SCIENCE
Variations in the electrical properties of concrete
with change in frequency
J.G. Wilson, BSc, PhD, CEng, MlEE
H.W. Whittington, BSc, PhD, CEng, MlEE
Indexing terms: Physical properties, Conductors and conductiuity, Measurement and measuring, Instrumentation and measuring science
Abstract: The paper proposes some mechanisms
which control the conductivity and dielectric con-
stant of concrete over the frequency range 1-
100 MHz, and, from these, a model is developed.
The electrical response of this model is compared
with experimental measurements and the validity
of the model discussed.
1 Introduction
Investigations have been carried out, over many years,
into the electrical properties of concrete, for various
reasons, e.g. Spencer [l], Hammond and Robson [2, 31,
Monfore [4], Taylor and Arulanandan [SI, McCarter
and Curran [SI, Buenfield and Newman [7], and, by the
authors of this paper, both at low frequencies [8,9] and
high frequencies [lo, 111.
The authors’ electrical measurements have been
directed towards the development of reliable quality
assurance tests for fresh concrete and methods of investi-
gating the integrity of existing concrete. The particular
areas of interest are the determination of mix proportions
and the establishment of measures for durability. It is
hoped, in the long term, to produce equipment which will
provide onsite assistance to the practicing civil engineer.
The current work is directed towards achieving an under-
standing of the electrical mechanisms involved in such a
complex material.
2 High-frequency measurements
2.1 Experimental method
Measurements have been carried out by the authors over
the frequency range 1-100 MHz, using the system shown
in Fig. 1.
The cement used for these experiments is ordinary
Portland cement (OPC). In practice, additives are fre-
quently used to modify the behaviour of the material
(also, concrete can be subjected to external chemical
attack) and these can result in the presence of ions such
as chloride and sulphate which will modify the electrical
Paper 7387A (S2, S8), first received 28th September 1989 and in revised
form 12th February 1990
Dr. Wilson is with the Department of Electncal & Electronic Engineer-
ing, Napier Polytechnic of Edinburgh, 219 Colinton Road, Edinburgh
EH14 lDJ, United Kingdom
Dr. Whittington is with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
University of Edinburgh, King’s Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh
EH9 3JL, United Kingdom
246
1 1
behaviour. This work is concerned with establishing basic
mechanisms, and the effects of such ions have, therefore,
not been considered.
The concrete samples are formed by placing two
stainless-steel plate electrodes in a PVC mould and
pouring in fresh concrete. The complete assembly is then
vibrated to achieve compaction of the concrete. This pro-
duces a 150mm cube of concrete sandwiched between
the electrodes. At one end of the plates, there is a tran-
sition to coaxial line which allows the samples to be con-
nected to an impedance analyser. The configuration of
the samples is shown in Fig. 2. The samples remain in the
moulds during the measurements.
Because of the heterogeneous nature of concrete, to
establish confidence in the measurements, four identical
samples are used for measurement rather than a single
sample. The particular sample to be measured is selected
by the wideband microwave switching network, which is
controlled by computer.
Impedance measurements are carried out for each of
the samples over the frequency range 1-100 MHz, for a
total of 101 logarithmically spaced points. These mea-
surements are repeated at various times up to one day
after water was added to the mix. Measurements are ini-
tially carried out hourly, but, after six hours, a logarith-
mic timescale is used, resulting in a total of nine sets of
measurements per sample over a one day period. The
impedance measurements are carried out by means of the
Hewlett-Packard HP4191A RF impedance analyser.
The overall control of the experiment is by means of a
Hewlett-Packard HP9816 computer. Impedance data
obtained from the analyser are stored on magnetic disc,
using a Hewlett-Packard HP9121D disc unit. A special-
purpose electronics unit generates timing signals and
controls the operation of the microwave switches. Com-
munication between the various units is by an IEEE-488
bus.
2.2 Calibration methods
Because the impedance analyser is connected to each of
the four samples through the microwave switching
network, the normal internal calibration method for the
analyser cannot be used. It is necessary to carry out a
calibration routine, for each sample, individually, so that
the different paths through the switching network are
taken into account. The impedance measurements are
referenced to the face of the coaxial connector on each of
the samples.
Values of the conductivity and dielectric constant for
the concrete are obtained by assuming that the samples
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990
can be modelled by the system shown in Fig. 3. The elec- result in the dimensions of the samples being a significant
trodes are considered to form an open-circuited transmis- fraction of a wavelength at 100 MHz.
sion line, with the concrete acting as the dielectric. The The transmission line is assumed to be terminated in a
transition from parallel plate to coaxial line is represented perfect open circuit, and the resistance of the conductors
water tank
r------
P
- 1 I
RF impedance RF switching
analyser array

