ABC Metallurgy Module

Metallurgy – Heat Treating Theory
Level I – ABC’s of Heat Treating
Heat Treat Theory

How Does Heat Treating Work?
Let’s begin with a simple definition of heat treating:
Heat treating is a process comprised of controlled

heating and then controlled cooling a solid metal or
alloy. This heating and cooling process is per-
formed to produce a desired change in a metal … to
change its mechanical properties, its metallurgical
structure or its residual stress state. The process is
designed to provide specific conditions or properties
within the metal or alloy.
Be certain you
understand the basic Let’s now review some heat treating basics, which are
definition of heat treating necessary to describe in detail before you can completely
contained in this section
understand the above definition.
before you proceed.
Using Heat to Change the Properties of Metals

The ability to change a metal’s properties, such as:
• its hardness,
Heating metals provides the • its strength,
ability to alter its strength,
ductility and toughness. • its ductility, and
• its toughness
are vital to being able to provide a variety of consumer and
industrial products – everything from nuts and bolts, to razor
blades to jet airplanes and satellites.
The ability of a product to
effectively and reliably The ability to control the properties necessary to make these
perform in service is products has a major effect on their ability to perform in
influenced greatly by its service and our ability to manufacture them.
properties.
Generally speaking, all metals and alloys will respond in
some way to heat treatment. However, depending on the
metal or alloy being used, the type of response and end
result will substantially vary. Through use of heat treatment,
metals can be softened (often referred to as annealed) or
strengthened and hardened.
Heat Treating Network Page 1

Although steels become plastic (soft and pliable) at high

temperatures used for hardening, heat treating is not
“melting of the steel”. Hardening puts the steel into
“solution” a “solid solution” where the molecules or cells are
free to reconfigure to its uniformity and homogeneity.
Formation of Crystalline Structures in Steel

Overview
Iron and steel can be heated to a temperature causing them

As iron and steel are melted to melt into a liquid. As this liquid cools, crystals form. At
then cooled, crystals form. first, tiny crystals form, and then they keep growing until they
The arrangement of the arrange themselves in regular precise formations. These
atoms in a crystal is regular patterns of precise rows are called the space lattice.
referred to as the space
lattice. A space lattice is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal.
The smallest arrangement in the lattice is called the

molecules, or the unit cell. So, a lattice is simply a group of
unit cells in which each unit cell is identical.
A space lattice is a group of
unit cells.
Let’s now take a look at the three types of unit cells which
have the greatest influence on heat treating steels.
Body-Centered Cubic (bcc):
Body-centered cubic unit The unit cell of a bcc lattice can be seen in this figure:
cells are one of three
primary unit cell types.
Body-Centered Cubic Lattice (bcc).
Atom

You can see that the cell on the previous page consists of
eight atoms at each of the corners of a square cube. In the
center of these eight atoms is a ninth atom. A complete
lattice of a body-centered cubic unit cell is seen in this figure:
A group of bcc unit cells.
Review the list of materials A group of bcc unit cells.

having a bcc lattice The following materials take the form of bcc unit cells:
• ferrite iron, i chromium,

• lithium, i molybdenum, and
• tungsten ivanadium
Face-Centered Cubic (fcc):
The face-centered cubic The unit cell of an fcc lattice can be viewed in this figure:
unit cell is the second of
those primary unit cells we
referred to earlier. Face-Centered Cubic Lattice (fcc).
Atoms at Corners
Atoms at Faces
You will see that, the fcc lattice on the previous page, like the

bcc, also consists of eight atoms in the corners of a square
cube. However, rather than having an atom in the center of
the cube, the fcc has an atom in the middle of each of the six
faces of the cube. So, a fcc unit cell consists of 14 atoms.
Now, let’s take a look at the complete lattice of face-centered

cubic unit cells:
A group of fcc unit cells.
Review the list of materials

having a bcc lattice A group of fcc unit cells.
The following materials take the form of fcc unit cells:
• austenitic iron,
• aluminum,
• copper,
• gold,
• lead,
• nickel,
• platinum, and
• silver

Body-Centered Tetragonal:
Body-centered tetragonal
unit cells is the last of the The unit cell of a bct lattice is seen in this figure:
three primary unit cell
types.
The bct is almost identical to the bcc unit cell in that it

consists of eight atoms at each of the corners of the cube,
with an atom in the center for the ninth atom of the unit cell.
However, instead of being a cube with square faces, the bct
has rectangular faces.
Now let’s look at the complete lattice of a body-centered

tetragonal cell:
A group of bct unit cells.
A group of bct unit cells.
Martensitic iron takes on the form of bct.

