Suppose that U is open in the standard topology and x U . By definition of the
standard topology, there are real numbers a < b with x (a, b) U . Since a < x,
there is a rational number q with a < q < x. (This is a standard fact about the
real numbers, known as the density of the rationals; for completeness, I give a proof
below.) Similarly, there is a rational number r with x < r < b. Then (q, r) B
and x (q, r) U , and the result follows from Lemma 13.2.
(b) For any x R, there exist rational numbers a and b with a x < b (for
instance, a = bxc and b = bxc + 1), so that x [a, b) C. Also, the intersection of
any two elements of C is either empty or an element of C, and so C is a basis for
some topology T on R. Let x be an irrational number. The interval [x, x + 1) is
open in the lower limit topology; we show that it does not belong to T. Supppose,
on the contrary, that it does. Since x [x, x + 1), there exists an element [a, b) (a
and b rational) of C with x [a, b) [x, x + 1). Now x [a, b) implies a x, while
[a, b) [x, x + 1) implies x a, so x = a, a contradiction.
Density of the rationals. Let a and b be real numbers with a < b. Since 0 < b a,
there is a positive integer n with n1 < b a. Let m be the smallest integer such
that mn > a. Then
m1
n a, so m 1
n a + n < a + (b a) = b. Thus the rational
m m
number n satisfies a < n < b.
While were at it, lets prove that between any two reals there is an irrational.
Density of the irrationals. Let a and b be real numbers
with a< b. By what was

just proved, there is a rational number q with a 2 < q < b 2. Now x = q + 2
is irrational, and a < x < b.
1
Problem 16.1. Let TX and TY be the topologies that A inherits as a subspace of
X and Y , respectively. Suppose first that W TX . Then there is an open set U
of X with W = U A. Set V = U Y . Then V is open in Y and W = V A, so
A TY . Suppose conversely that W TY . Then there is a set V open in Y with
W = V A. Since V is open in Y , there is an open set U of X with V = U Y .
Then W = U A, so W TX .
Problem 16.9. Let T1 be the dictionary order topology on RR, and T2 the product
topology on Rd R. As pointed out on page 85 of Munkres, the sets (a b, a d)
for b < d form a basis for T1 . (This is because any set (a b, c d) with a < c
is the union of all the sets (a b, a y) for y > b, (x y1 , x y2 ) for a < x < c
and y1 < y2 , and (c y, c d) for y < d.) Now the singleton sets {a} form a basis
for Rd (Example 3 on page 79), and the sets (b, d) for b < d form a basis for R by
definition of the usual topology on R, so the sets {a} (b, d) for b < d form a basis
for T2 by Theorem 15.1. But (a b, a d) = {a} (b, d), so the same collection of
sets is a basis for both T1 and T2 , so these topologies are equal.
I observed in class (after correcting myself) that the dictionary order topology
is strictly finer than the usual topology on R2 , but it is easier to see this using the
basis of rectangles (a, b) (c, d) (a < b and c <Sd) for the usual topology, rather
than the circle basis. We have (a, b) (c, d) = x(a,b) {x} (c, d), which is open
in T1 . On the other hand, {a} (b, d) is not open in the usual topology, because it
is non-empty and contains no rectangle.
For the problem on the handout for the second assignment, see Theorem N16.1
in the supplementary notes.
Problem 17.21. We shall write A0 for X A.
(a) First we show that if U is open then U = U . Since U is open and
U U , U U and hence U U . Conversely, U U and U is
closed, so U U .
Now let A1 be any subset of X, and define A2n = A 2n1 and A2n+1 = A2n for
0
0 0
n Z+ . Also let B1 = A1 , and similarly define B2n = B2n1 and B2n+1 = B2n for
n Z+ . Clearly any set obtained from A1 by repeated closure and complementation
is either An or Bn for some n Z+ . Now A3 is open, since it is the complement of
A2 = A
1 , so A3 = A3

. But A
3 = A4 and A3

= A4 = A4
00
= A8 . Hence
A8 = A4 , and so An+4 = An for n 4. Similarly Bn+4 = Bn for n 4, and so
every set obtainable from A1 is one of the fourteen sets A1 , . . . , A7 , B1 , . . . B7 .
(b) Let us first try simply to find A1 so that A1 , . . . , A7 are distinct. We have
A3 open, as observed above, and A7 = A00 3 = A3 , so we need an open set that
is different from the interior of its closure. A simple example of such a set is an
open interval or ray with a point removed; we shall work with rays since they have
the convenient property that the complement of a ray is a ray. If A3 is obtained by
removing a point from an open ray with endpoint a, then A4 , . . . , A7 are the four
rays with endpoint a. (For instance, if A3 = (0, ) {1} then A4 = [0, ), A5 =
(, 0), A6 = (, 0], and A7 = (0, ).) Now A2 , being the complement of A3 ,
will be a closed ray with endpoint a together with an isolated point ((, 0] {1}
in the example), and if A1 is any non-closed set with closure of this form then
A1 , . . . , A7 will be distinct.
Next we try to get B1 , . . . , B7 also distinct. If A1 is a ray (either open or closed)
with a point removed, together with an isolated point, then B1 has the same form,
2
and each of A1 and B1 is a non-closed set whose closure is a closed ray together with
an isolated point. Here A1 , . . . , A7 are distinct, as are B1 , . . . , B7 . Unfortunately,
A4 , . . . , A7 are the same four rays as B4 , . . . , B7 (in a different order). Here is a
specific example.

A1 = (, 0) {1} {1} B1 = {1} [0, ) {1}
A2 = (, 0] {1} B2 = {1} [0, )
A3 = (0, ) {1} B3 = (, 0) {1}
A4 = [0, ) B4 = (, 0]
A5 = (, 0) B5 = (0, )
A6 = (, 0] B6 = [0, )
A7 = (0, ) B7 = (, 0)
The trick here is to use that fact that there is a dense set whose complement is also
dense (for instance, the rationals) to get the endpoints of the rays in A2 and B2 to
be different. This leads to the following example achieving the maximum of 14.

