1.

INTRODUCTION TO IPGCL & PPCL

Life depends on energy, energy is a source that can neither be created nor destroyed. It
merely changes its shape and form, when captured energy generates power.To supply
power to the citizens of Delhi, earlier it was Delhi Electric Supply Undertaking(DESU)
which was formed in 1958 which was subsequently converted into Dehi Vidyut Board
(DVB) wef 24.02.97.DVB was split into 6 companies,viz., BSES Rajdhani Power
Limited, BSES Yamuna Power Limited, North Delhi Power Limited, Delhi Transco
Limited, Indraprastha Power Generation Company Limited, and Delhi power Company
Limited .
PPCL
To bridge the gap between demand and supply and to have reliable supply to capital city
a 330 MW combined cycle gas turbine power project was set up on fast track basis. This
plant consist of 2 *104 MW frame 9-E gas turbine units commissioned in 2002-03 and 1
*122 MW steam gas units commissioned in 2003-04. Gas supply has been tied up with
GAIL through HBJ pipeline.

BRIEF HISTORY of THE POWER PLANT

A contract was signed with BHEL for installation of 330 MW gas based power plant in
the vicinity of 220V,I.P extension. The station is comprised of 2*104MW gas turbine of
GT- frame 9E and 1*122MW steam turbine. The waste heat emanating from gas turbine
is being utilized to generate 122MW power through steam turbine. The hot gases of 560
degree C with a mass flow of approx. 14000 metric ton per hour is passed through 0.2
nos waste heat recovery boiler to generate steam.
The environmental friendly quality power generation through this station is pumped to
220KV sub station of DELHI Transco limited and entire power is being utilized by
citizen of DELHI.

PLANT OVERVIEW
PPCL combine cycle power plant uses both steam and gas to generate power. These
combine cycle plants produced higher energy conversion efficiency than gas or steam
alone plants. In PPCL a gas turbine generator generates electricity and waste heat is used
to make the steam to make additional electricity via steam turbine, the last step enhances
the efficiency of electricity generator. Typically, combine cycle power plants utilizes heat
from the gas turbine to generate steam. In combine cycle power plant ,the heat of the gas
turbine exhaust is used to generate steam by passing it through heat recovery steam
generator(HRSG) with live temperature between 420 degree C and 580 degree C. In case
of gas turbine Brayton cycle is used and Rankine cycle is used in case of steam turbine.
Electronic mark-5 processor is used in case of both GT-1 and GT-2.
CAPACITY OF GT 1 = 104MW
CAPACITY OF GT 2 = 104MW
CAPACITY OF STG = 122MW
TOTAL CAPACITY= 330MW

FUEL
The primary fuel for gas turbine is natural gas supplied by GAIL through HBJ pipeline.
The gas is received at GAIL terminal installed in the vicinity of power station. The GAIL
is committed to supply 1.75 MCMD gas on daily basis. The calorific value of natural gas
received for power generation is in the band of 8200-8500 kilocalories.
The secondry fuel of gas turbine is HSD/NAPTHA which is to be used only in the case
when no supply of gas is available. De-mineralized water is injected to control NOx
while machine is operated in liquid fuel.

RAW WATER
Raw water requirement is met through sewage treated water being drawn mainly from
DELHI gate sewage treated plant. the DM water requirement for steam generation is met
up through sewage treated water by treating this through reverse osmosis (RO) de
mineralized process.
 2. INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINE

GAS TURBINE PLANT

2.1 Introduction
The gas turbine is a common form of heat engine working with a series of processes
consisting of compression of air taken from atmosphere, increase of working medium
temperature by constant pressure ignition of fuel in combustion chamber, expansion of SI
and IC engines in working medium and combustion, but it is like steam turbine in its
aspect of the steady flow of the working medium. It was in 1939, Brown Beaver
developed the first industrial duty gas turbine. The out put being 4000 KW with open
cycle efficiency of 18%. The development in the science of aerodynamics and metallurgy
significantly contributed to increased compression and expansion efficiency in the recent
years.

At PPCL, the GE-Alsthom make Gas Turbine (Model 9E) has an operating efficiency of
31% and 49% in open cycle and combined cycle mode respectively when natural gas is
used as fuel. Today gas turbine unit sizes with output above 250 MW at ISO conditions
have been designed and developed. Thus the advances in metallurgical technology have
brought with a good competitive edge over conventional steam cycle power plant.
PPCL Gas Turbine Plant
The modern gas turbine plants are commonly available in package form with few
functional sub assemblies.
The 9E model GEC-Alsthom package consists of
Control compartment
Accessory compartment
Turbine compartment
Inlet exhaust system
Load package
Generator excitation compartment
CO2 fire protection unit

Each station component is a factory assembled pre-tested assembly & is housed in all
weather & acoustic proof enclosure
COMBINED CYCLE
Combine cycle power plant integrates two power conversion cycle-Brayton cycle (Gas
turbine) and Rankine cycle (Steam turbine) with the principal objective of increasing
overall plant efficiency.
.
BRAYTON CYCLE
Gas turbine plants operate on this cycle in which air is compressed (process 1-2, in P-V
diagram of figure-1B). This compressed air is heated in the combustor by burning fuel,
where plant of compressed air is used for combustion (process 2-3) and the flue gases
produced are allowed to expand in the turbine (process 3-4), which is coupled with the
generator. In modern gas turbines the temp. of the exhaust gases is in the range of 500 °C
to 550 ° C

RANKINE CYCLE
The conversion of heat energy to mechanical energy with the aid of steam is based on this
thermodynamic cycle.
In its simplest form the cycle works as follows:
The initial stage of working fluid is water, which at a certain temperature is pressurized
by a pump (process 3-4) and fed to the boiler, In the boiler the pressurized water is heated
at constant pressure (process 4-5-6-1).Superheated steam (generated at point-1) is
expanded in the turbine (process1-2),which is coupled with generator. Modern steam
power plants have steam temperature in the range of 500°C to 550°C at the inlet of the
turbine.
COMBINING TWO CYCLES TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY
We have seen in the above two cycles that exhaust is at temperature of 500-550 °C and in
Rankine cycle heat is required to generate steam at the temperature of 500-550 °C.
Therefore gas turbine exhaust heat can be recovered using a waste heat recovery boiler to
run a steam turbine on Rankine cycle. If efficiency of gas turbine cycle (when natural gas
is used as fuel) is 31% and the efficiency of Rankine cycle is 35%, then over all
efficiency comes to 49%. Conventional fossil fuel fired boiler of the steam power plant is
replaced with a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). Exhaust gas from the gas turbine
is led to the HRSG where heat in exhaust gas is utilized to produce steam at desired
parameters as required by the steam turbine.

