ANTHROPOLOGY OF FOOD IN

NAGALAND
Based on the Available Literature and Personal Interviews

ABSTRACT
The Director of North-East Zone Culture Centre (NEZCC), Som Kamei said in an interview, “Food is an integral
part of every human culture. The importance of food in understanding human culture lies in its infinite
variability – a variability that is not essential for species survival. For survival needs, people everywhere could
eat the same and simple food. But human culture, over the ages, has been experimenting, innovating and
developing sophisticated cuisines, which reflect human knowledge, culture, art and which have become an
expression of love.” Several studies have been done in the past few decades by many anthropologists,
sociologists, historians, and others on food habits and food cultures all over the world, but comparatively
very little has been done on the study of food culture in India, specifically speaking of Nagaland, where food
possess a very significant role in everyday life of the people, making it an element of their identity. Commented [SM1]: 66 word sentence! Split it please

The following report is a general outline of the food culture in Nagaland in anusing an anthropological
perspective, based solely on the secondary sources. I have tried to understand the significance of food in all
aspects of Naga culture, using whatever secondary resources were available to me. These have been
substantiated by few formal interviews with Naga people living in Delhi, who have provided me an empirical
and current perspective. I’ve I have tried to cover whatever aspects of the society food plays a significant Commented [SM2]: I personally do not like to contractions in
essays.
role in with respect to available literature and a few one-to-oneformal interviews of some Naga residents in
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Delhi.
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INTRODUCTION
The study of food culture has been a very recently added subject in the has been a recent addition to the
discipline ofscope of the social sciences. Food has been studied in history to look at its cultural, economic,
and environmental impact. Historians look at food as one of the most important elements of cultures,
reflecting the social and economic structures of society. Archaeologists or pre-historians tried to explore this
dimension by linking food with evolutionary perspectives and issues of migration and diffusion.
Anthropology offers us the opportunity to explore food in a complete holistic bio-socio-cultural perspective.
Marvin Harris explored the relationship between food and ecology, trying to understand how food practices
are related to material conditions of life. Food habits, in terms of what is considered ‘as edible or inedible by
a community is as powerful a marker of social identity as the incest taboo’(year of publication of citation:
page number from which quotation has been taken).

MIT Professor and Anthropologist Heather Paxson writes, “…for anthropologists, ‘What is Food?’ is
fundamentally a classificatory question that interlocks with other social domains like gender, kinship,
economy, religion, health and healing” (citation?). She brings in the idea that food is something which
everyone lives for. It acts as a medium of communication, conveying subtle messages in actions like – who
eats first; who is responsible for cooking and serving; who receives what portion of food, and many more. It
is not limited to the spheres of health and nutrition, but is a crucial element in building one’s identity. It is a
part and parcel of any community and plays a significant role in defining the culture of a region.

Through the study of food culture in a society, we can get a basic idea of their the lifestyle, their sense of
identity, the social differences, politics and religion of a people. It is one an aspect of culture which is a part
of all other institutions and plays a crucial role in the proper functioning of the same, and one such region
where food stands as such a defining entity is Nagaland.

One of the eight northNorth-eastern Eastern states of India, known to be the ‘tribal hub’ of India, Nagaland
is a place where food, metaphorically, does all the talking. It is, in a way responsible for maintaining the social
structure in the Naga community.

Nagaland – Land of the Naga Tribe

One of the eastern most states of India, Nagaland is truly a beautiful state which borders the state of Assam
to the Westwest, Arunachal Pradesh to the Northnorth, Manipur to the Southsouth, and Burma (Myanmar)
to the Easteast. The state’s capital is Kohima and the largest city is Dimapur. The state, having an area of
roughly 16,000 sq. Km. with a population of approximately 1.9 million (as per Census-2011), is inhabited by 31
different tribes, out of which the following 17 are very prominently found – Angami, Ao, Chakesang(h),
Chang, Kachari, Khiamniungan, Konyak, Kuki, Lotha, Phom, Pochury, Rengma, Sangtam, Sumi, Yimchunger,
Zeme-Liangmai (Zeliang) and Rongmei. Each tribe is unique in its own distinct customs and culture.