A1 = (, 1) {2} B1 = {2} [1, 1] Q

[1, 1] Q {2} (1, ) {2}
A2 = (, 1] {2} B2 = {2} [1, )
A3 = (1, ) {2} B3 = (, 1) {2}
A4 = [1, ) B4 = (, 1]
A5 = (, 1) B5 = (1, )
A6 = (, 1] B6 = [1, )
A7 = (1, ) B7 = (, 1)

Problem 17.6. (a) Since B B, we have A B. Since B is closed, and A is the

smallest closed set containing A, A B.
(b) Since A B A B and A B is closed, A B A B. Conversely, since
A A B, A A B by part (a). Similarly, B A B, so A B A B.
S S S
(c) For each , A A by part (a), so A A . For the counterexam-
ple, any collection (necessarily infinite) of closed sets whose union is not
S closed will
do. For a specific example, let X = R and Aq = {q} for q Q. Then qQ Aq = Q,
S
while qQ Aq = Q = R.

Problem 17.9. First suppose (x, y) A B. If U is any neighborhood of x, U Y

is a neighborhood of (x, y), so (U Y ) (A B) = (U A) B is non-empty.
Hence U A 6= , so x A. Similarly, y B, so (x, y) A B.
Conversely, suppose (x, y) A B. Any neigborhood of (x, y) contains one of
the form U V , and it suffices to show that U V meets A B. Since x A, U
meets A, and similarly V meets B. Hence (U V ) (A B) = (U A) (V B)
is non-empty.
Problem 17.13. Note that if A and B are subsets of X, A B is empty iff A B
is empty. Suppose first that X is Hausdorff. We show that if (x, y)
/ , then (x, y)
is not a limit point of . For x 6= y, so there are disjoint open sets U 3 x and
V 3 y. Now U V is a neighborhood of (x, y) disjoint from .
3
 Now suppose is closed, and let x 6= y X. Then (x, y) is not in , so it is not
a limit point of , and hence there is a neighbourhood of (x, y) of the form U V
disjoint from . Now U and V are disjoint neighborhoods of x and y.
Problem 18.6. Define f by
(
0 if x Q;
f (x) =
x if x
/ Q.
Recall that f is continuous at x if, for every neighborhood V of f (x), there is a
neighborhood U of x with f (U ) V . If V is a neighborhood of f (0) = 0, then
f (V ) V , so f is continuous at 0. If x is irrational, then V = R {0} is a
neighborhood of f (x) = x, but any neighborhood of x contains a rational y and
f (y) = 0
/ V , so f is not continuous at x. Finally, if x is rational and non-zero
then V = (|x|, |x|) is a neighborhood of f (x) = 0, but any neighborhood of x
contains an irrational y with |y| > |x| and f (y) = y
/ V , so f is not continuous at
x. Thus f is continuous precisely at 0.
Problem 18.7(a). The condition on f means that, for all a R and > 0, there
exists > 0 such that a x < a + implies |f (x) f (a)| < . Let V be open in
R and a f 1 (V ). There exists > 0 such that (f (a) , f (a) + ) V . Let be
as above. Then [a, a + ) is a neighborhood of a in R` and [a, a + ) f 1 (V ). It
follows that f 1 (V ) is open in R` , and hence f : R` R is continuous.
Problem 18.8. (a) Let A = {x | f (x) g(x)}, and suppose a / A, so that f (a) >
g(a). If there is some y0 Y with f (a) > y0 > g(a), let V1 = (y0 , ) and
V2 = (, y0 ); if not, let V1 = (g(a), ) and V2 = (, f (a)). In either case, V1
and V2 are neighborhoods of f (a) and g(a), respectively, and if y1 V1 and y2 V2
then y1 > y2 . Then U = f 1 (V1 ) g 1 (V2 ) is a neighborhood of a, and if x U
then f (x) > g(x), so U is disjoint from A. Hence A is closed.
(b) Let A be as in (a), and B = {x | g(x) f (x)}. Then X is the union of the
closed sets A and B. Since h|A = f |A and h|B = g|B are both continuous, h is
continuous by the pasting lemma.
Problem 19.7. In the box topology, R is closed (so it is equal to its closure).
Suppose x = (xn ) / R . Set
(
R if xn = 0;
Un =
R {0} if xn 6= 0.
Q
Then U = n=1 Un is a box neighborhood of x, and if y U then yn 6= 0 whenever
/ R .
xn 6= 0, so y

Qof R is R . Let x R . Any neighborhood
In the product topology, the closure
of x contains one of the form U = n=1 Un , where there is some N with Un = R
for n N . Set (
xn if n < N ;
yn =
0 if n N .
Then y = (yn ) U R .
Problem 20.2. By problem 16.9 (assignment 2), the dictionary order topology is
the same as the product topology Rd R, where Rd denotes R with the discrete
4
topology. Since Rd and R are both metrizable, so is Rd R. A specific metric
giving the dictionary order topology is
(
|x2 y2 | if x1 = y1 ;
do (x, y) = do (x1 x2 , y1 y2 ) =
max{1, |x2 y2 |} if x1 6= y1 .
Let us verify the triangle inequality. For x, y, z R2 , we have
|x2 z2 | |x2 y2 | + |y2 z2 | do (x, y) + do (y, z).
If x1 = z1 , |x2 z2 | = do (x, z), and we are done. Otherwise, y1 is different
from at least one of x1 and z1 , so do (x, y) + do (y, z) 1, and hence do (x, z)
do (x, y) + do (y, z), as required.
For 1, Bdo (x, ) = {x1 }(x2 , x2 +), so do induces the right topology.
Problem 20.3. (a) Let (x1 , x2 ) X X, and let V be any neighborhood of s =
d(x1 , x2 ). There exists > 0 such that |s t| < implies t V . Let U be
the neighborhood B(x1 , 2 ) B(x2 , 2 ) of (x1 , x2 ) in X X. For (y1 , y2 ) U , set
t = d(y1 , y2 ). Then
s = d(x1 , x2 ) d(x1 , y1 ) + d(y1 , y2 ) + d(y2 , x2 ) < t +

and

t = d(y1 , y2 ) d(y1 , x1 ) + d(x1 , x2 ) + d(x2 , y2 ) < s + .