ADVANTAGES OF GAS TURBINE PLANT

Some of the advantages are quite obvious, such as fast operation, minimum site
investment. Low installation cost owing to standardization, factory assembly and test.
This makes the installation of the station easy and keeps the cost per installed kilowatt
low because the package power station is quickly ready to be put in operation. Site
implementation includes one simple and robust structure to get unit alignment.
Transport: Package concept makes easier shipping, handling, because of its robustness.
Low standby cost: fast start up and shut down reduce conventional stand by cost. The
power requirements to keep the plant in standby condition are significantly lower than
those for other types of prime movers.
Maximum application flexibility: The package plant may be operated either in parallel
with existing plants or as a completely isolated station. These units have been used,
widely for base, peaking and even emergency service. The station can be equipped with
remote control for starting, synchronizing & loading.
Control reliability: the microcomputer based control, with an integrated temperature
system (ITS) provides accurate control, quick protection and complete sequential start up
& shut down & operation. Maintenance Cost is comparatively low.

3. PPCL POWER PLANT:CONTROL SYSTEM

3.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE POWER PLANT SYTEM

The basic functional sub assemblies of GT Poer Plant Control system are:
Control compartment
The control compartment contains the equipment needed to provide control indication
and protection functions. Arrangement can be made for manual operation or for remote
unattended operation. The control compartment is located at central control room with
control interface of turbine control panel, generator control panel, batteries and battery
charger.

Accessory compartment
The accessory compartment, contains the mechanical and control elements necessary to
allow the gas turbine to be a self, contained operational station. The major components
located in the accessory compartment are the lubricating oil system and reservoir, lube oil
cooler, starting means, accessory gear fuel system, turbine gauge panel, hydraulic system
and atomizing air system, water system, cranking motor exhaust frame blowers (88TK- 1,
88 TK-2.)

Turbine compartment
The gas turbine has a 17 stage axial compressor. The compressor rotor consists of
individual discs for each stage, and is connected by through bolts to the forward and aft
stub shafts. The turbine rotor consists of three stages, with one wheel for each bucket
stage. The turbine rotor wheels are assembled by through bolts similar to the compressor,
and with two spacers, one between the first and second stage wheels, and the other
between the second and the third stage wheels.

The entire stator stages utilize precision cast, segmented nozzles, with the 2nd and 3rd
stage segments supported from the stationary shrouds. This arrangement removes the hot
gas path from direct contact with the turbine shell.
The turbine rotor stages also have precision cast, long shank buckets (air foils on the
compressor wheels are called blades, those on turbine wheels are called buckets) and this
feature effectively shields the wheel rims and bucket dovetails from the high temperature
of the main gas steam. The gas turbine unit and shells are split and flanged horizontally
for convenience of disassembly. Compressor discharge air is contained by the discharge
casing, combustion wrapper, and turbine shell. The 14 combustion liners are mounted
completely inside the combustion wrapper, which eliminates the need for combustion
cans.

Inlet and exhaust system

The inlet arrangement includes inlet air filters, silencing, ducting and trash screens to
protect the compressor from debris. The inlet arrangements generally comes out from the
back of the inlet air house, over the control and accessory compartments, and down to the
inlet plenum, which is mounted on the turbine base. The exhaust arrangement includes
the ducting, silencing, and necessary expansion joints. The exhaust gases exit from the
side to exhaust plenum, which is mounted separately on its own base, and are directed
straight out to the exhaust arrangement.

Load package
The load package consists of an air-cooled, synchronous generator and associated
equipment. The generator also has roof-mounted terminals for out going leads. An air-
cooled open ventilation of generator and associated equipments can be used in the load
compartment

Fire protection unit

The fire protection system consisting of on base piping, detectors etc. capable of
distributing a fire extinguishing agent (CO2, or Halon) in all the compartments of the gas
turbine and local control room. The bulk of fire extinguishing agent stage unit is located
near gas turbine with one main CO2 skid.

OPERATION
The package plant has been designed to provide maximum operational flexibility and
simplicity. The actual operating sequence can be best understood by considering the four
basic operating modes: Stand By, Start, Run and Shutdown.

Stand by
During stand by, each component must be maintained in a state, which allows for
immediate start up operation if needed.
All the station components that are affected by low temperature or moisture are fully
protected during stand by. The lubricating oil and the control compartment are maintained
at a minimum temperature. The batteries are kept fully charged and heated. Turbine
compartment is also maintained hot.
Starting the unit
Start-up can be ordered either remote or from the control compartment. (LCR) The
starting sequence is given below: The starting system consists of an induction motor and
torque converter coupled to the accessory gear. The staring system is energized and
connected to the turbine up to the value from which Turbine becomes self-sustaining. At
about 12% normal speed, fuel is injected and ignited. To avoid thermal shocks in hot
parts of turbine, the unit is accelerated under acceleration mode after a short Warm-up
period. When the turbine becomes self-sustaining, the gas turbine speeding up continues,
but the starting system (Cranking motor) is automatically made off at 60% speed.
Running
The operator at either the local or remote station has the option of holding the station at
spinning reserve, or loading to a point, or running under maximum load exhaust
temperature control. The load can be varied manually over the entire load range.

Shut down
Upon initiation of a normal shut down signal, either locally or remotely, the following
events occur:
1. The generator load is gradually reduced to zero.
2. The generator breaker is opened.
3. The fuel supply is reduced & then is shut off.
4. The gas turbine coasting down to rest.

The starting system components also provide slow speed rotation of the turbine for cool
down purposes after shut down. A crank and restart can be initiated at any time below
10% speed & can also be started above 95% speed.

3.2 GAS TURBINE EQUIPMENT DATA SUMMARY

COMPRESSOR SECTION
 Seventeen (17

Number of compressor stages

Compressor type Axial flow, heavy duty
Inlet guide vanes Modulated

TURBINE SECTION
Number of turbine stages Three (3)
Casing splits Horizontal
Nozzles Fixed area

COMBUSTION SECTION
Type Fourteen (14) multiple combustors, reverse flow design
Fuel nozzles One (1) per combustion chamber i.e. (one for gas & one for
liquid)
Spark plugs Two-(2) electrode type, spring-injected self-retracting.
Flame detectors Four (4),ultra-violet type

BEARING ASSEMBLIES
Quantity Three (3) Lubrication Pressure lubrication No.1 bearing assembly (Located in
inlet casing assembly) Active and inactive thrust and journal, all contained in one
assembly Journal Elliptical Active thrust Tilting pad, self-equalizing Inactive thrust
Tapered land No.2 bearing assembly (Located in the compressor discharge casing)
Elliptical journal No.3 bearing assembly (Located in the exhaust frame) Journal, tilting
pad.
STARTING SYSTEM
Starting device Electrical starting motor 1 MW drive Torque converter Hydraulic with
adjustor drive Fuel pump Accessory gear-driven, Continuous out put screw type pump
Gas stop ratio & control valve Electro hydraulic servo-control

CONTROL SYSTEM
SPEEDTRONIC MARK IV control system

3.3 COMPRESSOR SECTION

GENERAL
The axial-flow compressor section consists of the compressor rotor and the casing.
Included within the compressor casing are inlet guide vanes, the 17 stages of rotor and
stator blading, and the exit guide vanes.
In the compressor, air is confined to the space between the rotor and stator blading where
it is compressed in stages by a series of alternate rotating (rotor) and stationary (stator)
airfoil-shaped blades. The rotor blades supply the force needed to compress the air in
each stage and the stator blades guide the air so that it enters in the following rotor stage
at the proper angle. The compressed air exits through the compressor-discharge casing to
the combustion chambers. Air is extracted from the compressor for turbine bearing
cooling sealing, and for pulsation control during start-up (to avoid surging). Since
minimum clearance between rotor and stator provides best performance in a compressor,
parts have to be assembled very accurately.