The Naga are mostly rice cultivators, by two main types of farming methods – Jhum (Shifting Cultivation) and Formatted: Font: Italic

Terrace farming. The principal crops include rice, corn, millets, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, sugarcane, potatoes,
and fibres. The tribal groups residing on the Northern northern and Eastern eastern hills follow the Jhum Commented [SM3]: Does this need to be capitalised?

while the southern and valley residents have terrace cultivation. Almost all the families in a traditional Naga Formatted: Font: Italic

village have a kitchen garden of their own where they grow fresh vegetables and fruits.

FOOD CULTURE IN NAGALAND

Each tribe in Nagaland has different cultural practices and beliefs. Food plays a major role in their respective
cultural lives as well as acts as a binding force among all the tribes. Dr. Pho, Medical officer at Nagaland
houseHouse, Delhi, says that the tribes in Nagaland are so different. : “Everyone is so humble and cheerful.
We have all accepted each other and until and unless there is any kind of harm from the other side, none of
the tribe fights”.

Naga cuisine is considered simplest among the north-eastern foods. A traditional Naga thali involves about Commented [SM4]: Describe what this is please

60% rice, 20% boiled vegetables (usually fresh from their gardens), 5% each of a hot chutney and fermented Formatted: Font: Italic

soybean paste (Axone/Akhuni), and 10% of a gravy dish with meat (pork/chicken/fish). The method of Formatted: Font: Italic

preparation is also very simple, prepared by either boiling or steaming. Dr. Phom says, ‘this method of
cooking involves no oil, everything is just cooked as it is. No external masala as is there in the Punjabi foods. Commented [SM5]: Talk about awareness of other cuisines;
infiltration of other cuisines, and perhaps the disdain of masala
This keeps the flavour of the vegetables and meat, rather than the flavour of masalas dominating the dish.’ rich and excessive ones like Punjabi that Dr. Phom says.

In a traditional Naga household in the villages, the vegetables are freshly picked from their respective
kitchen gardens. Almost everyone in the village have a kitchen garden of their own, and people use the herbs,
chillies and vegetables from there. Dr. Phom told me that people hardly go to the market in villages. They
have their own vegetables and herbs, they are all rice cultivators so rice is available at all times, and the meat Commented [SM6]: Does it still have the ceremoniality that it
once possessed? Do rules of hunting/gathering communities of
they usually go, hunt and bringis procured through hunting. He says, “we still hunt. The forests there are all
sharing the meat and arrow sharing etc. still apply? Or is hunting a
non-ritualised, secular activity?
ours. The government rules do not apply to us.” He stops, laughs a little and says, “there are hardly any wild
animals left there now. Sab kha liya” (Everything’s been eaten). Hukali Sema, the head cook at the Nagaland
house canteen says, “Development has caused people to move out of the villages and settle in the cities.
And there is hardly any space to have any kitchen gardens, like there were in the villages. So, the people
come down to the villages often to take home organically grown herbs, chillies and fruits.”

Who works in the kitchen gardens? The women I assume, Avi ma’am once told us her mother grew
everything in hers

What is the age/sex structure and division involved in food procurement? Who hunts and who gardens, we
know, but write it.

Socialisation through these practices- girls learn from mothers, sons from fathers and GFs in hunt

Eating Together
It is a common belief among the people in Nagaland that their being together could solve any problems.
Eating together, whether as a family, or a community or a village, is a carefully conducted exercise in bringing
people close. Food is believed to cement the relationship between people. Mrs. Sema is reminded of a
quarrel between her and one of her neighbours back home. They quarrelled about some plants from Mrs.
Sema’s garden which apparently had outgrown into the neighbours garden, taking up the sunlight from
above the smaller plants. The next day she says, ‘Both of us sent our kids to each other’s houses and
exchanged some freshly brewed soups and meat. And it was all back to normal. Sab bhool gaya! (Everything
was forgotten).’ Although with the growing modernisation and everyone busy earning their own breads, the
families in Kohima or Dimapur have adjusted to the situation, but make sure to eat together at least one
meal of the day. My friend Seyielenuo’s Grandma grandmother said that eating together is not that
important but it makes it easier to share food among the members of the family.

Wait, so an older woman says commensality is not important but women a generation or two below her say
it is?

Exclusion of people from eating events is a symbolically intense social sign of rank, distance and enmity. A
father being angry from his sons would skip a meal with them just to tell the others that he is upset. Also,
one village which has taken heads from one other village would never invite that village (of whom the heads
were taken) to any of the feasts or celebrations.