Hence |s t| < , so t V . That is, d(U ) V , and it follows that d is continuous.
(b). Let U be open in X and x U . Take > 0 so that Bd (x, ) U . Since
d(x, x) = 0, d1 (, ) is a neighborhood of (x, x) in X 0 X 0 . Hence there are
neigborhoods V1 and V2 of x in X 0 with d(V1 V2 ) (, ). For any y V2 ,
(x, y) V1 V2 , so d(x, y) < . Thus V2 Bd (x, ) and it follows that U is open in
X 0 , as required.
Problem 21.4. In R` , a countable base of neighborhoods of x is
{[x, x + 1/n) | n Z+ }.
In Io2 , consider first x y with 0 < y < 1. A countable base of neighborhoods at
x y consists of the intervals (x c, x d) with c and d rational, 0 c < y < d 1.
Next consider x 0 with 0 < x. Here a countable base of neighborhoods consists of
the intervals (a 1, x d) with a and d rational, 0 a < x, 0 < d 1. A countable
base of neighborhoods at 0 0 consists of [0 0, 0 d) with d rational, 0 < d 1.
The remaining cases are similar.
Problem 21.8. Let > 0. Take M Z+ such that d(fn (y), f (y)) < /2 for n M
and all y X. Since f is continuous (Theorem 21.6), there is a neighborhood U of
x such that d(f (y), f (x)) < /2 for y U . Since xn x, there exists N M such
that xn U for n N . Now, for n N ,
d(fn (xn ), f (x)) d(fn (xn ), f (xn )) + d(f (xn ), f (x)) < /2 + /2 = .
Hence fn (xn ) f (x).
Problem 22.2. (a) Clearly p is surjective. (For y Y , y = p(f (y)).) Suppose
V Y and U = p1 (V ) is open in X. Then f 1 (U ) is open in Y . But f 1 (U ) =
f 1 (p1 (V )) = (p f )1 (V ) = id1
Y (V ) = V . Hence p is a quotient map.
5
 (b) The inclusion j : A X is continuous and r j is the identity of A. (The
equality r j = idA is equivalent to the condition that r(a) = a for all a A.) The
result follows from part (a).
Problem 22.3. Clearly q is continuous and surjective. Let B = R {0} A. The
restriction of q to B is a homeomorphism. Suppose V R and U = q 1 (V ) is open
in A. Then U B is open in B, so q(U B) is open in R. But q(U B) = V , so q
is a quotient map.
The set U = {x y A | y > 0} is open in A, but q(U ) = [0, ) is not open in
R. Also F = {x y A | xy = 1} is closed in A, but q(F ) = (0, ) is not closed
in R. Hence q is neither open nor closed.
Problem 22.4(a). Define g : R2 R by g(x y) = x + y 2 . Then g is a continuous
surjection, and x0 y0 x1 y1 iff g(x0 y0 ) = g(x1 y1 ). By Corollary 22.3, g
induces a continuous bijection f : X R. Also define h : R R2 by h(x) = x 0.
If p : R2 X is the quotient map, then f 1 = ph, which is continuous. Therefore
X is homeomorphic to R.
Note: problems 22.3 and 22.4 can both be done by using problem 22.2(a).
Problem 22.6. Note that if USis open in R, then U K is S open in RK . (For U
is a
union of open intervals, U = J (a , b ), and U K = J (a , b ) K .) In
particular, R K is open in RK , so K is closed in RK .
(a) Recall that a quotient space is T1 iff the elements of the partition are closed
sets. Here the elements of the partition are the singletons {x} for x / K, which are
closed in R and therefore in RK , and K itself, which is closed in RK . Hence Y is
T1 .
Now p(0) and p(K) are distinct points of Y . Let V1 and V2 be neighborhoods
of p(0) and p(K), respectively. Then U1 = p1 (V1 ) and U2 = p1 (V2 ) are open
sets in RK containing 0 and K, respectively. There exist a < 0 < b such that
(a, b) K U1 . Take n Z+ such that n1 < b. Then n1 U2 , so there exist
c < n1 < d with (c, d) U2 . (Every basic neighborhood of a point of K is an
1
interval.) We may assume that n+1 c. Then (c, n1 ) U1 U2 , so V1 V2 is
non-empty. Hence Y is not Hausdorff.
(b) By problem 17.13, a space X is Hausdorff iff the diagonal is connected in
X X. Let 1 be the diagonal in R2 , which is closed in the usual topology, and
hence in RK RK . Note that since K is closed in RK , K K is closed in RK RK .
The diagonal 2 in Y Y is not closed by part (a), but (pp)1 (2 ) = 1 K K,
which is closed, so p p is not a quotient map.
Sn
Problem 23.2. Let Bn = i=1 Ai . We prove by induction on n that Bn is connected,
the case of B1 = A1 being trivial. Suppose Bn is connected. Then Bn+1 =
Bn An+1 and Bn An+1 An An+1 6= , so Bn+1 is connected by Theorem
23.3. S S T S
Now An = Bn and Bn = A1 A1 A2 6= , so An is connected by the
same theorem.
Problem 23.8. Let be the uniform metric on R , let A R be the set of bounded
sequences, and B the set of unbounded sequences. For any x R , B (x, 1) is
contained in A if x A, and is contained in B if x B. Hence {A, B} is a
separation of R in the uniform topology, which is therefore not connected.
6
Problem 24.8. (a) Yes. Let {X }JQbe a family of path-connected spaces, and
x = (x ) and y = (y ) points of X = X . For each J, let f : [0, 1] X be
a path from x to y , and define f : I X by f (s) = (f (s)). Then f is continuous
because each f = f is, and is a path from x to y in X.
(b) No. If S R2 is as in Example 7 on p. 156, S is path connected, but the
topologists sine curve S is not.

