9/1/2011

Analysis of Previous IES Papers
Production Materials Total Question

By IES-2011 31 28 59

IES-2010 33 19 52
Swapan Kumar Mondal IES 2009
IES-2009 38 16 54

IES Officer (Railway) IES-2008 25 15 40

IES-2007 34 15 49
NTPC Ltd (5 Years)
IES-2006 23 13 36
Teaching Experience ( 12 Years) IES-2005 28 12 40

GATE percentile 99.96 Average 30 17 47

No of  questions asked

Analysis of Previous GATE Papers Why PPT and Video needed ?
Production Materials Total Marks

GATE-2011 13 1 14 out of 100

GATE-2010 13 1 14 out of 100

GATE
GATE-2009
2009 16 2 18 out of 100

GATE-2008 26 0 26 out of 150

GATE-2007 25 2 27 out of 150

GATE-2006 25 1 26 out of 150

GATE-2005 19 1 26 out of 150

Average 15.22 % 0.9 % 16.57 %

No of  Marks asked 

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 9/1/2011

Classification of Manufacturing Process

Theory of Metal Cutting y Shaping or forming

y Joining process

y Removal process

y Regenerative manufacturing

By  S K Mondal

Regenerative Manufacturing Basic Principle of Regenerative 
Manufacturing
y Production of solid products in layer by layer from
raw materials in different forms.

y Very rapid, accurate used for Rapid prototyping

and tooling. Advantages:
•Process is Independent of Part Feature
•No Blanks are Requires
•Toolless process
•Easily Automation Possible

Machining
Machining aim to
y Machining is an essential process of finishing by
y Fulfill its functional requirements
which jobs are produced to the desired dimensions
y Improve its performance
and surface finish byy g
graduallyy removing
g the
excess material from the preformed blank in the y Prolong its service.

form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved

past the work surface. Machining is a removal
process.

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Drawback in Machining
y Loss of material in the form of chips.
Machine tool
y A machine tool is a non‐portable power operated
and reasonably valued device or system of device
in which energy is expended to produce jobs of
desired size, shape and surface finish by removing
excess material from the preformed blanks in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved
past the work surface.

IAS 2009 main
Why even a battery operated y Name four independent variables and three
pencil sharpener cannot be dependent variables in metal cutting.
[ 5 marks]
accepted as a machine tool?
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
y Ans.
A In
I spite
i off having
h i allll other
h major
j features
f off
•Starting materials  •Force or power requirements
machine tools, the sharpener is of low value.
(tool/work) •Maximum temperature in 
•Tool geometry cutting
•Cutting Velocity •Surface finish
•Lubrication

Rack angle and Clearance angle Rack  Surface and Flank
y The surface along which the chip moves upward is
called ‘Rack surface’ of tool.

y The other surface which is relieved to avoid

rubbing with the machined surface, is called
‘Flank’.

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Rake angle and Clearance Angle The nomenclature of different

y Rake angle (α) Angle of inclination of rake
angle and surface in turning
surface from reference plane i.e. normal to
horizontal machined surface.

y Clearance angle (γ ) :Angle of inclination of

clearance or flank surface from the finished
surface.

Discussion on Rack angle Positive rake

y Reduce cutting force 

y Reduce cutting power

Positive rake angles is recommended Negative rake
y Machining low strength material
y Increase edge strength
y Low power machine
y Increases life of the tool
y Long shaft of small diameter
y Increases the cutting force
y Set – up lacks strength and rigidity
y High cutting speeds
y Low cutting speed
y Requires ample power

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Negative rake angles is recommended
Zero rake
y Machining high strength alloy
y To simplify design and manufacturing of the form
y Heavy impact loads
tools.
y High speed cutting
Hi h  d  i y Increases tool strength
y With rigid set‐ up
y Avoids digging of the tool into the workpiece

y Brass is turned with zero rake angle

Clearance angle
y Provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with
Types of Machining
the machined surface.

y Reduce tool wear

y Increase tool life.

y Must be positive (30 – 150)

Orthogonal Cutting
1. Cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the
direction of cutting velocity.
2. The cutting edge is wider than the workpiece
width and extends beyond the workpiece on
p
either side. Also the width of the workpiece is Geometry of single point turning tool
Geometry of single point turning tool
much greater than the depth of cut.
3. The chip generated flows on the rake face of the
tool with chip velocity perpendicular to the
cutting edge.
4. The cutting forces act along two directions only.