The “Magic” of Iron
As you have seen in the

previous lattice structures,
iron can exist in three unit
cell forms. As iron is
exposed to extreme
temperature changes, its
atoms realign themselves
into new geometric patterns.
(And you always wondered
why steel parts distort???
More on this later…)
Ferrite iron takes on the form of bcc and, at room

temperature, is basic iron that has not previously been heat
treated.
Austenitic iron takes on the form of fcc, and is basic iron at

elevated temperatures -- above 1333°F (723°C). So, as
ferrite is heated above a critical temperature, it “transforms”,
or in other words, its atoms rearrange to form fcc unit cells
referred to as austenite.
Martensitic iron takes on the form of bct, and is ferrite which

Iron has the ability to go
has been heated until transforming into austenite, which is
from bcc Î fcc Î bct.
then quickly cooled by quenching. The heating and cooling
result in the bct unit cell. This process tends to harden the
iron; therefore, the iron goes from bcc to fcc to bct.
To Review…
1. Any steel heated to a critical temperature transforms in a
“solid solution” to austenite (fcc).
2. Austenite that is cooled slowly transforms to ferrite (bcc).
3. Austenite that is quenched (cooled quickly) transforms to
martensite (bct).
4. Although steels become plastic (soft and pliable) at high
temperatures used for hardening, heat treating is not
“melting of the steel”. Hardening puts the steel into
“solution” a “solid solution” where the molecules or cells
are free to reconfigure to its uniformity and homogeneity.

The following chart will help you compare the characteristics
of the three “forms” of iron and steel:
CHARACTERISTIC COMPARISONS OF FERRITE, AUSTENITE AND MARTENSITE
FERRITE AUSTENITE MARTENSITE
Body Centered Cubic Face Centered Cubic Body Centered Tetragonal

Lattice Formation Lattice Formation Lattice Formation
Exists At Low Temperature Exists At High Temperature Exists At Low Temperature
Magnetic Nonmagnetic Magnetic
Less Hardness Than Most Essentially No Hardness More Hardness Than Most
Steels Steels
Less Strength Than Most Essentially No Strength More Strength Than Most
Steels Steels
Ductile (Not Applicable) Brittle
Less Internal Stress Than (Not Applicable) More Internal Stress Than
Most Steels Most Steels
In your own words, describe “the magic of iron”…
Now that we understand that iron can exist in three lattice

structure forms, let’s examine the transformation
temperatures of iron.

Transformation Temperatures of Iron

When steel is “heated up” and ferrite transforms to
austenite, there are two important temperatures to
recognize and understand. Let’s examine them now:
Lower Transformation Temperature

Lower transformation
temperature (A1) is where The lower transformation temperature, referred to as “A1” on
bcc begins to change to fcc the Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram, is the temperature where
when heating steel. the bcc structure begins to change to the fcc. In other words,
this is the temperature where ferrite begins to transform to
austenite.
As austenite is cooled, depending on the rate of cooling, the

same temperatures define the completion of the
transformation process.
The lower transformation temperature (A1) denotes the

temperature at which all of the austenite (fcc) has
transformed to 100% ferrite (bcc) when slow cooled.
When we look at the time-temperature transformation

diagram later in this section, we will see how austenite, which
is still the fcc, changes to martensite (bct) when quenched.
The lower transformation temperature for all irons and steels

is approximately 1330°F (721°C).
Upper Transformation Temperature
The upper transformation temperature (A3) is the

temperature where all the bcc structure has completely
Upper transformation changed to fcc. In other words, this is the temperature at
temperature (A3) is where which point all of the ferrite has changed to austenite.
the bcc structure has
completely changed to fcc As austenite is cooled, depending on the rate of cooling, the
when heating steel. same temperatures define the beginning of transformation.
The upper transformation temperature (A3) denotes the

beginning of austenite (fcc) transforming to ferrite (bcc) for
slow cooling.
The upper transformation temperature varies for each metal

and ranges from 1330°F to 2000°F (721°C to 1093°C) …
more on this later.
Grain Size
In an earlier section, we learned that when a molten metal is
cooled, it aligns itself into precise regular structures which we
Nucleation sites = where unit
cells form.
call unit cells. Now … imagine that as a molten metal first
begins to cool, there are several sites that form a single unit
cell. These sites or “spots” are called nucleation sites and
this is where a single unit cell is formed.
As the metal continues to cool, more unit cells form,

attaching themselves to the initial nucleation sites. This
process continues in all three dimensions, thereby forming
“colonies” of unit cells.
This process of “colony formation” continues until the