Problem 24.11. Neither holds. In R, [0, 1] is connected but its boundary {0, 1}
is not. In R2 , the union of two closed (Euclidean) discs of radius 1 with centers
(1, 0) is connected, but its interior is the union of the two open discs, which is
not connected. To disprove the converse, consider the disconnected set Q in R. Its
interior is empty, and its boundary is R, both of which are connected. (If youd
prefer an example with non-empty interior, take Q (, 0).)

Problem 25.10. (a) The reflexive and symmetric properties are obvious. Suppose
x y and y z, and let {A, B} be a separation of X with x A. Then x y
implies y A, and now y z implies z A. Hence x z.
(b) Let C be a component. For any separation {A, B}, either C A or C B,
so x y for all x, y C. That is, C is contained in a single quasicomponent.
Suppose X is locally connected. For x X let C be the component and Q the
quasicomponent containing x. We already know that C Q. By Theorem 25.4, C
is open, as is X C (being the union of the other components of X), so {C, X C}
is a separation of X. For y Q, x C and x y imply y C, so Q C.
(c) Suppose x1 y1 and x2 y2 are in A with x1 < x2 . There exists some
x / K with x1 < x < x2 . Then A (, x) R and A (x, ) R form a
separation of A showing that x1 y1 6 x2 y2 . Hence each quasicomponent (and
therefore each component) of A is contained in n1 [0, 1] for some n Z+ , or in
{0 0, 0 1}. Since n1 [0, 1] is connected (indeed path connected), it is both a
component and a quasicomponent of A. Since {0 0, 0 1} is disconnected, the
remaining components of A are the singletons {0 0} and {0 1}. Suppose that
{U, V } is a separation of A with 0 0 U and 0 1 V . There is some n Z+
with n1 0 U and n1 1 V . But now the connected set n1 [0, 1] meets both U
and V , a contradiction. Hence the remaining quasicomponent of A is {0 0, 0 1}.
The set B {0 1} is path connected, and hence connected. Hence B =
B {0 1} is connected, and is therefore its own unique component and quasi-
component.
Let C1 = K [0, 1], C2 = K [1, 0], C3 = [0, 1] K and C4 = [1, 0] K.
1
Let m 6= n Z+ , and suppose that {U, V } is a separation of C with m 0 U
1 1 1 1 1
and n 0 V . There is some k Z+ with m k U and n k V . But now
the connected subset [0, 1] 1k of C meets both U and V , a contradiction. Hence
1 1
m 0 n 0, and it follows that C1 is contained in a single quasicomponent of
C. Similarly, each of C2 , C3 and C4 is contained in a quasicomponent. Suppose
{U, V } is a separation with C1 U . Then C1 U . But C1 contains points of C4 ,
and it follows that C1 and C4 belong to the same quasicomponent, and then similar
arguments show that C is its own unique quasicomponent. This implies that there
is no separation of C, so C is also its own unique component.

Problem 26.1. (a) If X is compact under T 0 , then it is compact under T, since every
cover of X by sets of T is a cover by sets of T 0 , and so has a finite subcover. The
7
converse does not hold: if T is the indiscrete topology, X is compact under T, while
if T 0 is the discrete topology, X is not compact under T 0 if X is infinite.
(b) Suppose that the topologies are comparable; without loss of generality, T 0
T. Then the identity map id : (X, T 0 ) (X, T) is a continuous bijection from a
compact space to a Hausdorff space, so it is a homeomorphism by Theorem 26.6.
This shows that T 0 = T.
Problem 26.7. Let A be a closed subset of X Y and B = 1 (A). We show that
X B is open. Let x X B. Then {x} Y is disjoint from A, so it is contained
in the open set X Y A. By the tube lemma, there is a neighborhood U of x
such that U Y X Y A. Now U X B, and we are done.
Problem 26.8. Suppose first that f is continuous. Since Gf is the inverse image
under the map f idY : X Y Y Y of the diagonal, and the diagonal is closed
in Y Y since Y is Hausdorff, Gf is closed.
Now suppose that Gf is closed. The hint involves the unnecessary taking of
complements, so Ill ignore it. For B Y and x X,
x f 1 (B) x f (x) Gf X B x 1 (Gf X B).
That is, f 1 (B) = 1 (Gf X B). If now B is closed in Y , then Gf X B
is closed in X Y , so f 1 (B) is closed in X by the previous problem. Hence f is
continuous.
Problem 27.1. Let A be a non-empty subset of X that is bounded above, and
suppose that A doesSnot have a least upper bound. Let B be theSset of upper bounds
for A. Then B = bB (b, ), so B is open. Also X B = aA (, a). Now
pick a0 A and b0 B; we have a0 < b0 . The collection {(, a) | a A} {B}
is a cover of [a0 , b0S] by sets open in X. Hence there exist a1 , . . . , an A such
n
that [a0 , b0 ] B i=1S (, ai ). Let a be the maximum of a0 , a1 , . . . , an . Then
n
a [a0 , b0 ] but a
/ B i=1 (, ai ), a contradiction.
Problem 27.4. Let (X, d) be a connected metric space and x0 6= x1 X. Let r =
d(x0 , x1 ) > 0. Define f : X R by f (x) = d(x0 , x). Then f is continuous, f (x0 ) =
0 and f (x1 ) = r, so by the Intermediate Value Theorem, the image of f contains
the interval [0, r] and is therefore uncountable. Hence X is uncountable.
Problem 28.1. Let be the uniform metric on R , and let A R be the set
consisting of all sequences of 0s and 1s. Suppose first that x A. For any y A
different from x, (x, y) = 1, so B (x, 1) A = {x} and x is not a limit point of A.
If x / A, pick m Z+ such that xm 6= 0 and xm 6= 1. Let be the minimum of
|xm | and |1 xm |. Then B (x, ) is disjoint from A, so again x is not a limit point
of A.
Problem 29.3. The answer to the first part is no. Let X be the rationals with
the discrete topology, Y the rationals with the usual topology, and f the identity.
Certainly f is a continuous surjection. For x X, {x} is both a neighborhood of x
and a compact set, so X is locally compact. I said you could assume without proof
that Q is not locally compact, but Ill give a proof for completeness. If Q is locally
compact at 0, then since Q is Hausdorff there exist a < 0 < b such that the closure
of (a, b) Q relative to Q is compact. But the relative closure is [a, b] Q, which is
not closed in R and therefore not compact.
8
 If f is continuous and open then f (X) is locally compact. Suppose y = f (x)
f (X). There is a neigborhood U of x and a compact set C X with U C. Now
f (U ) is open in f (X), f (U ) f (C), and f (C) is compact by Theorem 26.5.