Besides eating together as a family, community feasting is prevalent among all the communities in Nagaland,
especially in the villages. Community feasting is usually an occasion to cement the bond of friendship and
geniality with one another. Feasting is a must among all the Naga tribes to mark any occasion – be it a joyous
one like birth or marriage, or to mourn someone’s death. It is believed that getting together and holding
such feasts brings people closer to each other and makes them stronger than the other villages.

Food and Status

Food in the north-east is very closely tied to the moral status of individuals and groups. In a traditional Naga
society, food is one source which could tell us the status of a family in the village and the hierarchy within the
family itself. The way the food is served to a person after being cooked determines his or her status in the
family or the group he/she belongs to. In practice, the application of the rules of commensality vary from
community to community. Although not followed in such rigor among all the Naga tribes, many tribal
communities are very peculiar about determining the social hierarchy through food. A meal in the household
in Nagaland generally begins with the head of the family offering a small prayer to God, and the rest of the
family can eat only after he has sampled the first morsel. In almost all the communities, the first serving of a Commented [SM7]: Use only one term Vidya, tribe or
community
meal and the best portions of the same is generally served to the head of the family or the most important
person seated for the meal (like a guest).

The guest is of a higher status than the head of the family, in terms of moral worth and rules of etiquette?
What happens if the guest is not served first?

With the people of Nagaland being all non-vegetarians, meat assumes a lot of importance in their daily lives.
It is often used as a tool for comprehending the status of a family in the society. While the amount of meat
consumed indicates the social status of the family, the manner and the pattern of serving inside the family
determine the rank of its members within themselves. The meat type and its amount solely depended on
how good the kill was.success of the hunt.

With the advent of Christianity, the hierarchy conceptstrict rules of commensality which resulted in domestic
hierarchy within the family hashave almost disappeared. The same is true in the politico-jural domain of the
village, expect for a handful of people who have not converted. The idea of status in the society is also not
that much followed in the recent times, except the ones living in the villages and have not converted into
Christians. Dr. Phom says, “Christianity believes everyone to be equal regardless of their status. So, inside a
city, all are treated equally. It is just that the affordability comes into question. Other than that, no difference
is there.”

Food Taboos: What to Eat and What Not?

Food taboos are known from practically allexist in all human societies. Most religions declare certain food
items fit and others unfit for human consumption. Food taboos (as unwritten social rules) exist in one form
or another in every society. These can be defined as rules, collected and organised, about which foods or
combinations of foods may not be eaten and how animals are to be slaughtered. The taboos are the result of
human symbolic system, religious periods, stages of life, classes of people although the foods in general is
permissible.

The tribes in Nagaland follow many such taboos, different taboos in different tribal communities. Khriebo
Belhou, a counsellor at Shalom Bible Seminary, Sechu Zubza, specifically mentions in her article on Food
taboos (To Eat or Not to Eat, by Khriebo Belhou; Food Trail: Discovering Food Culture of North-east India,
written by Aiyushman Dutta write the publisher also please) that there are more taboos for women, Formatted: Font: Not Italic

compared tothan men. The food taboos, as she mentioned, circled either around building one’s self
(achieving success) in front of the elders and other tribesmen, or maintaining peace among people.
Interviews with my friend Seyilenuo, an Angami Naga; Dr. Phom, a Phom Naga; Henry Ao (junior chef at
Nagaland House), an Ao Naga and Mrs. Hukali Sema, a Sema Naga; told me of several such taboos related to
food items in her community. The following are a few of them:

 Sharing one chilly would stir up a fight between the people who shared it.
 During harvesting of paddy, people avoid eating chillies, especially those who are directly
involved in the harvesting work. It is believed that eating them will bring them bad harvest.
  On the first day of paddy harvest, the women folk leave a small portion of rice from their plates,
be it only 2-3 grains. None of the female folks empty their plates during this time. They believe
doing so would bring in a good harvest.
 During the whole harvest season, people do not roast any chillies at home as it is believed to be
a bad omen. Also, the fire in the fireplace of the household is never put off throughout the
whole harvest season.
 It is also a forbidden rule, especially in Angami community, to share food(s) with neighbours or
friends throughout the harvest time. It is believed that during the harvest seasons people do not
carry around plates and visit outside their houses as it will bring in a bad omen. This is called
Ukhouphra. The bad omen is called this?
 When the storage silo or the grain basket is full of the harvest, a few grains are left out on the
on top of the silo cover indicating and telling others that it was a good harvest.
 Women, especially young reproductively active women are forbidden from eating any fruit that
partially grows into two (like twin bananas, or other). This is because they believed that any
young women who ate such a fruit will give birth to twins that were abnormally joined in some
part of their bodies.
 Women of the house are not allowed to eat the meat of the hunted animals as it is considered a
bad omen.
 I have a feeling that these are superstitions (though this is an outdated concept in the Formatted: Indent: Left: 0.49", No bullets or numbering

social sciences) and not taboos; but, I am not sure.

