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Formulae PDF
Formulae PDF
dF
F (x) F 0 (x) = dx
af (x) + bg(x) af 0 (x) + bg (x) 0
In the following, x and y are arbitrary real numbers, a and b are arbitrary constants that are
strictly bigger than zero and e is 2.7182818284, to ten decimal places.
1) e0 = 1, a0 = 1
2) ex+y = ex ey , ax+y = ax ay
3) e−x = e1x , a−x = a1x
y y
4) ex = exy , ax = axy
d x d g(x) d
5) dx
e = ex , = g 0 (x)eg(x) , dx
dx
e ax = (ln a) ax
6) ex dx = ex + C, e dx = a1 eax + C if a 6= 0
R R ax
7) lim ex = ∞, lim ex = 0
x→∞ x→−∞
lim a = ∞, lim ax = 0 if a > 1
x
x→∞ x→−∞
lim ax = 0, lim ax = ∞ if 0 < a < 1
x→∞ x→−∞
8) The graph of 2 is given below. The graph of ax , for any a > 1, is similar.
x
y y = 2x
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Properties of Logarithms
In the following, x and y are arbitrary real numbers that are strictly bigger than 0, a is
an arbitrary constant that is strictly bigger than one and e is 2.7182818284, to ten decimal
places.
ln x
1) eln x = x, aloga x = x, loge x = ln x, loga x = ln a
2) loga ax = x, ln ex = x
ln 1 = 0, loga 1 = 0
ln e = 1, loga a = 1
3) ln(xy) = ln x + ln y, loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
4) ln xy = ln x − ln y, loga xy = loga x − loga y
ln y1 = − ln y, loga y1 = − loga y,
y
1.5
1.0 y = ln x
0.5
x
1 2 3 4
−0.5
−1.0
−1.5