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Classification: (According to the System of Description of Tool Geometry

number of major cutting edges y (I) Machine reference system: ASA or ANSI  

(points) involved.) y (II) Tool reference system: ORS and NRS

y Single point: turning,
turning shaping,
shaping planning,
planning slotting
tools etc. y (III) Work reference system: WRS

y Double point: drilling tools

y Multipoint: Milling, broaching, hobbing tools etc.

A Single point cutting tool

ASA or ANSI system End cutting edge angle, ECEA

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Back Rake angle Side‐rake angle (axial rake)
y It is the angle between the face of the tool and the y It is the angle between the face of the tool and the base
of the shank or holder, and is usually measured in a
base of the shank or holder, and is usually
plane perpendicular to the base, to the side‐cutting
measured in a plane through the side‐cutting edge, edge
and at right angles to the base y Increase
I in
i the
th side
id rake
k anglel reduces
d the
th chip
hi
thickness in turning.
y It affects the ability of the tool to shear the work
material and form the chip.

Side‐relief angle End‐relief angle
y It is the angle between the portion of the side flank y It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the side‐cutting edge, and a immediately below the end cutting edge, and a line
line drawn through this cutting edge drawn through this cutting edge perpendicular to
perpendicular to the base. the base. It is usually measured in a plane

y It is measured in a plane perpendicular to the side perpendicular to the end flank.

flank. y The End Relief Angle prevents friction on the flank

of the tool.

Side cutting edge angle, SCEA (CS) SCEA and Lead Angle
y It is the angle which prevents interference as the tool enters 
the work materials. (Normally 15 – 30o )
y Larger this angle, the greater the component of force tending 
to separate the work and the tool. (May induce Chatter)
y At its increased value it will have more of its length in action 
for a given depth of cut.
y At its increased value it produce thinner and wider chip that 
will distribute the cutting heat. (increase tool life)
y Zero SCEA is desirable when machining casting and forging 
with hard and scaly skins, because of the least amount of tool 
edge should be exposed to the destructive action of the skin. 

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Nose radius
Lip angle y It is curvature of the tool tip.
y Lip angle or cutting angle depends on the on the
rake and clearance angle provided on the tool and y It provides strengthening of the tool nose and better
determine the strength of the cutting edge. surface finish.
y A larger
l lip
l angle l permits machining
h off harder
h d
metals, allow heavier depth of cut, increase tool y But too large a nose radius will induce chatter.
life, better heat dissipation.
y If nose radius increased cutting force and cutting power
y Larger lip angle reduce cutting speed
(Disadvantage) increased.

Tool designation (ANSI) or ASA Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
To remember easily follow the rule
i − α − γ − γ 1 − Ce − λ − R
y rake, relief, cutting edge ( ) – side relief (γ)
y Inclination angle (i) – side rake α
y Side will come last  – end relief (γ 1) – End cutting edge (Ce) –
Approach (λ ) – nose radius (mm)
y finish with nose radius  (inch) y Approach angle (λ) = 90 - CS
y [Sometimesλ is called principal cutting edge
angle (Orthogonal cutting)]
y For Pure orthogonal cutting, i = 0
α b − α s − θe − θ s − Ce − Cs − R y For Oblique cutting, i ≠ 0

Inter conversion between ASA & ORS Critical correlations
When λ = 90 αs = α
When i = 0 αn = α
When i = 0 and λ = 90 αs = αn = α
(P orthogonal
(Pure h l cutting)
i )

λ is principal cutting edge angle

i is inclination angle
α s is side rake angle ( ASA)
α is orthogonal rake angle (ORS )
α n is normal rake angle (NRS)

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Cause of chip formation Mechanism of chip formation in 
Yielding –in ductile material ductile material
Brittle fracture – in brittle material

Mechanism of chip formation in  Types of chip
brittle material y Continuous chip

y Discontinuous chip

y Continuous chip with BUE
Co t uous c p t U

y Serrated chip

Fig. Development and propagation of crack 
causing chip separation.