They told many stories of their childhood and past, which they witnessed and remembered about the
restrictions on the foods. Dr. Phom could not recall if it is a rule in the community, but he said that the
women, especially young girls were not allowed to eat the leftovers from any male’smen’s plates. This was
followed in his house. Mrs. Sema remembers her younger brother asking their father why they don’t catch
and eat the house-sparrows that eat their grains. His father replied that they don’t eat sparrows because if
they did they would become lazy, causing them to depend on other’s hard-work to live. Children in the house
were not allowed, in a Phom village, to eat ‘unhatched’ eggs. It was believed that if they do so, they would
lose favour in the eyes of the elders. But despite this taboo, there were many kids who got together and
quietly sneak out an egg or two from their hatcheries and ate them. These stories and taboos were very
strongly followed in most of the Naga societies, but at present due to the change in their thoughts and
growing literacy, many of these taboos are no more followed in the city areas.

Commented [SM8]: How about ‘The gendered perspective’?

Food and Gendered Perspective or ‘Food and Gender’?
Naga people follow a very concretised patriarchy among themselves. Several restrictions were placed on the
women and their education and empowerment. They were always considered to be responsible for the
kitchen. It is considered the basic duty of a woman, and thus the daily basic meals are all prepared by the
women folks of the household. Men, however, are responsible to bring in vegetables, meat, and other things
which are needed for cooking.

The Naga society consists of a very well-defined division of labour in terms of food – bringing in raw foods,
preparing and serving. Being a predominant hunting-gathering society, the men were responsible to bring
the hunted animals, and women were responsible for gathering fruits, digging vegetables and preparing the
foods. In the present times, as Seyielenuo said, since the women have long been involved in cooking and Commented [SM9]: Okay! See comment above

preparing food for the families, it has become a habit of theirs. People have started to take it for granted,
and thus, it is thought to be obvious that cooking is women’s responsibility. Another such example can be
given of the preparation of rice beer. Naga people love rice beers and every household have a stock of it in
their houses. It was said that the men came back from the fields all tired, so the women folks would make
the rice beer for them to feel a little energetic. This over the years has become the job of women. However,
now, a lot of men are also involved in its preparations.
Commented [SM10]: Why are you stereotyping? Even if you
are not, it seems like you are. ‘Rice beer is commonly consumed
and is the principal and favourite alcoholic drink of the Nagas’

On the contrary, Dr. Phom has some contrasting opinions about this. He says, with the acceptance of
Christianity, the rules of creating difference between a man and a woman have been long gone. Christianity
believes in everyone being equal, irrespective of the gender and status. In the present scenario, even men
cook. There is no hard and fast rule that only women will cook. Whoever has time to cook, and is at home,
cooks – be it a man or a woman.

Men are usually responsible for cooking for either a big crowd or gathering or during harvest/sowing
festivals or purification festivals of the tribes, like Sekrenyi (Angamis), Tuluni (Semas), Monyu (Phom), etc.
There are times when during the festivals the women folks are not allowed to join in the feast or be at the
place where the men cook as it is considered impure. However, this is no more followed in the present
scenario.

Ritualistic Context of FoodThe ritual context

Food in the state of Nagaland is more than just food. It is an important part of a lot of other activities that
define Naga life and culture. Barkataki, ethno-journalist, in her article about the Tangsa Nagas, talks about
the importance of rice in their lives, not only as a food item, but also as an important tool in their ritual
sphere. As Heather Paxson describes, food has been an important element of communication, Barkataki
talks about the period when writing wasn’t was not developed. When people needed to send messages to
far off villages, they would use either chillies or rice as an element of communication. They usually used
chillies to convey bad news (like an approaching war, or death), while rice was used to convey some good
news like birth or marriage in a community. In the same way, when it is a good harvest and the storage silo or
the grain basket is full, a few grains are left out on the on top of the silo cover indicating and telling others
that it was a good harvest. Many offerings that are made before or during sowing and harvesting crops
involve rice, both in raw and cooked forms. Cooked rice is used as an offering to the rats and mice before the
sowing season to convince them not to spoil their fields.