IEEE bus

E F plotter

T-t printer

I I

I
I
1

1 computer
system

Fig. 1 Measurement system

is assumed to be negligible. The inductance per metre of
transition from the transmission line, for a 1 : 1 width to height ratio, has
coaxial to been obtained from Wheeler [12], who gives a character-
elecl istic impedance of 179 R for such a line in free space. This
gives an inductance per metre of 5.97 x lo-' H, which is
the value used in these experiments.
The transition network requires three complex
numbers to specify its effect on impedance measurements
at each frequency. The network has been simplified to a
simple series impedance model, in which only one of the
three complex values is specified. In the open-circuited
transmission line, the conductivity and dielectric constant
/ \
of the material forming the dielectric are unknown. There
cor electrode is, therefore, a total of four unknown quantities which
must be found to define the model parameters. Informa-
tion necessary to find these values is obtained by carrying
Fig. 2 Sample configuration
out impedance measurements on two transmission lines
of different known lengths, which have identical tran-
by a two-port network. A travelling-wave model has sitions and dielectric materials. At each frequency there-
been chosen because relatively high values of effective fore, two values of impedance are available, giving four
dielectric constant have been reported [ 5 ] , which could real numbers which allow the model parameters to be
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pf.A , N o . 5, SEPTEMBER 1990 241
 calculated. The material used as a dielectric for model
calibration is mortar rather than concrete, on which the
experimental measurements are carried out. Mortar is a
more homogeneous electrical material compared with
open-ci rcu Ited
process is satisfactory over the range 1-100 MHz, giving
errors of less than 0.1 R in the modulus of the imped-
ances, and 0.1" in phase, between the calculated imped-
ances of the transmission line and the measured values.
2.3 Results

7 1
transmission line
Having established the value of the complex number rep-
impedance transition resenting the network at a particular frequency, this
measurement network value can be used in all subsequent calculations. Thus, in
subsequent experiments, the only unknowns are the
concret'e values of conductivity and dielectric constant. For a
dielectric sample of a particular length, these values can be
Fig. 3 Electrical model obtained from one impedance measurement at the fre-
quency of interest, because the impedance will have both
time. days a real and an imaginary part. The method of calculation
is similar to that for the model calibration, but only a
two-dimensional Newton-Raphson process is required in
this case.
Measurements have been carried out on concrete
i

8 0' I I I I I l l l l 1 I
.
I 1 1 / 1 1 1
samples with a mix defined by mass ratios of:
water/cement 0.5
10 1no
frequency, MHz
cement/sand/aggregate 1 : 1.5 : 3.0
Fig. 4 Conductivity offour samples
Results for conductivity and dielectric constant for the
four individual samples are presented at times of 1 h
1 5 0 t time. days
~