3.4 COMBUSTION SECTION

The combustion system is of the reverse flow type with 14 combustion chambers
arranged around the periphery of the compressor discharge casing. This system also
includes fuel nozzles, spark plug ignition system, flame detectors, and crossfire tubes.
Hot gases, generated from burning in combustion chambers, are used to drive the turbine.
High-pressure air from the compressor discharge is directed around the transition pieces
and into the combustion chambers inlets. This air enters the combustion zone through
metering holes for proper fuel combustion and through slots to cool the combustion liner.
Fuel is supplied to each combustion chamber through a nozzle designed to disperse and
mix the fuel with the proper amount of combustion air Orientation of the combustion
around the periphery of the compressor is shown on figure CS-
1.Combustion chambers are numbered counter-clockwise when viewed looking down-
stream and starting from the top of the machine. Spark plug and flame detectors

locations are also shown.

3.5 TURBINE SECTION

The three-stage turbine section is the area in which the energy in the hot pressurized gas
produced by compressor and combustion sections is converted into mechanical energy.
The MS 9E major turbine section components include: the turbine rotor, turbine shell,
exhaust frame, exhaust diffuser, nozzles and diaphragms, buckets & shrouds, and No.3
(aft) bearing assembly, spacers.
 4. STEAM TURBINE

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Governing system is an important control system in the power plant as it regulates the
turbine speed, power and participates in the grid frequency regulation. For starting,
loading governing system is the main operator interface. Steady state and dynamic
performance of the power system depends on the power plant response capabilities in
which governing system plays a key role. With the development of electro- hydraulic
governors, processing capabilities have been enhanced but several adjustable parameters
have been provided. A thorough understanding of the governing process is necessary for
such adjustment.

In this paper an overview of the steam turbine governing system is given. The role of
governing system in frequency control is also discussed.

4.2 BASIC GOVERNING SCHEME

Need for governing system

The load on a turbine generating unit does not remain constant and can vary as per
consumer requirement. The mismatch between load and generation results in the speed
(or frequency) variation. When the load varies, the generation also has to vary to match it
to keep the speed constant. This job is done by the governing system. Speed which is an
indicator of the generation – load mismatch is used to increase or decrease the generation.

Basic scheme
 Governing system controls the steam flow to the turbine in response to the control signals
like speed error, power error. It can also be configured to respond to pressure error. It is a
closed loop control system in which control action goes on till the power mismatch is
reduced to zero.

As shown in the basic scheme given in Fig. 1, the inlet steam flow is controlled by the
control valve or the governor valve. It is a regulating valve. The stop valve shown in the
figure ahead of control valve is used for protection. It is either closed or open. In
emergencies steam flow is stopped by closing this valve by the protective devices.

Grid
Reference
ST : stream turbine
G : generator
SV : stop valve
CV
SV
Steam
Speed
Power

GOVERNING
SYSTEM
N

ST
CV : control valve
Fig. 1 STEAM TURBINE GOVERNING SCHEME
 The governing process can be functionally expressed in the form of signal flow block
diagram shown in Fig.2. The electronic part output is a voltage or current signal and is
converted into a hydraulic pressure or a piston position signal by the electro- hydraulic
converter (EHC). Some designs use high pressure servo valves. The control valves are
finally operated by hydraulic control valve servo motors.

SPEED
+
Valve
Position
SET
POINT
-
Mechanical
Power
+
GOVERNOR
The steam flow through the control valve is proportional to the valve opening in the
operating range. So when valve position changes, turbine steam flow changes and turbine
power output also changes proportionally. Thus governing system changes the turbine
mechanical power output.
In no load unsynchronized condition, all the power is used to accelerate the rotor only
(after meeting rotational losses) and hence the speed changes. The rate of speed change is
governed by the inertia of the entire rotor system. In the grid connected condition, only
power pumped into the system changes when governing system changes the valve
opening.
When the turbine generator unit is being started, governing system controls the speed
precisely by regulating the steam flow. Once the unit is synchronized to the power system
grid, same control system is used to load the machine. As the connected system has very
large inertia (‘infinite bus’), one machine cannot change the frequency of the grid. But it
can participate in the power system frequency regulation as part of a group of generators
that are used for automatic load frequency control. (ALFC).
As shown in the block diagram, the valve opening changes either by changing the
reference setting or by the change in speed (or frequency). This is called primary
regulation. The reference setting can also be changed remotely by power system load
frequency control. This is called secondary regulation. Only some generating units in a
power system may be used for secondary regulation.

4.2 HRSG
A heat recovery steam generator or HRSG is a heat exchanger that recovers heat from a
hot gas stream. It produces steam that can be used in a process or used to drive a steam
turbine. A common application for an HRSG is in a combined-cycle power station, where
hot exhaust from a gas turbine is fed to an HRSG to generate steam which in turn drives a
steam turbine. This combination produces electricity more efficiently than either the gas
turbine or steam turbine alone. Another application for an HRSG is in diesel engine
combined cycle power plants, where hot exhaust from a diesel engine is fed to an HRSG
to generate steam which in turn drives a steam turbine. The HRSG is also an important
component in cogeneration plants. Cogeneration plants typically have a higher overall
efficiency in comparison to a combined cycle plant. This is due to the loss of energy
associated with the steam turbine

Modular HRSG

Modular HRSG GA
HRSGs consist of three major components. They are the Evaporator, Super heater, and
Economizer. The different components are put together to meet the operating
requirements of the unit. See Modular HRSG GA.