“boundaries” of each of the individual colonies make contact
Grains begin as nucleation with each other. The metallurgical term for these unit cell
sites in slowly cooling molten colonies is grains and the boundaries are referred to grain
metal. boundaries.
In general, the slower the cooling rate, the fewer the

nucleation sites. This results in larger colonies or larger grain
Slow cooling rates produce size, which enhances hardenability, but also increases the
larger grain size in metal. tendency of the steel to crack during thermal treatment.
Conversely, the faster the cooling rate, the more nucleation

Faster cooling rates produce sites, which will result in smaller grain size. Consequently,
smaller grain size in metal. fine grain size is usually specified for applications involving
hardening by thermal treatments.
So, now that we know how large and small grain sizes are
produced in metal, let’s learn more about why grain size is
important.
The size of the grain size has a profound effect on the

mechanical properties of the steel. Remember, the
mechanical properties include:
• strength,
• hardness,
• brittleness, and
• ductility
The following table compares the properties of large and

small grain size.

COMPARISON OF TWO GRAIN SIZES
Large Grain Size Small Grain Size
COOLING SPEED FROM Slow Rapid

AUSTENITE
STRENGTH Lower Higher
HARDNESS Lower Higher
DUCTILITY Ductile Brittle
DISTORTION & CRACKING Little Tendency Greater Tendency
MACHINABILITY & FORMABILITY Best Difficult
TO REVIEW:
Metals with smaller grain sizes in their composition have
greater overall strength properties than those metals with
larger grain sizes in their composition.
Before you
proceed, be certain you
The larger the grain size the less the strength.
understand the importance
of grain size as reviewed in Therefore, if strength is a necessary property, efforts should
the summary. be made to keep grain size small by applying proper heating
and cooling factors during processing. However, if ductility is
important, every effort should be made to keep grain size
large in the part being heat treated.
List end uses for parts you or your company heat treat, and indicate
whether a small or large grain size is preferred, and why.
End Use Grain Size Why?

Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

We have learned that steel is iron with more than 0.0%
carbon, but less than 2.0% carbon. What we haven’t yet
covered, in any detail, is how differently steel behaves as the
amount of carbon is increased.
The following figure will help you to better understand the

Carbon is located in the location of carbon in relation to the unit cells. The location for
interstitial spots of unit cells. carbon (and all alloying elements) is in the interstitial spots of
the unit cell, which are openings of small spaces between
other elements contained in the unit cell. For steel, the
interstitial sites are between the iron atoms.
Arrangement of atoms in the two crystalline structures

of pure iron.
Body-centered cubic (bcc) lattice
Face-centered cubic (fcc) lattice.

(The small dark sphere is carbon atom.)

Before continuing, let’s introduce three more important terms
necessary to understand the Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram.
These terms are ferrite, cementite and pearlite.
• Iron with very little carbon is called ferrite.

• When there is approximately 0.8% carbon present in
the steel, the ferrite and the cementite are “in balance”
forming the microstructure as it appears in the
photomicrograph on the following page.
• If there is less than 0.8% carbon present in the steel,
there will be a mixture of ferrite and pearlite.
All three of these forms can and do exist to some degree in
steel at room temperature.
Let’s review each of these forms in more detail.
Ferrite:
Ferrite is a weak steel which
exists at low temperatures Ferrite is almost pure iron. It has little ability to dissolve
and does not contain much carbon, thus it contains little carbon. Since carbon gives
carbon. steel the ability to become strong and hard, ferrite is very
weak. Ferrite exists at low temperatures only and is
magnetic.
Cementite:
Cementite is a compound of Cementite is actually a compound of iron and carbon known
iron and carbon known as
“iron carbide”. as “iron carbide”. Its chemical formulation is Fe3C (which is
one part carbon and three parts iron). Cementite contains
6.67% carbon by weight. However, cementite is present in
the alloy between 0.8% and 6.67% carbon. As the
percentage of carbon increases, more and more cementite is
present, until at 6.67% the entire mixture is cementite. Below
2.0% it is considered steel and above 2.0% it is considered
cast iron. Cementite exists at room temperature and is
magnetic.
Pearlite:
Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and cementite in lamellar form.
and cementite. The photomicrograph on the next page shows a microscopic
picture of pearlite at 500x. Note that the pearlite appears as
layers. The black lines or ridges are cementite and the white
area in between is the ferrite. Pearlite is made up of layers of
ferrite and layers of cementite adjacent to one another.
Pearlite exists at room temperature and is magnetic.
Photomicrograph of Pearlite at 500X