(0.0419 days) and 1 day after the water is added to the

mix in Figs. 4 and 5. It can be seen that there is good
agreement between the results for the four measurements,
bearing in mind the heterogeneous nature of concrete.
Subsequent results use the average values for the four
samples. Figs. 6 and I show the variation in conductivity
and dielectric constant, respectively, over the period of 1
-1001 I I I I I 1 1 1 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 day.
10 100
frequency, MHz
3 Developmentof model
Fig. 5 Dielectric constant of four samples
3.1 Discussion of experimental results
time. days A number of trends are observed from the experimental
results, namely:
(i) the reduction of the dielectric constant with increase
in frequency, in the frequency range 1 4 0 MHz; this is
particularly noticeable soon after mixing
(ii) the change in the characteristic of the conductivity
in the frequency range 7 4 0 M H z , and an increase in
dielectric constant at the lower frequencies, as time prog-
resses
frequency, M H z
(iii) the negative value of dielectric constant just after
Fig. 6 Average conductivity up to one day mixing, the fall in the magnitude of the dielectric constant
above 60 MHz and the fall in conductivity at frequencies
T
' t
5 0I time. davs
above 40 MHz.
These three groups of effects could be related to three
characteristic phenomena:
(i) electrode polarisation due to electrolytic effects
(ii) a change in the general electrical behaviour, from
homogeneous conduction to heterogeneous conduction,
as the structure of the concrete is formed. Heterogenous
-1001 I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I l l l l
conduction can be described by the Maxwell-Wagner
10 100 characteristic
frequency, MHz (iii) viscous conduction effects which limit the ability of
Fig. 7 Average dielectric constant up to one day an ion to respond to an alternating electric field above
some cutoff frequency.
concrete, as it does not contain randomly distributed
coarse aggregate. 3.2 Electrode polarisation effects
Calculation of the model parameters is performed by a Conduction through concrete is primarily by movement
four-dimensional Newton-Raphson iterative process of ions. If ions reach the electrodes, then gas will be rel-
which nulls the error between the measured impedances eased. Because of the high viscosity of concrete, even in
and the impedances calculated from the model. This its fresh state, this gas cannot be dissipated, neither is
248 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . A , No. 5, SEPTEMBER I990

- ---I--
 there a mechanism by which the gas can be reabsorbed. cS = dielectric constant when f = 0 Hz
1
A significant gas layer will therefore be generated at the = dielectric constant whenf+ a,
electrodes, preventing further ions reaching the elec- T, = C,R
trodes. These layers of gas can be considered as forming T~ = C,R
capacitances in series with the bulk of the material,
which, in turn, can be represented by a resistor, owing to The complete analysis is given in Appendix 8.1.
the low conductivity of the material, with a capacitor in As, in general, 5 , % I T , 1, the value of T , will not affect
parallel, owing to the bulk dielectric constant of the the value of these functions significantly. These functions
material. have the forms shown in Fig. 9.
When the conductivity and dielectric constant of a
sample of material are being determined, generally the
conductivity is related to the real part of the admittance
of the sample, and the dielectric constant is related to the
imaginary part. In the model postulated, this requires
that the equivalent circuit of Fig. 8A be equated with the
circuit of Fig. 8B.