Modular HRSGs can be categorized by number of ways such as direction of exhaust

gases flow or number of pressure levels. Based on the flow of exhaust gases, HRSGs are
categorized into vertical and horizontal types. In horizontal type HRSGs, exhaust gas
flows horizontally over vertical tubes whereas in vertical type HRSGs, exhaust gas flow
vertically over horizontal tubes. Based on pressure levels, HRSGs can be categorized into
single pressure and multi pressure. Single pressure HRSGs have only one steam drum
and steam is generated at single pressure level whereas multi pressure HRSGs employ
two (double pressure) or three (triple pressure) steam drums. As such triple pressure
HRSGs consist of three sections: an LP (low pressure) section, a reheat/IP (intermediate
pressure) section, and an HP (high pressure) section. Each section has a steam drum and
an evaporator section where water is converted to steam. This steam then passes through
super heaters to raise the temperature and pressure past the saturation point.
Packaged HRSGs are designed to be shipped as a fully assembled unit from the factory.
They can be used in waste heat or turbine (usually under 20MW) applications. The
packaged HRSG can have a water cooled furnace which allows for higher supplemental
firing and better overall efficiency.
Some HRSGs include supplemental, or duct firing. These additional burners provide
additional energy to the HRSG, which produces more steam and hence increases the
output of the steam turbine. Generally, duct firing provides electrical output at lower
capital cost. It is therefore often utilized for peaking.
HRSGs can also have diverter valves to regulate in the inlet flow into the HRSG. This
allows the gas turbine to continue to operate when there is no steam demand or if the
HRSG needs to be taken offline.
Emissions controls may also be located in the HRSG. Some may contain a Selective
Catalytic Reduction system to reduce nitrogen oxides (a large contributor to the
formation of smog and acid rain) and/or a catalyst to remove carbon monoxide. The
inclusion of an SCR dramatically effects the layout of the HRSG. NOx catalyst performs
best in temperatures between 650°F and 750°F. This usually means that the evaporator
section of the HRSG will have to be split and the SCR placed in between the two
sections. Some low temperature NOx catalysts have recently come to market that allows
for the SCR to be placed between the Evaporator and Economizer sections (350°F-
500°F).

Applications
Heat recovery can be used extensively in energy projects.
In the energy-rich Persian Gulf region, the steam from the HRSG is used for desalination
plants.
Universities are ideal candidates for HRSG applications. They can use a gas turbine to
produce high reliability electricity for campus use. The HRSG can recover the heat from
the gas turbine to produce steam/hot water for district heating or cooling.

4.3 DEAERATOR
A deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of air and other dissolved
gases from the feed water to steam generating boilers. In particular, dissolved oxygen in
boiler feed waters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systems by attaching to
the walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust). It also
combines with any dissolved carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid that causes further
corrosion. Most deaerator’s are designed to remove oxygen down to levels of 7 ppb by
weight (0.0005 cm³/L) or less.
There are two basic types of deaerator , the tray-type and the spray-type:
The tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical domed deaeration section
mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler
feed water storage tank.
The spray-type consists only of a horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical vessel which serves
as both the deaeration section and the boiler feed water storage tank
Details
With reference to a thermal power station, the word deaerator generally implies not only
the deaerator but also the feed water tank below where deaerated water is stored and fed
to the suction of boiler feed pumps. The description herein is mainly with reference to its
use in thermal power stations. See also feed water heating.
Necessity for Deaeration
Practical considerations demand that in a steam boiler/steam turbine/generator unit the
circulating steam, condensate, and feed water should be devoid of dissolved gases,
particularly corrosive ones, and dissolved or suspended solids. The gases will give rise to
corrosion of the metal in contact thereby thinning them and causing rupture. The solids
will deposit on the heating surfaces giving rise to localized heating and tube ruptures due
to overheating. Under some conditions it may give rise to stress corrosion cracking.

Position in the turbine cycle

Construction details
The diagram shows the construction of a typical deaerator and feed tank of about 250
MW unit.
The above diagram shows the deaerator's position in the turbine cycle diagram.
The actual construction details may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. It also
depends on the size of the unit and their own design to suit the system including the steel
structures erection.

Feed tank
This is generally a horizontally mounted cylindrical steel vessel with dished ends and
with internal and external fittings. The size of the same depends on the unit capacity it is
associated with. The cylindrical vessel portion acts as storage for boiler feed water
supplying to the suction of the boiler feed pumps from a pipe connected to the bottom of
the tank, generally in the mid portion.
During cold start of the unit, it is possible the water in the feed tank may be cold. At that
time the water has to be heated to bring it up to normal operating temperature to expel the
dissolved gases. For this, a provision of a heater pipe inside the tank longitudinally and at
the bottom level is provided. A few vertical pipes on this line are provided with holes to
distribute the heating steam uniformly to avoid water hammer in the initial stages of
heating. For this normally a connection from auxiliary steam header is provided, since the
auxiliary steam is available first after startup of the boiler.
A small bore connection with a pipe line to the full length of the feed tank at the bottom
is also provided for injection of chemical liquids.
Generally a direct reading gauge glass is provided on each end for absolute level
indication.
Since the feed tank is always hot, sufficient insulation covering (known also as lagging)
is provided to minimize the heat loss.

Deaerator-dome
At the top and in the mid portion of the feed tank an inverted domed vessel of sufficient
size as dictated, is attached which is called the deaerator. This portion has internals
something like a perforated tray to breakdown the down flow of condensate water from
the top into fine globules to separate dissolved gases. The heating steam, which is fed at
the lower level of the dome, passes upwards to give good intermixing. A small vent pipe
at the topmost point of this dome is provided for venting out the dissolved gases. Some
designs of smaller sizes may have a vent condenser to trap and recover any water
particles escaping through this vent.

The deaerator dome therefore has connections for condensate water inlet (at one side of
the dome near the top end) from previous LP feed heater and also a connection for the
deaerating steam from the bottom of the dome (which also incidentally heats the feed
water). This steam is generally from an extraction point of the turbine to improve the
cycle efficiency. The deaerator therefore is also termed as one of the feed water heaters in
the turbine cycle. Since the deaerator is always hot, sufficient insulation is provided to
minimize the heat loss.

Mounting arrangement
The feed tank is mounted horizontally at a sufficient height above boiler feed pump level
to give the necessary positive head (NPSH) to the boiler feed pumps under all conditions
of the system operation. The mounting arrangement is such that one end of the dished end
is able to move or expand due to hot boiler feed water storage where as the other end is
fixed.
The moving end is supported on steel rollers to give it frictionless movement whereas the
other end is bolted to the girder support underneath.

Controls and monitoring

Normally all the control and monitoring equipment for startups, normal operation and
alarms for out of parameter operations are provided at the operators' console. Deaerator
level and pressure must be controlled by adjusting control valves - the level by regulating
condensate flow, and the pressure by regulating steam flow. If operated properly, most
deaerator vendors generally guarantee that oxygen in the deaerated water will not exceed
7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm³/L).

Cooling tower
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process
heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or rely solely on air
to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature. Common applications
include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, chemical plants, power plants
and building cooling. The towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large
hyperboloid structures (as in Image 1) that can be up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in
diameter, or rectangular structures (as in Image 2) that can be over 40 metres tall and 80
metres long. Smaller towers are normally factory-built, while larger ones are constructed
on site.