Types of chip depends on 
y Work material (ductile, brittle)
y Cutting tool geometry (rake angle, cutting angle
etc.)
y Cutting velocity and feed rate.
y Types of cutting fluid and method of application.
Conditions for forming Discontinuous chip
of irregular size and shape 
work material brittle (grey cast iron)
of regular size and shape
work material – ductile but hard and   work hardenable
feed – large
tool rake – negative
cutting fluid – absent or inadequate

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Conditions for forming Continuous  Conditions for forming Continuous 
chip without BUE chip with BUE
y work material – ductile y Work material – ductile

y Cutting velocity – high y Cutting velocity – medium

y Feed‐ low y Feed – medium

y Rake angle – positive and high y Cutting fluid ‐ absent or in   adequate.

y Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating

Built – up – Edge (BUE) formation Built – up – Edge (BUE) formation

y In machining ductile material with long chip tool
contact length, lot of stress and temperature develops in
the secondary deformation zone at the chip tool
interface.
y Under such highg stress and temperature
p in between two
clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding may locally take
place due to adhesion similar to welding.
y Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the
chip tool materials have mutual affinity or solubility.
y The weld material starts forming as an embryo at the
most favorable location and thus gradually grows.
Contd….
y With the growth of the BUE, the force also gradually 
increased due to wedging action of the tool tip along 
with the BUE formed on it. 
y Whenever the force exceeds the bonding force of the 
BUE  the BUE is broken or sheared off and taken away by 
BUE, the BUE is broken or sheared off and taken away by 
the flowing chip. Then again starts forming and grow. 
y This BUE changes its size during the cutting operation. 
y It first increases, then decreases, and then again 
increases.
y Low cutting speed also contributes to the formation of 
BUE.

Effects of BUE formation Reduction or Elimination of BUE
Harmful effect Increase
y It unfavourably changes the rake angle at the tool tip  ↑ Cutting speed
causing increase of cutting force i.e. power consumption. ↑ Rake angle
y Induce vibration. ↑ Ambient work piece temperature.
y Poor surface finish.
Reduce 
↓ Feed
Good effect
↓ Depth of cut
y BUE protects the cutting edge of the tool i. e. increases 
tool life. Use
y Cutting fluid
y Change cutting tool material (as cermets).

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Serrated Chips When is forced chip breaking necessary and why ?
y Serrated chips also called segmented or non‐ When chips continuously form and come out very 
homogeneous chips are semi‐continuous chips hot, sharp and at quite high speed 

with zones of low and high shear strain.

Under the condition
y Metals with low thermal conductivity and y soft ductile work material
strength that decreases sharply with temperature, y flat rake surface with positive or near zero rake
For
such as titanium exhibit this behaviour, the chips
y Safety and convenience of the operator
have sawtooth like appearance. y easy collection and disposal of chips

φ
Shear angle (   ) Proof
t l V sinφ 1
r= = c = c = =
tc l V cos (φ − α ) ε
r cosα
and tanφ =
1 − r sinα

For orthogonal cutting ε
Cutting shear strain (    )
⎛π ⎞
1 μ ⎜ −α ⎟
=ε=e
ε = cot φ + tan (φ − α )
⎝2 ⎠
γ
cos α
From this expression we will get 
ε
(The value of       can be reduced by) =
y using tool having large positive rake sin φ cos (φ − α )
y Reduce friction by using lubricant.

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Proof Velocities in metal cutting
(i) The velocity of the tool relative to the work
piece (V) called the cutting speed.

(ii) The velocity of the chip relative to the work,

work Vs
called the shear velocity.

(iii) The velocity of the chip up the face of the tool

Vc, called chip velocity.

Derive the expression for velocities in 
Shear Strain Rate
metal cutting.            ESE‐2004 (Conv.)
(Note: it is not shear strain it is rate of 
shear strain i.e. flow)
•
dε Vs
ε= =
dt thickness of shear zone ( ts )

Determination of Un‐deformed chip 
thickness in Turning: (VIMP)
For single point cutting tool
t = f sin λ
d
b=
Where
sin λ
t  =Uncut chip thickness
f  = feed
λ = 90 – Cs = approach angle
Cs = side cutting edge angle

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When a cut is made the forces acting on the metal chips are:

Force & Power in Metal Cutting

By  S K Mondal

Fc and Ft The force relations (VIMP)

The two orthogonal components (horizontal and
vertical) Fc and Ft of the resultant force R can be
F = Fc sin α + Ft cos α
N = Fc cos α − Ft sin α
measured by using a dynamometer.
The horizontal component is the cutting force (Fc)
and the vertical component is the thrust force (Ft)
Fn = Fc sin φ + Ft cos φ
Fs = Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ
F
and μ = = tan β
N

Merchant force circle Diagram (MCD) Merchant Analysis
Assumption

(β − α ) • It is based on single shear plane theory.