P P

i
up
-
2 m
frequency
Fig. 9 Electrode polarisation response

Previous investigations [SI have shown that the lower

cutoff frequency
1

Fig. 8A Polarisation model

d
Fig. 86 Parallel equivalent
f1 =g
is in the region of 1 Hz. Taking a value of conductivity of
0.206 Sjm, from Fig. 6, gives a value of apparent dielec-
Consider the impedance of the equivalent circuit: tric constant of 3.7 x lo9 at frequencies less than 1 Hz.
Although the existence of such large values of apparent
1 R dielectric constant is not in doubt, there have been a
Z=-
joC, + 1 +j w C , R number of different explanations postulated as to the
reasons [6, 131. Gillespie and Cole [14], however,
1 j o C , ( l +j w C , R )
y=-= pointed out the need to calibrate out electrode polarisa-
Z l+jo(C,R+C,R) tion effects, when carrying out dielectric constant mea-
where surements on sulphuric acid, and Schwan et al. [ l S ] used
similar calibration techniques in their work on the dielec-
C , = capacitance due to the gas layer tric constants of colloidal particles in ionic solutions.
R = resistance due to the bulk conductivity
C , = capacitance due to the bulk dielectric constant 3.3 Maxwell- Wagner effects
In the case of a dielectric material in which conducting
From the parallel model of Figure 8B:
volumes are distributed, a relaxation effect takes place at
1 some critical frequency. If an alternating electromagnetic
Y =- +j w C , field is applied at a frequency very much less than the
R P
critical frequency, then the charge carriers can redistrib-
where ute themselves within the conducting particles, so giving
rise to an enhanced dielectric constant and low electrical
R, = equivalent parallel resistance loss, which is associated with a low value of conductivity.
C , = equivalent parallel capacitance. If the frequency of the field is greater than the critical
Equating these values gives eventually: frequency, then the charge carriers cannot redistribute
fully. This causes a reduced dielectric constant, an associ-
U
’.
: ated increase in electrical loss and increase in conductivi-
= UI
U
[1 + W2(Tl + TZ)’] ty. This is called the Maxwell-Wagner effect and is typical
of the behaviour of an artificial dielectric. This effect has
E, =
ES + O’EAT, f T2)’ been surveyed in detail by van Beek [16].
[I -k W2(Tl -k TZ)’] In the case of a material which has a finite conductivi-
ty at zero frequency, the process can be represented by
where the equations:
U = apparent conductivity
E, =apparent dielectric constant
uI = conductivity whenf- CO
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990 249

- - -
T
where E, = (1 - a)&,
us = conductivity when f = 0 Hz and
U, = conductivity whenf+ CO
us = conductivity when f = 0 Hz
E, = dielectric constant whenf- CO
U, = conductivity whenf- CO
E~ = dielectric constant whenf= 0 Hz
E~ = dielectric constant whenf= 0 Hz
T~ = process time constant
E [ = dielectric constant whenf- CO
The values of all parameters in these expressions are eo = permittivity of free space
dependent on the electrical properties of the individual = 8.85 x lo-’’ F/m
materials, the fractional volumes of these materials, and p = ionic mobility
the geometry and orientation of the conducting particles. q = ion density
Fricke [17] has shown that very high values of dielectric a = fraction of cross section associated with viscous
constant E~ can be obtained if the conducting particles conduction
are in the form of long thin needles. urn= conductivity of conventional material
The form of these expressions is shown in Fig. 10. E, = dielectric constant of conventional material

x
dielectric constant

Fig. 10
-1
2n r,
frequency
conductivity

Maxwell Wagner response

Note that cS may be negative.
The full development of these expressions is given in
Appendix 8.2.
This analysis therefore predicts that, under conditions
of viscous conduction, the conductivity and the magni-
tude of the dielectric constant will fall with increase in
frequency, for frequencies in the region of

f=--
2nT4
1

and that negative values of dielectric constant are pos-

sible.
The form of these expressions is shown in Fig. 11.