Problem 30.2. Let J be the set of all pairs (m, n) of positive integers such that
there is some C C with Bm C Bn , and for (m, n) J pick Cm,n C with
Bm Cm,n Bn . Then {Cm,n | (m, n) J} is a countable subcollection of C; we
must show that it is a basis. Let x X and let U be any neighborhood of x. Since
B = {Bn } is a basis, there is some n with x Bn U . Since C is a basis, there
is some C C with x C Bn . Finally, since B is a basis, there is some m with
x Bm C. Then (m, n) J, and x Bm Cm,n Bn U .

Problem 30.5(a). Let d be a metric for the space X, and let D be a countable dense
subset of X. Then {Bd (x, 1/n) | x D, n Z+ } is a countable collextion of open
subsets of X; we show that it is a basis. Let x X and let U be a neigborhood
of x. There is some n Z+ such that Bd (x, 2/n) U . Since D is dense, there is
some y D with d(x, y) < 1/n. Now x Bd (y, 1/n) Bd (x, 2/n) U , and we
are done.

Problem 30.16. (a) We show that RJ is separable, where JS= (0, 1]. Elements
of RJ will be written as functions f : J R. Define : nZ+ Qn RJ by
(q1 qn )(s) = qdnse . (Thus (q1 qn ) is a rational-valued step function.)
We show that the countable Qset Im is dense. It is enough to show that any non-
empty basis element U = sJ Us meets Im . Here Us1 , . . . , Usk are non-empty
open subsets of R for some s1 , . . . , sk J, and Us = R for s / {s1 , . . . , sk }. Take
n so large that dnsi e 6= dnsj e for i 6= j. For 1 m n, there is at most one i,
1 i k, with dnsi e = m. If there is such an i, let qm be a rational number in
Usi , and if not set qm = 0. Then (q1 qn ) U .
(b) Let D be a dense subset of RJ . Define : J P(D) by () = 1 ((0, ))
D. If 6= J, 1 ((0, )) 1 ((, 0)) is a non-empty open set, so it meets
D. Any point of 1 ((0, )) 1 ((, 0)) D is in () (), so is injective
and hence D is uncountable.

Problem 33.4. If f exists, thenTA = f 1 (0) is closed. For n Z+ , set Un =

f 1 ([0, n1 )), an open set. Then n=1 Un = A, so A is a G . Suppose then that A
T
is a closedTG . We show first that A = n=1 Un where Un is open and Un+1 Un .

Let A = n=1 Vn , Vn open, and set U1 = V1 . Suppose that open sets U1 , . . . , Un
have been constructed with Ui+1 Ui for 1 i < n and A Un Vn . Since
Un Vn+1 is an open set containing A, there is an open Un+1 containing A with
Un+1 Un Vn+1 . Inductively, we construct Un for all n Z+ with the desired
properties.
Let U0 = X, and consider the closed sets Bn = Un1 Un for n > 0 and
Cn =SUn Un for n 0. We have Bn Bn+1 = Cn , Bn Bm = for m > n + 1,

and n=1 Bn = X A. Since Cn1 and Cn are disjoint closed subsets of the normal
1
space Bn , there is a continuous function fn : Bn [ n+1 , n1 ] such that fn (x) = n1
1
for x Cn1 and fn (x) = n+1 for x Cn . For x Bn Bn+1 , fn (x) = fn+1 (x),
so there is a well-defined function f 0 : X A (0, 1] with f 0 | Bn = fn . To see
that f 0 is continuous, we can either observe that {Bn } is locally finite (see problem
18.9), or use the following cheap trick. By the pasting lemma, f 0 is continuous
9
 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)
connected
path connected
locally connected
locally path connected
compact
limit point compact
locally compact T2
Hausdorff
regular
completely regular
normal ?
first-countable
second-countable
Lindelof
separable
locally metrizable
metrizable
Table 1. Answers to Problem 4S.1

on Bn BSn+1 = Un1 Un+1 , and therefore on the open set Un1 Un+1 . But

X A = n=1 Un1 Un+1 .
Now extend f 0 to f : X [0, 1] by setting f (x) = 0 for x A. Since the
restriction of f to the open set X A is continuous, f is continuous at each point
of X A. Also f is continuous at each point of A since f (Un ) [0, n1 ).

Problem 33.5. It follows from the previous problem that if such an f exists A and B
are closed G sets, and obviously they are disjoint. Suppose then that A and B are
closed, disjoint G sets. By the previous problem there are continuous functions f1 ,
f2 : X [0, 1] such that f1 (x) = 0 iff x A and f2 (x) = 1 iff x B. By Urysohns
Lemma, there is a continuous g : X [0, 1] with g(x) = 0 if x A and g(x) = 1 if
x B. Set (
min{ 12 , max{f1 (x), g(x)}} if g(x) 21 ;
f (x) =
max{ 21 , min{f2 (x), g(x)}} if g(x) 21 .
You can check that f is well-defined (hence continuous), and has the desired prop-
erties.