Note: pearlite appears as layers; the black ridges are cementite; and the white area in
between is ferrite.

When there is approximately 0.8% carbon present in the

Make sure you understand steel, the ferrite and the cementite are “in balance”
how the information to the right
forming the microstructure as it appears in the
photomicrograph on the previous page.
Remember…if there is less than 0.8% carbon present in

pertains to the photo- the steel, there will be a mixture of ferrite and pearlite.
micrograph on the previous
page.
An excess of 0.8% carbon will result in a mixture of
ferrite and cementite.
We have already learned that when steel is elevated in

temperature that it transforms into austenite. We have
also learned that, at elevated temperatures, the steel
changes from bcc to fcc, and that when it is cooled
slowly it changes back to bcc.
What we now need to understand is that – depending on

the carbon content of the steel -- the bcc structure will
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram consist of ferrite, pearlite and cementite. This leads to the
iron-carbon phase diagram. Before continuing, please
review the iron-carbon phase diagram on page 15. Note
that the x-axis (the horizontal scale) is percent carbon, and
the y-axis (the vertical scale) is temperature.
We previously reviewed the significance of upper (A3)

transformation temperature and lower (A1)
transformation temperature ... now we can see how they
relate to changing the carbon content in the steel.
(Please again refer to the Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
on page 15 as you continue with the material below.)
As the percent carbon in steel increases from 0.0% up to

0.8%, the upper (A3) decreases to approximately 1330°F
(721°C). As the carbon content increases from 0.8% up
to 2.0% the upper (A3) increases. This information is
very significant, since most hardening processes require
steel to be taken above A3 to be fully transformed into
austenite.
Knowing the percent carbon in How can the heat treater know what temperature to heat
the part being treated is very the parts to (that is to say, “what is the A3?”) if the
important. %carbon is not known? Let’s explore the answer
together.


You’ve already reviewed the basic Iron-Carbon Phase

Diagram contained on the previous page. Now take a
look at the diagrams on the next three pages. You’ll note
that each page shows the same basic phase diagram,
however, additional details have been included to
indicate where the austenite, ferrite, and pearlite
Study the Iron- structures develop.
Carbon Phase Diagrams on
the following three pages. The various iron-carbon phase diagrams make it easier
to determine the structure of a steel with a certain
percentage carbon at a particular temperature. To help
better understand what this means, let’s review a heat
treating “rule of thumb”:
A heat treating “Rule of
Thumb”
To avoid distortion, a heat treater should
always use the minimum required temper-
ature to ensure complete transformation --
that is the lowest A3 possible. To do so, the
heat treater must know the percent carbon in
the parts.
Earlier we covered the subject of martensite. From that

material you’ll recall that if steel is cooled quickly
The percent carbon content is (quenched), then instead of various percentages of
very significant in this review ferrite, pearlite, and cementite being achieved, the result
and directly relates to our is martensite. However, achieving martensite is not as
ability to determine the A3 for a easy as it sounds as we will see later in this module.
particular steel.
Let’s move on to terms related to the Iron-Carbon Phase
Diagram which are important in being able to develop a
good working knowledge of the diagram. (You might
want to take one more look at the phase diagrams on the
following three pages before continuing on.)
What is the answer to the question: “How can a heat treater know
what temperature to heat the parts to if the percent of carbon is
not known?

Alloy phase diagram with austenite highlight.
Temperature

Alloy phase diagram with ferrite and pearlite highlight.

Phase diagram indicating the transformation regions.

Terms Related to the Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

In order for you to be confident in your understanding of
the Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram, it’s important that you
understand the following terms:
A1 is the lower transformation temperature.
Important A3 is the upper transformation temperature.