Classification by use
Cooling towers can generally be classified by use into either HVAC (air-conditioning) or
industrial duty.
HVAC
An HVAC cooling tower is a subcategory rejecting heat from a chiller. Water-cooled
chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to
tower water at or near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the
dry-bulb temperature, and thus have a lower average reverse-Carnot cycle effectiveness.
Large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use one or more cooling towers as
part of their air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much
larger than HVAC towers.

HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower with a water-cooled chiller or
water-cooled condenser. A ton of air-conditioning is the removal of 12,000 Btu/hour
(3517 W). The equivalent ton on the cooling tower side actually rejects about 15,000
Btu/hour (4396 W) due to the heat-equivalent of the energy needed to drive the chiller's
compressor. This equivalent ton is defined as the heat rejection in cooling 3 U.S.
gallons/minute (1,500 pound/hour) of water 10 °F (5.56 °C), which amounts to 15,000
Btu/hour, or a chiller coefficient-of-performance (COP) of 4.0. This COP is equivalent to
an energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 13.65.

Industrial
Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as
machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers
is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power
plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food
processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and other industrial facilities. The circulation
rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coal-fired power plant with a cooling tower
amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000 U.S. gallons per minute)[2] and
the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e.,
3,600 cubic metres an hour).

If that same plant had no cooling tower and used once-through cooling water, it would
require about 100,000 cubic metres an hour and that amount of water would have to be
continuously returned to the ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and
continuously re-supplied to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot
water may raise the temperature of the receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for
the local ecosystem. A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere
instead and wind and air diffusion spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot water
can distribute heat in a body of water.
 5. SPEEDTRONIC™ MARK V GAS TURBINE CONTROL
SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
The SPEEDTRONIC™ Mark V Gas Turbine Control System is the latest derivative in
the highly successful SPEEDTRONIC™ series. Preceding systems were based on
automated turbine control, protection and sequencing techniques dating back to the late
1940s, and have grown and developed with the available technology. Implementation of
electronic turbine control, protection and sequencing originated with the Mark I system in
1968. The Mark V system is a digital implementation of the turbine automation
techniques learned and refined in more than 40 years of successful experience, over 80%
of which has been through the use of electronic control technology. The
SPEEDTRONIC™ Mark V Gas Turbine Control System employs current state-of-the-art
technology, including triple-redundant 16-bit microprocessor controllers, two-out-of-
three voting redundancy on critical control and protection parameters and Software-
Implemented Fault Tolerance (SIFT). Critical control and protection sensors are triple
redundant and voted by all three control processors. System output signals are voted at
the contact level for critical solenoids, at the logic level for the remaining contact outputs
and at three coil servo valves for analog control signals, thus maximizing both protective
and running reliability. An independent protective module provides triple redundant
hardwired detection and shutdown on over speed along with detecting flame. This
module also synchronizes the turbine generator to the power system. Synchronization is
backed up by a check function in the three control processors.

The Mark V Control System is designed to fulfill all gas turbine control requirements.
These include control of liquid, gas or both fuels in accordance with the requirements of
the speed, load control under part-load conditions, temperature control under maximum
capability conditions or during startup conditions. In addition, inlet guide vanes and water
or steam injection are controlled to meet emissions and operating requirements. If
emissions control uses Dry Low NOx techniques, fuel staging and combustion mode are
controlled by the Mark V system, which also monitors the process. Sequencing of the
auxiliaries to allow fully automated startup, shutdown and cool down are also handled by
the Mark V Control System. Turbine protection against adverse operating situations and
annunciation of abnormal conditions are incorporated into the basic system. The operator
interface consists of a color graphic monitor and keyboard to provide feedback regarding
current operating conditions. Input commands from the operator are entered using a
cursor positioning device. An arm/execute sequence is used to prevent inadvertent turbine
operation. Communication between the operator interface and the turbine control is
through the Common Data Processor, or <C>, to the three control processors called <R>,
<S> and <T>. The operator interface also handles communication functions with remote
and external devices. An optional arrangement, using a redundant operator interface, is
available for those applications where integrity of the external data link is considered
essential to continued plant operations. SIFT technology protects against module failure
and propagation of data errors. A panel mounted back-up operator display, directly
connected to the control processors, allows continued gas turbine operation in the
unlikely event of a failure of the primary operator interface or the <C> module. Built-in
diagnostics for troubleshooting purposes are extensive and include “power-up,”
background and manually initiated diagnostic routines capable of identifying both control
panel and sensor faults. These faults are identified down to the board level for the panel
and to the circuit level for the sensor or actuator components. The ability for on-line
replacement of boards is built into the panel design and is available for those turbine
sensors where physical access and system isolation are feasible. Set points, tuning
parameters and control constants are adjustable during operation using a security
password system to prevent unauthorized access.

Minor modifications to sequencing and the addition of relatively simple algorithms can
be accomplished when the turbine is not operating. They are also protected by a security
password. A printer is included in the control system and is connected via the operator
interface. The printer is capable of copying any alpha-numeric display shown on the
monitor. One of these displays is an operator configurable demand display that can be
automatically printed at a selectable interval. It provides an easy means to obtain periodic
and shift logs. The printer automatically logs time-tagged alarms, as well as the clearance
of alarms. In addition, the printer will print the historical trip log that is frozen in memory
in the unlikely event of a protective trip. The log assists in identifying the cause of a trip
for trouble shooting purposes. The statistical measures of reliability and availability for
SPEEDTRONIC™ Mark V systems have quickly established the effectiveness of the new
control because it builds on the highly successful SPEEDTRONIC™ Mark IV system.
Improvements in the new design have been made in microprocessors, I/O capacity, SIFT
technology, diagnostics, standardization and operator information, along with continued
application flexibility and careful design for maintainability. SPEEDTRONIC™ Mark V
control is achieving greater reliability, faster meantime- to repair and improved control
system availability than the SPEEDTRONIC™ Mark IV applications. As of May 1994,
almost 264 Mark V systems had entered commercial service and system operation has
exceeded 1.4 million hours. The established Mark V level of system reliability, including
sensors and actuators, exceeds 99.9 percent, and the fleet mean-time-between forced-
outages (MTBFO) stands at 28,000 hours. As of May 1994, there were 424 gas turbine
Mark V systems and 106 steam turbine Mark V systems shipped or on order.
 6. INSTRUMENTS USED IN PPCL