Problem 33.9. In the uniform topology, RJ is normal, so there is a continuous

function f : RJ [0, 1] that vanishes outside B(0, 1) and has f (0) = 1. Now give
RJ the box topology. Since this is finer than the usual topology, f is still continuous,
J
and it vanishes outside
Q (1, 1) . Let U be a neighborhood of a point a, andJ take Ja
box neighborhood (a , a + ) contained in U . The function h : R R
defined by h(x) = ((x a )/ ) is easily seen to be a homeomorphism, and the
continuous function g = f h vanishes outside U and has g(a) = 1.

Problems from the supplementary exercises to Chapter 4 will be numbered as

4S.x.
10
Problem 4S.1. The answers are summarised in Table 1. We have the following
implications:
path connected connected
locally path connected locally connected
compact limit point compact, locally compact and Lindelof
compact and Hausdorff normal
regular and Lindelof normal
normal completely regular regular Hausdorff
second-countable first-countable, Lindelof and separable
metrizable locally metrizable and normal
Lindelof and metrizable second countable
separable and metrizable second countable
locally metrizable first countable
In the table, and both mean that the space has the property, but indicates
that this follows from other entries in the same column by the above implications.
Similarly, and both mean the space does not have the property, with indi-
cating that this follows from other entries. We shall make use of the following easy
facts.
(1) If X is a linearly ordered set in which every non-greatest element has an
immediate successor, then X is totally disconnected in the order topology.
In particular, this is true of a well-ordered set.
(2) A totally disconnected space with at least two points is disconnected.
(3) A totally disconnected space is locally connected iff it is discrete.
(4) If X Y has any of the properties except limit point compactness, so do
X and Y .
Below we justify the 90 and entries.
(a) S
There is a non-least element of S with no immediate predecessor, so this
space is neither connected nor locally connected by (1) (3) above. That it
is limit point compact but not compact is shown in Example 2 of 28. For
any S , [0 , ] (where 0 is the least element) is a neighborhood of
, and is compact. Hence S is locally compact. It is normal by Theorem
32.4. It is not Lindelof because the open cover {[0 , ) | S } has no
countable subcover. If A S is countable, then A has an upper bound
and A [0 , ] 6= S , so S is not separable. It is locally metrizable
because each has the neighborhood [0 , ] which is regular and second-
countable (because it has only countably many intervals), and therefore
metrizable by Theorem 34.1. Finally, as observed in Example 3 of 28, S
is not metrizable because it is limit point compact but not compact.
(b) S
This space is neither connected nor locally connected by (1) (3) above. It
is compact by Theorem 27.1, and Hausdorff because every order topology is
Hausdorff. It is not first countable because it does not satisfy the sequence
lemma: S , but any sequence in S has an upper bound in S , and
therefore does not converge to . If A is any countable subset of S then
11
 A S has an upper bound S . Hence A [0 , ] {} = 6 S , so S
is not separable.
(c) S S
This space is not normal by Example 2 of 32. All other negative results
follow from (4) above and the first two columns of the table. To show that
it is limit point compact, it is enough to show that any countably infinite
subset A has a limit point. Now 1 (A) is countable, so it has an upper
bound S . Now A is contained in the compact space [0 , ] S , and
so has a limit point. Any point has a neighborhood of the form [0 , ] S ,
so S S is locally compact. Finally, S S is completely regular because
it is a product of completely regular spaces.
(d) The ordered square Io2
Example 6 of 24 shows that this space is connected but not path connected.
It has a basis consisting of intervals, which are connected since Io2 is a linear
continuum. We show that the path components of Io2 are the sets x I,
x I; since these are not open sets, Io2 is not locally path connected. Each
such set is homeomorphic to I, so it is path connected. Suppose f is a path
from x1 y1 to x2 y2 with x1 < x2 . By the Intermediate Value Theorem
24.3, the image of f contains (x1 , x2 ) I. For x1 < x < x2 , the nonempty
open subset f 1 (x (0, 1)) of I contains a rational number qx , and we get
an injection x 7 qx of (x1 , x2 ) into Q, which is absurd.
This space is compact by Theorem 27.1, and Hausdorff because every
order topology is Hausdorff. That it is first countable is Problem 21.4. If
D is any dense subset of Io2 , D meets x (0, 1) for any x I, so 1 maps
D onto I. Therefore Io2 is not seperable. Finally, any neighborhood of
0 1 contains some set [a, b] I, which is homeomorphic to Io2 , and hence
Lindelof but not second countable, and therefore not metrizable. Thus Io2
is not locally metrizable.
(e) R`
This space is totally disconnected; for x < y the separation