The Naga are primarily agriculturalists and mainly rice cultivators on subsistence. They eat what they grow. Commented [SM11]: In the previous section you have said
they are hunter-gatherers and before that you said they practice
Nothing from a general Naga household goes out into the commercial market. For a good harvest, there are jhum. Kaunsa hai bhai?
many times when people offered food items to the spirits they worshipped. There are several stories and
folk tales regarding the same. Among the Angamis, people would keep a little cooked rice and egg in a plate
outside their front doors and they believe that the village spirit comes and takes it. It is often heard that
when the spirit comes it sounds like someone came galloping on a horse. Sometimes even cooked chickens
and pigs are also offered.

In events like marriages, or even death of a person with high statushigher status person in the village, feasts
are organised. At such times, a dish called Moudi (Modi) is made. This dish is prepared of one whole cow Formatted: Font: Italic

(with all its parts included, even the blood). It is said that the groom brings the cows for preparation of this Formatted: Font: Italic

dish. The wealth of the groom is showed off in such an event, and it is decided if the bride will be given or not.
The traditional Naga food includes several cultural rituals and sacrifices, but in the present times with the rise
in people following Christianity, many such practices have been forbidden. There are many instances when
the Christian beliefs clash with the traditional practices.

CHANGES IN THE CULTURAL ASPECT OF FOOD

Based on the readings and the interviews, a lot of changes could be found in the food culture of Nagaland.
Over the years, with the ever-enhancing effects of Christianity, Christianity deeply penetrating its roots in the Commented [SM12]: Sounds like Christianity is very evil!

Naga culture, the years-old cultural aspect of food, used mainly also for the sacrificial or ritualistic purposes,
has drastically changed. Dr. Phom says, “food, at the present time, carries just the leisure factor. We no more
sacrifice animals. They are hunted, but are not ritually sacrificed to any of the spirits. Christianity is one of the
reasons why sacrifices have stopped.”- and other types of rituals have begun in fact.

Galho – a traditional Angami dish – was made with whatever vegetables, leaves, hearbs and meat is available Formatted: Font: Italic

at home. It was a kind of survival dish among the Angami ancestors. When in the past, there was nothing
much at home, the women of the household would mix up whatever little of everything that is there (little
vegetables and whatever greens are there) and prepare Galho dish. These days with the increasing Formatted: Font: Italic

urbanisation and settlements away from the villages and forests, it has become difficult to get fresh greens
ready at hand. Also, due to the inflation and increased market prices of the vegetables, it has become a little
difficult for people to make Galho so often as it was made in the olden times. Seyielenuo says, that Galho has
become the food of the ill or weak peoples at the present times, as it is light on stomach and is made of all
the fresh veggies and greens. Sometimes people also add smoked meat (meat part or just the fatty part) to
add a little flavour to the dish.

In similar way, the food among the Naga people is slowly losing its cultural strength and is becoming one of
the tools of fun and enjoyment, rather than being culturally meaningful.

DISCUSSION
Over the decades, the state of Nagaland has undergone a lot of changes which has affected the religion,
economy, and lifestyle of the people. The cultural value of food in the lives of the ‘previously-animist-Naga-
tribes’ has long been replaced by the leisure context of food. The sacrificial rites and offerings to spirits have
been stopped. This state shares its borders with Myanmar on the east, and with the Chinese dominated
Arunachal Pradesh towards the North East. There has been much influence of the neighbouring countries on
the Naga food culture, basically the food items in the eastern districts. Many traditional dishes have been
transformed from their original forms. According to Ale, the traditional spices and methods of cooking have
changed a lot. The influence of the mainstream India (i.e., the part of India minus the seven NE states) could
be seen quite evidently. She says that this change in the taste buds and the change in recipes of traditional
Naga cuisines is more prevalent among the Eastern Nagas than the Western or Northern ones.

I’d I would like to rest my pointconclude on this report with this statement: Food is, and has always been an Commented [SM13]: Who are you debating?

important reason for the survival of human culture. It is one such aspect which, no matter how thoughts and
beliefs change, it will always be there. This part of culture needs attention and much work could be done in
this area. Also, North-east India is a part of India, which only in the recent few decades, has been recognised
as a part of the country. There is a lot which is to be studied and recorded, for it will be such wasteloss of a Commented [SM14]: Kya?

culture if it is let go.

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