conductivity
3.4 Viscous conduction effects
Initial calculations indicated that viscous effects were
unlikely to be apparent, until frequencies in the region of dielectric constant
40 GHz were reached [l8]. However, the experimental
results obtained require that this effect be reassessed. dielectric constant
Consider the following after Schwarz [19]: The move-
ment of a particle with charge q in electric field E(t) is
defined by the following differential equation :
dv
rn - + ru = qE(t)
dt
1
where -
1
2%
U = velocity frequency
rn = mass Fig. 11 Viscous conduction eflect
I = a viscous friction constant
It is possible to develop this expression in a model which 3.5 Combined effects
includes a material giving viscous conduction effects The detailed analysis of the combined effect of these
together with a more conventional material. This gives: responses is very complex, bearing in mind that the con-
ductivitities, dielectric constants and time constants will
be functions of frequency.
In the case of electrode polarisation effects, the time
constant involved is known to be relatively large, and in
the frequency range up to 10 MHz, where the polarisa-
tion effects are effective, the bulk conductivity and dielec-
where tric constant of the material is relatively constant. The
values of ul and applying in this case, are therefore
us = (1 - a)u, + apq considered to be the bulk values, with their variations in
U, = (1 - a)u, frequency owing to the other effects.
250 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990
 The basic behaviour of the bulk material is considered is the variation in dielectric constant above 20 MHz, as
to be controlled by the ionic conduction mechanisms. shown in Fig. 12. Thus, effects similar to that of viscous
The viscous conduction expressions for conductivity and conduction could determine the response at frequencies
dielectric constant are considered to have a multiplicative above 60 MHz.
effect on the characteristics of the bulk material. Fig. 13, however, shows that the derived electrode
When the structure is forming, a Maxwell-Wagner polzrisation model is not accurate at lower frequencies,
response is to be expected. This response is then modu-
lated by the viscous conduction effects. Before the struc-
ture forms, the Maxwell-Wagner response can still be
assumed, but with us = U , and cS = E , .
The combined response can then be represented by
1
U s = - [U4
63
+ (63 - U4)/(1+ W25:)]
X [U2 + (U3 - U2)W25:/(1 + W’T:)]
Fig. 12
frequency, MHr
Conductivity comparison at one hour
1
EB = - [E4
E3
+ (E3 - &.,)/(IW25:)]

x [E3 + (E2 - + W’531

W”.:
U = UB
[1 + W2(T1 f Tz)~]

I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1
-1 00’
10 100
= conductivity as a function of frequency frequency, MHz
= conductivity associated with viscous conduc- Fig. 13 Dielectric constant comparison at one hour
tion effects asf+ cc
= conductivity associated with viscous conduc-
tion effects at f = 0 Hz, and with Maxwell-
measured
Wagner effects asf+ CO
= conductivity associated with Maxwell-Wagner
effects a t f = 0 Hz t 0.1
= bulk conductivity of the material as a function
of frequency
= dielectric constant as a function of frequency ‘00
O 1 10 100
= dielectric constant associated with viscous frequency. MHz
conduction effects asf+ CO Fig. 14 Conductivity comparison at one day
= dielectric constant associated with viscous
conduction effects at f = O H z , and with
Maxwell-Wagner effects a t f + CO
= dielectric constant associated with Maxwell-
Wagner effects a t f = 0 Hz
= bulk dielectric constant of the material as a
function of frequency
= dielectric constant due to electrode polarisa-
tion effects a t f = 0 Hz
= time constant associated with viscous conduc-
tion effects -1001 1 I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I l l 1
= time constant associated with Maxwell- 10 100
Wagner effects frequency, MHz
-
t 2 ,tl = time constants associated with electrode pol- Fig. 15 Dielectric constant comparison at one day
arisation effects.
Table 1 : Values assumed for theoretical model