{(, y), [y, )}

shows that x and y are in different components. Hence R` is neither con-

nected nor locally connected by (2) and (3). The subset Z has no limit
point, so R` is not limit point compact. Being Hausdorff, if it is locally
compact, there is some > 0 such that [0, ) = [0, ) is compact. But
{[0, ) | 0 < < ) is an open cover of [0, ) with no finite subcover. By Ex-
ample 2 of 31, R` is normal, and by Example 3 of 30 it is first countable,
Lindelof and separable, but not second countable. Any non-empty open
subset of R` contains an interval (a, b), which in the subspace topology is
homeomorphic to R` . Since (a, b) is separable but not second countable, it
is not metrizable, and so R` is not locally metrizable.
(f) R2`
This space is not normal by Example 3 of 31, and it is not limit point
compact because Z2 has no limit point. Since R` is neither connected,
locally connected, locally compact nor locally metrizable, the same is true
of R2` ; since R` is completely regular, first countable and separable, so is
R2` .
12
(g) R in the product topology
This space is path connected and locally path connected since it is a product
of path connected and locally path connected spaces. No set containing a
neighborhood of the origin is limit point compact, since it contains an
infinite set 0 0 Z 0 0 with no limit point. This
implies that R is neither limit point compact nor locally compact. It is
second countable by Theorem 30.2, and metrizable by Theorem 20.5.
(h) R in the uniform topology
This space is not connected by Problem 23.8. For any x R and > 0, we
show that B (x, ) is path connected, so this space is locally path connected.
For any y B (x, ), let d = (x, y) < and define f : I R by f (t) =
(fn (t)) = ((1 t)xn + tyn ). For s, t I we have |fn (s) fn (t)| d|s t|,
and hence (f (s), f (t)) d|s t|. Therefore f is continuous, and taking
t = 0 shows that f maps into B (x, ); it is a path from x to y, so the proof
is complete.
For any r with 0 < r 21 , let Ar be the set of all a = (an ) R
with an = r for all n. For a 6= b Ar , (a, b) = 2r. Suppose that x
is a limit point of Ar . Take a Ar with (x, a) < r and a 6= x. Then
B (x, r) Ar = {a}, and B (x, (x, a)) Ar = , a contradiction. It follows
that this space is neither limit point compact nor locally compact. If D is
any dense set, for each a A1/2 choose f (a) D B (a, 1/2). Then f is
an injection from A1/2 to D, so R is not separable. It is metrizable by
definition of the uniform topology.
(i) R in the box topology
This space is not connected by Example 6 of 23; recall from this example
that {A, B} is a separation, where A is the set of bounded sequences and
B is the set of unbounded sequences. For any a R with an 6= 0 for all
n, the function ha : R R given by ha (x) = (an xn ) is easily seen to
be a homeomorphism. Any neighborhood U of 0 contains a point x with
xn 6= 0 for all n. Let an = xn /n. The homeomorphism ha takes 0 to 0 and
the sequence (n) to x, so 0 and x lie on opposite sides of the separation
{ha (A), ha (B)}, and this space is not locally connected.
Let D = {0, 1} and consider the set D of all sequences of 0s and 1s.
For any x R , there Q is a neighborhood Un of xn with Un D {xn } for
each n. Now U = Un is a box neighborhood of x with U D {x}.
Thus D has no limit points, and this space is not limit point compact.
For any neighborhood U of 0, take a U with an 6= 0 for all n. The
homeomorphism ha takes D into U , so this space is not locally compact.
It is completely regular by Exercise 33.9; it is unknown whether it is normal:
see Exercise 32.5. It is not first countable by Example 1 of 21, and it is
neither Lindelof nor separable because the coarser uniform topology has
neither of these properties.
(j) RI in the product topology, where I = [0, 1]
This space is path connected and locally path connected since it is a product
of path connected and locally path connected spaces. No set containing a
neighborhood Q of the origin is limit point compact, since it contains an
infinite set sI As , where some As0 is Z and As = {0} for s 6= s0 , with no
limit point. This implies that RI is neither limit point compact nor locally

13
 compact. It is completely regular because it is a product of completely
regular spaces, and not normal by Example 1 of 32 (see the supplementary
notes). It is not first countable by Example 2 of 21, and is separable by
Exercise 30.16.
(k) RK
The open set (0, ) inherits its usual topology, in which it is connected, so
(0, ) = [0, ) is connected. The open set R K also inherits its usual
topology, which has a number of consequences. One component of R K
is (, 0], which is not open in RK , so RK is not locally connected, but
as the union of the connected subsets (, 0] and [0, ) it is connected.
As the union of the open metrizable subsets (0, ) and R K, it is locally
metrizable.
Since the identity, considered as a map from RK to R, is continuous, any
connected subspace of RK is connected in the usual topology, and hence
convex. Suppose, for a contradiction, that f : I RK is a path with
f (0) 0 and f (1) > 0. If f (s) < 0, there is some t > s with f (t) = 0,
since f ([s, 1]) is connected. Since f 1 ((, 0]) is closed, it has a greatest
element s0 < 1, and f ((s0 , 1]) (0, ). Since R K is a neighborhood of
0, there is some s > s0 with f ([s0 , s]) R K. But f ([s0 , s]) is connected,
so [0, f (s)] f ([s0 , s]), a contradiction. Hence RK is not path connected.
That RK is Hausdorff but not regular is Example 1 of 31. No subset of
K has a limit point in RK , so no set containing infinitely many points of
K (in particular RK ) is limit point compact. If RK were locally compact,
then since it is Hausdorff there would be a neighborhood U of 0 with U
compact. But U contains infinitely many points of K, a contradiction.
Finally RK is second countable since it has a basis consisting of all sets
(a, b) and (a, b) K with a and b rational.

The answers to Problems 4S.24S.6 are summarized in Table 2. The column

headings 4A, 4C and 4O refer to arbitrary, closed and open subspaces in Problem
4S.4, respectively, and 5A, 5C and 5F to arbitrary, countable and finite products
in Problem 4S.5. In the columns for Problems 4S.2 and 4S.3, the use of and
indicates implications within the column as before; in the columns for Problems 4S.4
and 4S.5, it indicates the trivial implications between the parts of each problem.
There are 83 entries in need of justification.

Problem 4S.2. The one is obvious, and from Problem 4S.1, R in the uniform
topology gives all entries except for local connectedness. The space K = {0}
{ n1 | n Z+ } R is metrizable but not locally connected.

Problem 4S.3. The entries are obvious, and from Problem 4S.1, S gives all
entries.