Phase Diagram
Terms
EUTECTOID POINT refers to the point where the upper
transformation temperature line (A3), the lower
transformation temperature line (A1), and the 0.8%
carbon pearlitic line all come together. Can you locate
the eutectoid point in the phase diagram on page 17?
TRANSFORMATION TEMPERATURE RANGE is the region

between the A3 and A1. In these two triangular areas,
either: a.) during heat up, low temperature structures of
ferrite, pearlite, and cementite are being transformed to
austenite; or b.) during cool down, the austenite
structure is transforming to low temperature structure for
slow cooling, or the austenite changes to martensite
during quenching. Where is the transformation
Carefully study the terms listed temperature range on page 17?
in the right-hand column.
HYPOEUTECTOID REGION is the region to the left of the
0.8 % carbon line. Any steel that falls in this region is
known as hypoeutectoid steel. Can you locate this
region in the diagram on page 17?
HYPEREUTECTOID REGION is the region to the right of the

0.8% carbon line. Any steel that falls in this region is
known as hypereutectoid steel. Locate this region on the
diagram on page 17.
QUENCHING refers to controlled cooling. Generally it

refers to steel that has been heated to the austenite
range (above A3) and then rapidly cooled. Usually this
will result in a martensitic structure, rather than ferrite,
pearlite, or cementite.

SLOW COOLING is the opposite of quenching. When a
steel is slow cooled from the austenite range, it will
change to ferrite, pearlite, cementite or a combination of
the three.
Once you have carefully reviewed and understand these

terms, proceed to the section focused on the topic of
balancing the required properties in parts being heat
treated.
Balancing the Desired Properties

Typically, the parts we heat treat require a variety of
properties – not just one. For example, a part may need
to be a certain hardness to control wear, but may still
need a certain ductility and strength. The hardness,
strength, brittleness and ductility of a steel is a result of
the heating and cooling method used. This is referred to
as the heat treat cycle. (Typically the grain size is
predetermined and if properly heat treated will not
change significantly.)
When a steel is heated above the A3 (transformed to

Martensitic properties. austenite) and then rapidly quenched, it will most often
transform into martensite. It will be hard and strong,
but …it will also be brittle.
When a steel is heated above the A3 (transformed to

austenite) and then cooled very slowly , it will transform
Properties of ferrite, pearlite
and cementite.
into ferrite, pearlite and cementite. This structure is
comparatively softer, less strong and more ductile.
The ideal properties for a heat treated steel are:

• hardness,
• strength,
• ductility, and
• small grain size.
It would be ideal if we could achieve hardness and

strength through heat treating without experiencing the
side effect of brittleness.

The choice in material and process selection can be

reduced to the following three options:
Material and process selection 1) If a steel must be hard and strong, select a material
options.
that has been quenched rapidly. However, this steel
will usually be brittle.
2) If a steel must have great ductility, it will have to be

cooled slowly and it will be very machinable and
ductile. However, this steel will not have good
strength or hardness.
3) If the steel must have both strength and ductility,

there are special alloys that can be added to the
steel. The addition of these alloying elements
increase the cost of the material. But … if the desired
properties are required … then the additional cost can
be justified.
The following table will summarize how the cooling rate

affects the metal’s properties.
HOW COOLING RATE AFFECTS HARDNESS, STRENGTH, DUCTILITY, STEEL

STRUCTURE AND GRAIN SIZE
FAST COOLING OR
QUENCHING SLOW COOLING
Hardest Softer
Strongest Less Strong
Brittle Ductile
Martensite Ferrite-Pearlite
Cementite
Small Grain Size Large Grain Size

Here’s another heat treating “Rule of Thumb”:
A heat treating “Rule of
Thumb” Hardness of steel is primarily dependent on the
speed of the quench and the percent carbon in
the steel. The faster the quench, and the higher
the carbon, the higher the hardness.
Hardness is dependent on Quenching of steel is covered more throughly in the

quench speed and % Heat Treating Processes Module of the ABC’s of
carbon in the steel part. Heat Treating.
Without referring to the text we’ve just covered, try to answer

the following questions:
List two (of four) ideal properties for a heat treated steel:
1. 2.
Place a check mark 9 in the appropriate box:
Quenched Rapidly Slowly Cooled

To achieve ductile steel, the
steel should be…
To achieve a hard, strong
steel, the steel should be…
Let’s try another set of questions…
1. What properties would a steel cable (comprised of strands) be required to

have if it is used with giant pulleys to lift a large bridge up and down?
2. What properties would be required in a gear in order to function properly and

reliably?