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Limitations of Merchant’s Theory
From Merchant Force Circle Diagram
1. Merchant theory is valid only for orthogonal cutting.
2. By the ratio F/N, the Merchant theory gives apparent
π α β
φ= + −
(not actual) co‐efficient of friction.

4 2 2

Modified Merchant Theory Theory of Lee and Shaffer
They applied the theory of plasticity for an ideal-rigid-plastic material.
τs = τso + kσs where, σs is the normal stress on shear plane.
They also assumed that deformation occured on a thin-shear plane.
⎡ Fn ⎤ They derive.
⎢ σs = ⎥
⎣ As ⎦ π
φ= + α − β
4
and h 2φ + β -α = cot ( k )
d then −1

Other Relations Compare turning with orthogonal cutting
y By Stabler

y By dimensional analysis

where, k, a, b, k1, a1 and b1 are empirical constants to be

established from the experimental data
f is feed and d is depth of cut.

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y Fc: primary cutting force acting in the direction of Metal Removal Rate (MRR)

the cutting velocity, largest force and accounts for
99% of the power required by the process.
y Ff: feed force acting in the direction of the tool feed. Metal removal rate (MRR) = Ac.V = b t V  
This force is about 50% of Fc, but accounts for only a
small percentage of the power required because feed
Where
h
rates are usually small compared to cutting speeds.
y Fr: radial or thrust force acting perpendicular to the Ac = cross‐section area of uncut chip
machined surface. This force is about 50% of Ff and V = cutting speed = π DN
60
contributes very little to power requirements
because velocity in the radial direction is negligible.

Power Consumed During Cutting Friction in Metal Cutting

Fc × V
Where
Fc = cutting force 
πDN
V = cutting speed = 60

Heat and Temperature in Metal Cutting Determination of cutting temperature
Analytically – using mathematical models (equations) if
available or can be developed. This method is simple,
quick and inexpensive but less accurate and precise.

Experimentally – this method is more accurate, precise

and reliable.

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Experimental Methods are  Dynamometers for measuring cutting forces
y Calorimetric method Measurement of cutting force(s) is based on three basic
principles :
y Decolourising agent
(a) measurement of elastic deflection of a body
y Tool‐work thermocouple subjected to the cutting force
y Moving thermocouple technique (b) measurementt off elastic
l ti deformation,
d f ti i.e.
i strain
t i
y Embedded thermocouple technique induced by the force
y Using compound tool
(c) measurement of pressure developed in a medium by
the force.
y Indirectly from Hardness and structural transformation

y Photo‐cell technique

y Infra ray detection method

Design requirements for Tool – force  Types of Dynamometers 

Dynamometers The dynamometers being commonly used now‐a‐days
Sensitivity for measuring machining forces desirably accurately and
The dynamometer should be reasonably sensitive for precisely (both static and dynamic characteristics) are
precision measurement
Either
Rigidity Strain gauge type
The dynamometer need to be quite rigid to withstand the Or
forces without causing much deflection which may affect the
machining condition piezoelectric type
Strain gauge type dynamometers are inexpensive but less
Cross sensitivity accurate and consistent, whereas, the piezoelectric type
The dynamometer should be free from cross sensitivity such are highly accurate, reliable and consistent but very
that one force (say PZ) does not affect measurement of the expensive for high material cost and stringent
other forces (say PX and PY) construction.

Strain Gauge Dynamometers 
The strain, ε induced by the force changes the electrical
resistance, R, of the strain gauges which are firmly
pasted on the surface of the tool‐holding beam as
ΔR
= Gε
R
where, G = gauge factor (around 2.0 for conductive
gauges)
The change in resistance of the gauges connected in a
wheatstone bridge produces voltage output ΔV, through
a strain measuring bridge (SMB)