Problem 4S.4. The space R is path-connected and locally path-connected, while its
closed subspace K is neither connected nor locally connected, and its open subspace
R{0} is not connected. This gives the negative entries in the first 4 rows. That an
open subset of a locally (path) connected space is locally (path) connected follows
trivially from the definitions.
The space [0, 1] is compact (hence limit-point compact), but its open subspace
(0, 1) is not limit-point compact (hence not compact), and the subspace Q of the
14
 2 3 4A 4C 4O 5A 5C 5F 6
connected
path connected
locally connected
locally path connected
compact
limit point compact
locally compact T2
Hausdorff
regular
completely regular
normal
first-countable
second-countable
Lindelof
separable
locally metrizable
metrizable
Table 2. Answers to Problems 4S.24S.6

locally compact Hausdorff space R is not locally compact (see the answer to Problem
29.3). That a closed subset of a compact space is compact is Theorem 26.2, and
that a closed or open subset of a locally compact Hausdorff space is locally compact
is Corollary 29.3. It is easy to see that a closed subset A of a limit point compact
space X is limit point compact: if B is an infinite subset of A and x is a limit point
of B in X, then x A and hence is a limit point of B in A.
That a subspace of a Hausdorff, regular or completely regular space is of the
same kind is Theorem 31.2 or 33.2, and that a closed subspace of a normal space
is normal is easy. Examples 1 and 2 of 32 both give non-normal open subsets of
normal spaces.
That a subspace of a first or second countable space is of the same kind is
Theorem 30.2, and is easy to see that a closed subspace of a Lindelof space is
Lindelof, and that an open subspace of a separable space is seperable. Example
5 of 30 gives an open subspace of a Lindelof space that is not Lindelof. The
Sorgenfrey plane R2` is separable, but the closed subspace {x (x) | x R} is
uncountable and discrete, so it is not separable.
Finally, it is easy to see that a subspace of a metrizable space is metrizable (this
is Problem 21.1), and it follows that a subspace of a locally metrizable space is
locally metrizable.

Problem 4S.5. That a product of connected spaces is connected is Problem 23.10,

and the corresponding result for path connected spaces is Problem 24.8(a). That a
finite product of locally (path) connected spaces is locally (path) connected follows,
since in the finite case any product of open sets is open. Let X be a space that
is locally connected but not connected, and let Q J be an infinite set. If U is any
non-empty open subset of X J then U contains U where U = X for all but
15
finitely many . For any with U = X, the projection maps U onto X, so U
is not connected. The same argument works for local path-connectedness.
That a product of compact spaces is compact is Tychonoffs Theorem. In Exer-
cise 28.3, Munkres refers you to Example 112 of Steen and Seebach for a product
of two limit point compact spaces that is not limit point compact, and I can do no
better. (The example starts from the Stone-Cech compactification of the integers,
and it gets worse from there.) That a finite product of locally compact spaces is
compact follows from (the finite case of) Tychonoff because in the finite case any
product of open sets is open. Let X be a space that is locally compact Hausdorff
but not compact, and letQ J be an infinite set. If U is any non-empty open subset
of X J then U contains U where U = X for all but finitely many . For any
with U = X, the projection maps U onto X, so U is not compact.
That a product of Hausdorff, regular or completely regular spaces is of the same
kind is Theorem 31.2 or 33.2, while Example 2 of 32 gives a product of two normal
spaces that is not normal. A countable product of first or second countable spaces
is of the same kind by Theorem 30.2, while R is second countable but RI is not
first countable (problem 4S.1(j)). A product of two Lindelof spaces need not be
Lindelof by Example 4 of 30. That a product of separable spaces indexed by I
(and hence any countable product) is seperable is an easy adaptation of the solution
to Problem 30.16(a), while part (b) of that problem shows that this is not the case
for arbitrary products. That a countable product of metrizable spaces is metrizable
was proved in Theorem N20.1 in the notes, and it follows that a finite product of
locally metrizable spaces is locally metrizable by an argument seen twice already.
An uncountable product of metrizable spaces need not be metrizable by Example 2
of 21. Let X be a space that is locally metrizable but not metrizable (for instance,
S or RK by problem 4S.1), and let J be an infinite set. Any non-empty open
subset of X J contains a subspace homeomorphic to X, so U is not metrizable.

Problem 4S.6. That connectedness, path connectedness and compactness are pre-
served by continuous maps is Theorem 23.5, Problem 24.8(a) and Theorem 26.5,
and the proof for the Lindelof property is virtually the same as for compactness.
That the continuous image of a separable space is separable follows from the rela-
tion f (A) f (A) for continuous f . Most of the negative entries can be seen by
the following cheap trick. Suppose some property is posessed by all discrete spaces,
and that X is a space not posessing it. If Y is the set X with the discrete topology,
the identity considered as a map Y X shows that the property is not preseved
by continuous maps. Any discrete space is trivially locally connected, locally path
connected and locally compact. It is also metrizable, and hence locally metrizable,
first countable, normal, completely regular, regular and Hausdorff. The same trick
will work for second countability provided we can find a countable space X that is
not second countable. The following is Example 26 of Steen and Seebach, who call
it Arens-Fort space. As a set, X = Z2 . The open sets are of two kinds.
(1) Any set not containing 0 0.
(2) A set which, for all but finitely many integers m, contains all but finitely
many points of the column {m} Z.
This is easily seen to be a topology, and clearly 0 0 is in the closure of X {0 0}.
We show that no sequence (xn ) in X {0 0} converges to 0 0, so X is not
even first countable. If there are finitely many columns containing all the xn , then
16
X {xn | n Z+ } is a neighborhood of 00 showing that (xn ) does not converge to
0 0. Otherwise, we can take a subsequence (xnk ) such that each column contains
at most one term, and then X {xnk | k Z+ } is a neighborhood of 0 0 showing
that (xnk ), and hence (xn ), does not converge to 0 0.
Finally, it is observed in Example 1 of 28 that X = Z+ Y is limit point
compact, where Y is an indiscrete two-point space, and projection on the first
factor is a continuous map onto the non-compact space Z+ . (It is easy to see that
countable compactness is preserved by continuous maps, so X has to be non-T1
here.)

17