Time-Temperature-Transformation (T-T-T) Curves

Let’s begin by offering a definition of T-T-T curves:
Time-Temperature-Transformation Curves are drawn
While the Time-Temperature-
Transformation (T-T-T) Curve
using time (stated in a logarithmic fashion) and
is also refered to as the temperature (stated in a linear fashion) as coordinates,
Isothermal Transformation which define for each level of temperature the beginning
Diagram, we will refer to it as and end of the transformation of the initial phase of a
the T-T-T curve in this text. metal under isothermal treatment. (Note: Isothermal
treatment is a type of treatment in which a part is
quenched rapidly down to a given temperature, then held
at that temperature until all transformation is complete.)
We have reviewed that when steel is heated above the

upper (A3) transformation temperature (austenite range),
depending on how the steel is cooled from this austenitic
phase and depending on its % carbon, it forms either:
• martensite (when quenched), or
• a combination of ferrite, pearlite and cementite
(when slowly cooled).
This information is graphically displayed in the iron-

carbon phase diagram. The iron-carbon phase diagram
The T-T-T curve points out is very useful and is an excellent reference for heat
how to achieve the desired treaters, but it does not include the element of time…and
microstructure and mechanical time is also a critical element. Lets find out why.
properties of steel.
How quickly does the steel have to be quenched to form

martensite? What is the cooling rate required to form
ferrite and pearlite? The T-T-T curve takes into account
the speed of the cooling process. It is also critical in
determining how to achieve the desired microstructure
and mechanical properties of a particular steel.
The T-T-T curve is also referred to as the isothermal

transformation diagram (I-T) curve, however, we will
refer to it in this text as the T-T-T curve.
Examine the figure on the following page. You will see

that the upper (A3) and the lower (A1) are included in the
graph. As we have learned, to harden steel, it must be
heated above both of these temperatures. You will note
that, for T-T-T curves (A3) is designated as (Af) and (A1)
becomes (As). Why? Because each and every
Examine the grade of steel has its own unique T-T-T curve and these
figure on the following page.
designations become austenite start (As) and austenite
final (Af).
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams Plot Temperature vs. Time.

On every T-T-T curve, the x-axis (horizontal) represents

time, and the y-axis (vertical) represents temperature.
To understand how a quenched part (rapidly cooled) and

a slow cooled part is plotted on the T-T-T curve, examine
the figure on the following page. Please keep in mind as
you examine this figure that each and every grade of
T-T-T CURVE LEGEND:
steel has its own T-T-T curve. Also, when examining
A = Austenite the T-T-T curves on the following pages, use the legend
F = Ferrite in the left margin of this page to help you better
Ms = Martensite start understand each of the curves.
Mf = Martensite finish
As = Austenite start
M50 = 50% Martensite
When reviewing the T-T-T curves for 1060, 1095, 4140,
Af = Austenite final and 9261 steels (which are contained on the following
M = Martensite pages), you will notice that a C-Curve for each is shown
M90 = 90% martensite on the T-T-T curves. (That is while the steel is “to the
left” of both “C-Curves” it is 100% austenite. Once the
steel moves to the right of the first “C-Curve” it is
transforming, and when it crosses C-Curves “to the right”
it is completely transformed). This C-Curve is used to
determine what structure a steel can be changed to if
varying cooling rates are used. This means that we
have the ability to create different properties in the same
steel depending on how we decide to cool it.
A simplified T-T-T curve is included on page 32. Note

that the dotted line indicates that 50% of the austenite
has been transformed.
In your own words, describe why the T-T-T curve is so important

to a heat treater.

Isothermal Transformation Diagram - Timeline A & B

This is a T-T-T Curve for 1095 Steel.




Simplified T-T-T Diagram shows basic graph of temperature

vs. time for process of cooling metal.