4 Comparison between measured values and 1 hr 1 day

model results 2.080x lo-’ 3.780x lo-’
2.080x lo-’ 1.000
A comparison between the measured values and the 6.250x 10.’ 6.250x lo-=
results from the model are given in Figs. 1 2 and 13, for 9.000x 109 9.000x 109
samples of age 1 h, and Figs. 1 4 and 15, for samples of -7.000x 10‘ 6.000x 10’
age 1 day. -7.000x 10’ -3.000x lo2
8.190 8.190
Table 1 gives the values of parameters assumed for the 1.000 x 10-3 1.500x 1 0-3
model. -2.587x lo-’ 6.883x lo-’
Fig. 1 2 shows that the early conductivity behaviour is 2.000x 10-9 2.000x 10-9
well modelled by the viscous conduction expressions, as 3.200x lo-’ 3.200x
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990 251
with regard to dielectric constant, and that the model has
a higher order response, in the region 1-10 MHz, than
the practical result. It might be that the polarisation
mechanism is more complex than that assumed in the
model, or that polarisation is not complete across the
electrode surface.
Fig. 14 shows a more rapid rise in conductivity, caused
by Maxwell-Wagner effects in the practical case, com-
pared with the model, as the frequency is increased. Simi-
larly, Fig. 15 shows a more rapid fall in dielectric
constant, in the practical case, with increase in frequency.
The Maxwell-Wagner expression does, however, assume
fixed volumes and geometries for the conducting volumes
in the dielectric matrix. In the practical case, there will be
statistical distributions of the volumes and geometries
which could emphasise the higher frequencies.
5 Conclusions
The results obtained for higher frequency electrical mea-
surements on concrete can be explained by a viscous con-
duction mechanism.
Electrode polarisation can account, in part, for the
increase in dielectric constant with reduction in fre-
quency. However, other effects must be considered, if the
behaviour in the frequency range of interest is to be
explained in full.
Maxwell-Wagner effects are evident as the mechanical
structure of the material is formed, but the response is
more complex than the simple models normally used,
and may be affected by statistical distributions of the
conducting volumes.
11 WILSON, J.G., and WHITTINGTON, H.W.: ‘Measurement of the
electrical properties of concrete’, Proc. 2nd Int. Conf Computer Appl.
in Concrete, Nanyang Technology Institute, Singapore, 1988, C-84
12 WHEELER, H.A.: ‘Transmission-line properties of parallel wide
strips by a conformal-mapping approximation’, IEEE Trans., 1964,
MlT-12, pp. 28C-289
13 WILSON, J.G., and WHITTINGTON, H.W., on McCARTER,
W.J., and CURRAN, P.N.: ‘The electrical response characteristics of
setting cement paste’, Mag. Concrete Res., 1985, 37,(130), pp. 52-53
14 GILLESPIE, R.J., and COLE, R.H.: ‘The dielectric constant of sul-
phuric acid’, Trans. Faraday Soc., 1956,52, pp. 1325-1331
15 SCHWAN, H.P., SCHWARZ, G., MACZUK, J., and PAULY, H.:
‘On the low frequency dielectric dispersion of colloidal particles in
electrolyte solutions’, J. Phys. Chem., 1962,66, pp. 26262635
16 VAN BEEK, L.K.H.: ‘Dielectric behaviour of heterogeneous
systems’, Prog. Dielectrics., 1967, 7,pp. 69-114
17 FRICKE, H.: ‘The Maxwell-Wagner dispersion in a suspension of
ellipsoids’, J. Phys. Chem., 1953, 57,pp. 934-937
18 WILSON, J.G.: ‘The electrical properties of concrete’. PhD thesis,
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Edinburgh,
1986 (unpublished)
19 SCHWARTZ, G.: ‘A theory of the low-frequency dielectric disper-
sion of colloidal particles in electrolyte solutions’, J. Phys. Chem.,
1962.66, pp. 26362642
8 Appendixes
8.1 Equivalence of series and parallel models
The impedance of the equivalent circuit given in Fig. 8A
is given by the following:
1 R
Z = y +
JWC, 1 + j w C 2 R