6.1 TEMPERATURE SWITCH

A temperature switch is a switch that is responsive to temperature changes. Temperature
switches generally are provided with a temperature responsive element which will open
or close a switch when a predetermined minimum pressure or temperature is sensed by
the responsive element. For protection against thermal overload, semiconductor switches
are provided with integrated temperature sensors. The temperature sensors acquire the
temperature of the power switch and convert this into a temperature-dependent, analog
signal which then can be interpreted in a circuit. Temperature sensitive switches, such as
a thermostat, typically comprise a temperature sensor which is used to open or close
electrical contacts at specified temperatures. A bimetal strip of dissimilar metals is used
as the sensing element for temperature sensitive switches. Temperature sensitive switches
are often used for thermal protection purposes. If a device gets too hot, the temperature
sensitive switch opens the electrical circuit, thereby eliminating power to the circuit. For
example, temperature responsive tip-switches are particularly useful in connection with
electric heaters.
Normally there are two temperature sensitive devices used in this plant

a) Resistance thermometer
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are
temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance of some
materials with changing temperature. As they are almost invariably made of platinum,
they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PRTs). They are slowly replacing
the use of thermocouples in many industrial applications below 600 °C

Function
Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer greater stability,
accuracy and repeatability in some cases than thermocouples. While thermocouples use
the Seebeck effect to generate a voltage, resistance thermometers use electrical resistance
and require a power source to operate. The resistance ideally varies linearly with
temperature.
Resistance thermometers are usually made using platinum, because of its linear
resistance-temperature relationship and its chemical inertness. The platinum detecting
wire needs to be kept free of contamination to remain stable. A platinum wire or film is
supported on a former in such a way that it gets minimal differential expansion or other
strains from its former, yet is reasonably resistant to vibration. RTD assemblies made
from iron or copper are also used in some applications.
Commercial platinum grades are produced which exhibit a change of resistance of 0.385
ohms/°C (European Fundamental Interval) The sensor is usually made to have a
resistance of 100Ω at 0 °C. This is defined in BS EN 60751:1996 (taken from IEC
60751:1995) . The American Fundamental Interval is 0.392 Ω/°C, based on using a purer
grade of platinum than the European standard. The American standard is from the
Scientific Apparatus Manufacturers Association (SAMA), who are no longer in this
standards field.
Resistance thermometers require a small current to be passed through in order to
determine the resistance. This can cause resistive heating, and manufacturers' limits
should always be followed along with heat path considerations in design. Care should
also be taken to avoid any strains on the resistance thermometer in its application. Lead
wire resistance should be considered, and adopting three and four wire connections can
eliminate connection lead resistance effects from measurements - industrial practice is
almost universally to use 3-wire connection. 4-wire connection need to be used for
precise application.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:

High accuracy
Low drift
Wide operating range
Suitability for precision applications

Limitations
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At temperatures above 660
°C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated
by impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer. This is why laboratory standard
thermometers replace the metal sheath with a glass construction. At very low
temperatures, say below -270 °C (or 3 K), due to the fact that there are very few phonons,
the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined by impurities and boundary scattering and
thus basically independent of temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is
essentially zero and therefore not useful.

Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes
and have a slower response time. However thermistors have a smaller temperature range
and stability.

b)Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related
to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor
and can also be used to convert heat into electric power. They are cheap and
interchangeable, have standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of
temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy; System errors of less than one kelvin (K)
can be difficult to achieve.

Any circuit made of dissimilar metals will produce a temperature-related difference of

voltage. Themocouples for practical measurement of temperature are made of specific
alloys, which in combination have a predictable and repeatable relationship between
temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used for different temperature ranges, and to
resist corrosion. Where the measurement point is far from the measuring instrument, the
intermediate connection can be made by extension wires, which are less costly than the
materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are standardized against a reference
temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use electronic methods of cold-
junction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument terminals.
Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the
thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of measurements.

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; a few applications would include
temperature measurement for kilns, measurement of exhaust temperature of gas turbines
or diesel engines, and many other industrial processes

Principle of operation
In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when
any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now
known as the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage
necessarily involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional
conductor will then also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its
own which will oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on
the metal in use. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in
which the two legs generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage
available for measurement. That difference increases with temperature, and can typically
be between 1 and 70 micro volt per degree Celsius (µV/°C) for the modern range of
available metal combinations. Certain combinations have become popular as industry
standards, driven by cost, availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties,
stability, and output. This coupling of two metals gives the thermocouple its name.
Thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not absolute
temperature. In traditional applications, one of the junctions—the cold junction—was
maintained at a known (reference) temperature, while the other end was attached to a
probe.
Having available a known temperature cold junction, while useful for laboratory
calibrations, is simply not convenient for most directly connected indicating and control
instruments. They incorporate into their circuits an artificial cold junction using some
other thermally sensitive device, such as a thermistor or diode, to measure the
temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care being taken to
minimize any temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known
cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate correction applied. This is known as
cold junction compensation.
Additionally, a device can perform cold junction compensation by computation. It can
translate device voltages to temperatures by either of two methods. It can use values from
look-up tables or approximate using polynomial interpolation.
A thermocouple can produce current, which means it can be used to drive some processes
directly, without the need for extra circuitry and power sources. For example, the power
from a thermocouple can activate a valve when a temperature difference arises. The
electric power generated by a thermocouple is a conversion of the heat energy that one
must continuously supply to the hot side of the thermocouple to maintain the electric
potential. The flow of heat is necessary because the current flowing through the
thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to cool down and the cold side to heat up (the
Peltier effect).
Thermocouples can be connected in series with each other to form a thermopile, where
all the hot junctions are exposed to the higher temperature and all the cold junctions to a
lower temperature. The voltages of the individual thermocouples add up, allowing for a
larger voltage and increased power output, thus increasing the sensitivity of the
instrumentation. With the radioactive decay of transuranic elements providing a heat
source this arrangement has been used to power spacecraft on missions too far from the
Sun to utilize solar power.

Applications
Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, up to
1800 °C. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences
need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C
accuracy. For such applications, thermistors and resistance temperature detectors are
more suitable

When to use RTDs or thermocouples

The two most common ways of measuring industrial temperatures are with resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermocouples. But when should control engineers use
a thermocouple and when should they use an RTD? The answer is usually determined by
four factors: Factors: - Temperature, time, size, and overall accuracy requirements.
What are the temperature requirements? If process temperatures fall from -328 to 932°F
(-200 to 500°C), then an industrial RTD is an option. But for extremely high
temperatures, a thermocouple may be the only choice.
What are the time-response requirements? If the process requires a very fast response to
temperature changes--fractions of a second as opposed to seconds (i.e. 2.5 to 10 sec)--
then a thermocouple is the best choice. Keep in mind that time response is measured by
immersing the sensor in water moving at 3 ft/sec with a 63.2% step change.
What are the size requirements? A standard RTD sheath is 0.125 to 0.25 in. dia., while
sheath diameters for thermocouples can be less than 0.062 in. What are the overall
requirements for accuracy? If the process only requires a tolerance of 2°C or greater, then
a thermocouple is appropriate. If the process needs less than 2°C tolerance, then an RTD
is the only choice. Keep in mind, unlike RTDs that can maintain stability for many years,
thermocouples can drift within the first few hours of use.