There are four regions of transformation (a change in a

Four regions of transformation. metal’s structure) within a T-T-T Diagram. They include:
• CP (coarse pearlite);
• FP (fine pearlite);
• B (bainite); and
• M (martensite).
These four regions of transformation can be viewed on

the figure on the following page. Note that, depending on
the rate of cooling, the austenite will be transformed to
Examine the
one of these four regions of transformation. It is also
graph on the following page. important to note that Coarse Pearlite (CP) and Fine
Pearlite (FP) include all three structures of ferrite, pearlite,
and cementite.
Comparison of the properties
of bainite, pearlite and
While bainite is superior to martensite in ductility and
martensite. toughness, it lacks the hardness and strength of
martensite. And, while bainite has less ductility than fine
pearlite, it is both harder and stronger.
Because of bainite’s reasonably high strength and

reasonably high ductility, it is frequently selected for a
number of applications.
Take time to examine the two T-T-T diagrams for 52100

Examine the two steel on the following pages.
T-T-Tdiagrams for 52100 steel
on the following pages.
What should we be looking for in a T-T-T curve when

selecting steel?
? When martensite is a required structure, the steel must

be cooled quickly enough to stay left of the “nose” of the
C-Curve. To move the “nose” of the C-Curve to the right,
alloying elements, such as Mn, Cr, and Mo are added to
the steel.
As you can see, the information found in the iron-carbon

phase diagram coupled with the specific T-T-T diagram
for the steel being processed enable the heat treater to
develop the heat treating cycle needed to achieve the
customer’s specifications. Take the time to reference
information on the steels you normally process.

The Four Regions of Transformation
There are four regions of transformation on an I-T diagram:
CP -- Course Pearlite FP -- Fine Pearlite

B -- Bainite M -- Martensite

The T-T-T Diagram is easier to use if a few heavy lines are added.

This is a T-T-T curve for 52100 Steel with

four different time-lines added.

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Metallurgy – Heat Treating Theory

Level I – ABC’s of Heat Treating

Heat Treat Theory

Heat treating is a process comprised of controlled

Using Heat to Change the Properties of Metals

Heat Treating Network Page 1

Although steels become plastic (soft and pliable) at high

Formation of Crystalline Structures in Steel

Iron and steel can be heated to a temperature causing them

The smallest arrangement in the lattice is called the

Body-Centered Cubic (bcc):

Body-Centered Cubic Lattice (bcc).

Heat Treating Network Page 2

Review the list of materials A group of bcc unit cells.

• ferrite iron, i chromium,

Face-Centered Cubic (fcc):

Heat Treating Network Page 3

Now, let’s take a look at the complete lattice of face-centered

Review the list of materials

Heat Treating Network Page 4

The bct is almost identical to the bcc unit cell in that it

Now let’s look at the complete lattice of a body-centered

A group of bct unit cells.

A group of bct unit cells.

Martensitic iron takes on the form of bct.

Heat Treating Network Page 5

The “Magic” of Iron

As you have seen in the

Ferrite iron takes on the form of bcc and, at room

Austenitic iron takes on the form of fcc, and is basic iron at

Martensitic iron takes on the form of bct, and is ferrite which

Heat Treating Network Page 6

CHARACTERISTIC COMPARISONS OF FERRITE, AUSTENITE AND MARTENSITE

FERRITE AUSTENITE MARTENSITE

Body Centered Cubic Face Centered Cubic Body Centered Tetragonal

Exists At Low Temperature Exists At High Temperature Exists At Low Temperature

Magnetic Nonmagnetic Magnetic

Ductile (Not Applicable) Brittle

In your own words, describe “the magic of iron”…

Now that we understand that iron can exist in three lattice

Heat Treating Network Page 7

Transformation Temperatures of Iron

Lower Transformation Temperature

As austenite is cooled, depending on the rate of cooling, the

The lower transformation temperature (A1) denotes the

When we look at the time-temperature transformation

The lower transformation temperature for all irons and steels

Upper Transformation Temperature

The upper transformation temperature (A3) is the

The upper transformation temperature (A3) denotes the

The upper transformation temperature varies for each metal

As the metal continues to cool, more unit cells form,

This process of “colony formation” continues until the

In general, the slower the cooling rate, the fewer the

Conversely, the faster the cooling rate, the more nucleation

The size of the grain size has a profound effect on the

The following table compares the properties of large and

Heat Treating Network Page 9

COMPARISON OF TWO GRAIN SIZES

Large Grain Size Small Grain Size

COOLING SPEED FROM Slow Rapid

STRENGTH Lower Higher

HARDNESS Lower Higher