6 Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Prof. P.H. Beards of the

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Napier Polytechnic of Edinburgh, and Prof. J. Mavor of
the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of where
Edinburgh, for the use of their facilities. C , = capacitance due to the gas layer
Provision of funding by the UK Science and Engineer- R = resistance due to the bulk conductivity
ing Research Council is also gratefully acknowledged. C , = capacitance due to the bulk dielectric
constant
7 References T, = C , R
5, = C , R
1 SPENCER, R.W.: ‘Measurement of the moisture content of con-
crete‘, J. Am. Concrete Inst. Proc., 1937,34, pp. 4 5 4 1 This must be equated with the admittance of the parallel
2 HAMMOND, E., and ROBSON, T.D.: ‘Comparison of the electn-
cal . model of Fig. 88:
.
orowrties of various cements and concretes’, Enaineer, 1955,
199,pp. 78-80
3 HAMMOND, E., and ROBSON, T.D.: ‘Companson of the electri- 1
Y =-+jwC,
cal properties of various cements and wncretes’, Engineer, 1955, RP
199,pp. 114-115
4 MONFORE, G.E.: ‘The electrical resistivity of concrete’, J. P C A where
Res. & Deo. Labs., 1968, 10, Pt. 2, pp. 3-8
5 TAYLOR, M.A., and ARULANANDAN, K.: ’Relationships R, = equivalent parallel resistance
between electrical and physical properties of cement pastes’, Cement C, = equivalent parallel capacitance
& Concrete Res., 1974, 4, (6), pp. 881-897
6 McCARTER, W.J., and CURRAN, P.N.: ‘The electrical response Equating real and imaginary parts of the admittance
characteristics of setting cement paste’, Mag. Concrete Res., 1984, gives
36, (126), pp. 4 2 4 9
7 BUENFIELD, N.R., and NEWMAN, J.B.: ‘The permeability of
concrete in a marine environment’, Mag. Concrete Res., 1984, 36, R, = R
[I + W2(T1 + T2)21
(127), pp. 67-80 022:
8 WILSON, J.G., WHITTINGTON, H.W., and FORDE, M.C.:
‘Microprocessor based system for automatic measurement of wn-
= [TI + W 2 T 1 T 2 ( T 1 + T2)l
Crete resistivity’, J. Phys. E, 1983.16, pp. 700-705
9 WHITTINGTON, H.W., and WILSON, J.G.: ‘Low-frequency elec-
R [l + w 2 ( r l + rJ2]
trical characteristics of fresh concrete’, IEE Proc. A , 1986, 133, (3, For a volume of width 1 and cross-sectional area A,
pp. 26S271
10 WILSON, J.G., WHITTINGTON, H.W., and FORDE, M.C.:
‘Dielectric properties of concrete at different frequencies’. IEE Conf
Publ. 1984, (239), pp. 157-160

252 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. A , No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990

where If E(t) has constant value E, then, in the steady-state con-
uB = bulk conductivity.
dition

Substitution gives rv = qE
The mobility p of an ion is the mean velocity of the ion in
an electric field of 1 V/m. Thus,
rP =4
and

However,
1
R =- The solution for an alternating electric field, with angular
uA frequency w, is given by

jwmu + u = qE
P
where where
U = apparent conductivity
U = complex form of v
c0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.85 x F/m E = complex form of E
E, = apparent dielectric constant
Thus,
Thus, PE
U=-

For a sample of width I, with complex voltage V applied

across this width,
V
And so, E=-
1
a1 = rTB
thus,
uv 1

For an ion density q and cross-sectional area A, the

where current across the cross-section will be
uI = conductivity when f --* to i = qAu
E~ = dielectric constant whenf= 0 Hz
where
E, = dielectric constant whenf+ m
i = complex form of current
Substitution gives
Thus,

Admittance is given as
i
y=-
8.2 Viscous conduction model V
Consider the following after Schwarz [19] : The move-
ment of a particle with charge q in electric field E(t) is
defined by the following differential equation :
do
m -
dt
+ rv = qE(t)
where
U = velocity
m = mass
r = a viscous friction constant
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990 253

T
.-
Thus

Comparing this with the analysis of Appendix 8.1 gives

Rearrangmg gives the following:

& = P V- 4 -1 ~
Eo 1 + W’T:
where
U, = conductivity associated with the viscous process where
E, = dielectric constant associated with the viscous
process us = (1 - a)u, + apq
Note the negative value in this case. uf= (1 - a)u,
Consider a volume of material of width I and cross-
sectional area A, with fraction a of the cross-section = (1 -a)&, -
apv4
-
associated with viscous conduction and the remaining EO
fraction 1 - a with conductivity U, and dielectric con-
= (1 -a)&,
stant E,. The admittance of this arrangement is given by
and

us = conductivity whenf = 0 Hz
oI = conductivity whenf- cc
= dielectric constant whenf= 0 Hz
el = dielectric constant when+ co
This gives effective values of conductivity and dielectric
constant, for this complex structure, of remembering that cS may be negative.

254 IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. A, No. 5, SEPTEMBER 1990