6.2 PRESSURE SWITCH

A pressure responsive switch senses a change in pressure and responds to such changes
by alternately making and breaking an electrical connection. Pressure-sensitive switches
are used in a variety of applications where it is desired to switch apparatus on or off at
predetermined pressures. These switches are utilized in a wide variety of applications, as
in automobiles, aircrafts and in various other environments. Pressure switches include
set-point pressure switches that actuate when a specified pressure is reached and pressure
measuring switches that are capable of measuring the ambient pressure and reacting
accordingly. A pressure responsive switch generally comprises a diaphragm responsive to
a pressure change, a rigid ring for securing the diaphragm, and a pair of electrically
conductive contacts that break contact based on movement of the diaphragm. Mechanical
pressure switches typically provide an output signal in the form of a switch closure in
response to application of mechanical or atmospheric pressure. A differential pressure
switch is a device which utilizes differential fluid pressure from low and high pressure
sources to actuate an electric switch at a pre-set actuation point. Differential pressure
switches are commonly employed to control the operation of snap action switches.

In case of pressure switch used in this plant , a piece of metal is vibrating

everytime when no contact is made , indicating switch is open. When there is high air
pressure , level of glycerine goes high, contact is made indicating switch is closed, thus
circuit is completed. Since PPCL is in auto mode ,at pressure switch transmitter is used
which convert the pressure into current, so that we can measure same pressure at control
room. At control room w again convert current into pressure.

6.3 VIBRATION SWITCH

A vibration switch is a device that (1) recognizes the amplitude of the vibration to which
it is exposed and (2) provides some sort of response when this amplitude exceeds a
predetermined threshold value. The switch response is typically an electrical contact
closure or contact opening. The electrical contact may be either an electromechanical
relay or solid-state triac.

WHY USE A VIBRATION SWITCH?

Vibration switches are primarily used for protecting critical machinery from costly
destructive failure by initiating an alarm or shutdown when excessive vibration of the
machinery is detected.
Conversely, a vibration switch can be utilized to warn of the absence of vibration, such as
when a conveyer ceases to function due to a broken drive belt

6.4 LIMIT SWITCH

Limit Switches & Limit Switch Information: A mechanical limit switch interlocks
a mechanical motion or position with an electrical circuit. A good starting point for limit-
switch selection is contact arrangement. The most common limit switch is the single-pole
contact block with one NO and one NC set of contacts; however, limit switches are
available with up to four poles.
Limit switches also are available with time-delayed contact transfer. This type is useful in
detecting jams that cause the limit switch to remain actuated beyond a predetermined
time interval.
Other limit switch contact arrangements include neutral-position and two-step. Limit
switches feature a neutral-position or center-off type transfers one set of contacts with
movement of the lever in one direction. Lever movement in the opposite direction
transfers the other set of contacts. Limit switches with a two-step arrangement, a small
movement of the lever transfers one set of contacts, and further lever movement in the
same direction transfers the other set of contacts.
Maintained-contact limit switches require a second definite reset motion. These limit
switches are primarily used with reciprocating actuators, or where position memory or
manual reset is required. Spring-return limit switches automatically reset when actuating
force is removed.
Centrifugal Limit switches: A centrifugal limit switch is actuated by speed only. Simple
types of centrifugal limit switches consist of speed-sensing units that mount directly on a
rotating shaft and a stationary-contact switch assembly. The basic control element is a
conical-spring steel disc that has centrifugal weights fastened to the outer edge of its
circular base. Fingers on the spring are attached to an insulating spool that rides free of
the shaft and actuates the movable switch contact. As the rotating sensing unit reaches
switching speed, the centrifugal force of the calibrated weights overcomes spring force,
resulting in an instantaneous axial displacement of the spring and the contact-actuating
spool.
The contacts switch at one speed as speed increases from zero to operating speed, and at
a lower speed as rotation slows from operating speed toward zero. The spring
decreasingly opposes centrifugal force as rotational speed increases from standstill until
the snap-over point is reached. Then, spring force adds to centrifugal force to axially snap
the spool and actuate the contacts. As rotational speed decreases from operating speed,
spring force overcomes the centrifugal force of the weights at a lower speed where
snapback begins.
6.5 Relay
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close
one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is
able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be
considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier
Basic Design and Operation

Simple electromechanical relay

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core,
an iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a moveable iron
armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged
to the yoke and mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by
a spring so that when the relay is de-enerzised there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the
other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on
their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature,
and the circuit track on the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered
to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts
the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact or contacts either
makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when
the relay was de-enerzised, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but
gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured
to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage
or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate
the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays
already include that diode inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact protection
network, consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil
is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the
solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is
made with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation
an opto-coupler can be used which is a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo
transistor.

Applications
Relays are used to and for:
Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or
audio amplifiers, Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter
solenoid of an automobile, Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines
by opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays), Isolate the controlling circuit
from the controlled circuit when the two are at different potentials, for example when
controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied
to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions, which
may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy
detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting
normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open
contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or)
function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed
contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.
Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and
Zuse Z3.
Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to
nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels
of radioactive waste-handling machinery. Time delay functions. Relays can be modified
to delay opening or delay closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second)
delay would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current
flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time.
For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled
with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is
installed.

6.6 VALVE
 These water valves are operated by handles.
A valve is a device that regulates the flow of a fluid (gases, fluidized solids, slurries, or
liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are
technically pipe fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category.

Valves are also found in the human body. For example, there are several which control
the flow of blood in the chambers of the heart and maintain the correct pumping action
(see heart valve article).

Valves are used in a variety of contexts, including industrial, military, commercial,

residential, and transportation.

Oil and gas, power generation, mining, water reticulation, sewerage and chemical
manufacturing are the industries in which the majority of valves are used.
Plumbing valves, such as taps for hot and cold water are the most noticeable types of
valves. Other valves encountered on a daily basis include gas control valves on cookers
and barbecues, small valves fitted to washing machines and dishwashers, and safety
devices fitted to hot water systems.
Valves may be operated manually, either by a hand wheel, lever or pedal. Valves may also
be automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature or flow. These changes may act
upon a diaphram or a piston which in turn activates the valve, examples of this type of
valve found commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or steam boilers.
More complex control systems using valves requiring automatic control based on an
external input (i.e., regulating flow through a pipe to a changing set point) require an
actuator. An actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the
valve to be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements.
Valves are also found in the Otto cycle (internal combustion) engines driven by a
camshaft, lifters and or push rods where they play a major role in engine cycle control

Applications
A huge variety of valves are available, and valves have infinite applications and sizes
ranging from .004" (0.1 mm) to 24" (600 mm). Special valves can be manufactured to
have a diameter exceeding 200" (5000 mm).
Valves range from inexpensive, simple, disposable valves to components in exotic items
that in some instances cost thousands of dollars (US$) per inch (25 mm) of diameter.
Disposable valves may be found inside common household items including liquid or gel
mini-pump dispensers and aerosol spray cans. rks
Valves may be classified by how they are operated:
manual
Solenoid
Hydraulic/Pneumatic
 7. MISCELLANEOUS

7.1. DEMINERALIZED WATER

Purified water is water from any source that is physically processed to remove impurities.
Distilled water and deionized water have been the most common forms of purified water,
but water can also be purified by other processes including reverse osmosis, carbon
filtration, microporous filtration, ultrafiltration, ultraviolet oxidation, or electrodialysis. In
recent decades, a combination of the above processes have come into use to produce
water of such high purity that its trace contaminants are measured in parts per billion
(ppb) or parts per trillion (ppt). Purified water has many uses, largely in science and
engineering laboratories and industries, and is produced in a range of purities.

METHODS OF PURIFYING WATER

Distillation
Distilled water is often defined as bottled water that has been produced by a process of
distillation and has an electrical conductivity of not more than 10 µS/cm and total
dissolved solids of less that 10 mg/L. Distillation involves boiling the water and then
condensing the steam into a clean container, leaving most solid contaminants behind.
Distillation produces very pure water but also leaves behind a leftover white or yellowish
mineral scale on the distillation apparatus, which requires that the apparatus be frequently
cleaned. Distillation does not guarantee the absence of bacteria in drinking water; unless
the reservoir and/or bottle are sterilized before being filled, and once the bottle has been
opened, there is a risk of presence of bacteria.
For many applications, cheaper alternatives such as deionized water are used in place of
distilled water.

Double-distillation
Double-distilled water (abbreviated "ddH2O", "Bidest. water" or "DDW") is prepared by
double distillation of water. Historically, it was the de facto standard for highly purified
laboratory water for biochemistry and trace analysis until combination methods of
purification became widespread.

Deionization
Deionized water which is also known as demineralized water (DI water or de-ionized
water; can also be spelled deionized water, see spelling differences) is water that has had
its mineral ions removed, such as cations from sodium, calcium, iron, copper and anions
such as chloride and bromide. Deionization is a physical process which uses specially-
manufactured ion exchange resins which bind to and filter out the mineral salts from
water. Because the majority of water impurities are dissolved salts, deionization produces
a high purity water that is generally similar to distilled water, and this process is quick
and without scale buildup. However, deionization does not significantly remove
uncharged organic molecules, viruses or bacteria, except by incidental trapping in the
resin. Specially made strong base anion resins can remove Gram-negative bacteria.
Deionization can be done continuously and inexpensively using electrodeionization.

It should be noted that deionization does not remove the hydroxide or hydronium ions
from water; as water self-ionizes to equilibrium, this would lead to the removal of the
water itself.

Other processes
Other processes are also used to purify water, including reverse osmosis, carbon
filtration, microporous filtration, ultrafiltration, ultraviolet oxidation, or electrodialysis.
These are used in place of, or in addition to the processes listed above.

What is the use of dm water in power plants?

It is most probably use in a closed-loop steam generation cycle to drive the turbines that
produce electricity. After passing through the turbine, the steam will eventually be
condensed into water to be fed back to the boiler to repeat the cycle. Demineralization
will protect the boiler from the formation of salt deposits on its inner surfaces

7.2. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

General
The carbon dioxide (CO2) fire protection system supplied is designed to extinguish fires
by reducing the oxygen content of the air in the compartment from an atmosphere normal
of 21 percent to less than 15 percent which is insufficient concentration to support the
combustion of turbine fuel or lubricating oil. System design is in accordance with the
requirements of Fire Protection recommendations and recognizing the reflash potential of
combustibles exposed to high temperature metal; it provides an extended discharge to
maintain an extinguishing concentration for a prolonged period to minimize the
likelihood of a re-flash condition.
Major system components include
Carbon dioxide cylinder, (in and off- base station), discharge pipes and nozzles, pilot
valves, fire detectors and pressure switches. Refer to the schematic diagram where system
components are shown in their respective compartments.
Carbon dioxide is supplied from an of-base CO2 skid where 2 nos. CO2 storage tanks are
connected to a distribution system which transfers the carbon dioxide by pipe to
discharge nozzles located among other in the various compartments of the gas turbine
unit.

For the gas turbine itself, there are two distinctive zones:
Zone 1: Turbine accessory compartment and turbine compartment
Zone 2: Tunnel of bearing no. 3
Two types of discharge are used: initial discharge and extended discharge. Within a few
seconds after actuation, sufficient CO2 flows from the initial discharge system into the
compartment of the machine to rapidly build up extinguishing concentration. This
concentration is maintained for a prolonged period of time by the gradual addition of
more CO2 from the extended discharge system. WARNING: carbon dioxide, in a
concentration sufficient to extinguish fire, creates an atmosphere that will not support
life. It is extremely hazardous to enter the compartments after the CO2 system has been
discharged.
Anyone rendered unconscious by CO2 should be rescued as quickly as possible and
revived immediately with artificial respiration. The extent and type of safe guards and
personnel warning that may be necessary must be designed to meet the particular
requirements of each situation. It is recommended that personnel be adequately trained to
take the proper action in case of such emergency.

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
To better understand the CO2 system, a brief description of its operation and distinctive
features is given in the following paragraphs. Refer to the Fire Protection System
schematic Figure FP-1. Should a fire occur in one of the protected compartment of unit,
the pilot valves in the off-base skid will be energized by one of the heatsensitive fire
detectors, more exactly: 45 FA-1A,-1B, 45FA-2A,-2B in the accessory compartment,
45FT- 1A,1B,45 FT-2A-2B:45FT3A-3B in the turbine compartment and 45FT-8A,-
8B,9A,-9B in the tunnel bearing NO.3

The CO2 flow rate is controlled by the size of the orifices to the discharge nozzles in each
compartment for the initial and extended discharge system. The orifices for the initial
discharge must permit a rapid discharge of CO2 to quickly build up an extinguishing
concentration. The orifice for the extended discharge is smaller and permits a relatively
slow discharge rate in order to maintain the extinguishing concentrate on over a
prolonged period of time. By maintaining the extinguishing concentration, the likelihood
of a fire reigniting is minimized. In the auxiliary compartment, there are 4 nozzles for the
initial discharge and 2 nozzles for the extended discharge. In the gas turbine
compartment, there are 6 nozzles for the initial discharge and 2 nozzles for the extended
discharge. When the fire is detected and CO2 is admitted, CO2 operated latches close the
shutters provided in the ventilation system in the turbine and auxiliary compartments.
There is also one such a shutter, in the bearing NO.3 tunnel zone that will be closed. Note
that the CO2 latches located in the ventilation path must be opened manually after a fire.
These latches are provided with a limit switch preventing a gas turbine restart after fire.