Understanding

Culture, Society,
and Politics
(Handouts)

Prepared by:
Mr. Glen Mark M. Mariano

1
Chapter 1: Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics
Lesson 1: Defining Cultue, Society, and Politics

Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Gender)

Gender and Gender Roles
People play different roles in society depending on one’s age and occupation. There are jobs that require a
specific gender to perform tasks while other jobs are open to both men and women.

Gender
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males and
females based on certain social contexts.
 It is different from sex, which refers to the biological characteristics that distinguish a male from a
female.
 Thus, sex makes a person male or female, while gender makes a person masculine or feminine.

Gender Roles

 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit based on
his/her sex.
 For example, in the traditional Philippine society, women are expected to be plain housewives and
take care of the children, while the men are expected to be a professional and provide the needs
of his family.
 Another example is how society expects women to be more emotional and sensitive while men
should be strong and capable of doing things that women cannot do.

Gender Roles in Pre-colonial Philippine Society

During pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoy the same rights and privileges. There are different
social functions that are assigned to different members of the society. However, there are functions that are
specifically given to males or females or both.

The babaylan (Visayan) or catalonan (Tagalog) is a shaman or priestess who performs various religious and
social functions. The babaylan can either be a man or a woman, but the role is often given to women.

Aside from being a priestess, the babaylan is also considered a healer, an adviser, and a seer.

Gender Roles in the Philippine Society During Colonial Period

Gender roles during the colonial period had changed drastically. Women were restrained from other
activities outside their homes, while men were given more social functions. These roles also changed as the
Philippines was occupied by new colonizers.

 Upon the coming of the Spaniards and the introduction of Catholicism, the babaylan lost their role in
the religious life of the Indios. This role was taken over by Catholic priests.
 Women were also relegated to doing household chores and taking care of children. More often
than not, young women were not sent to school; rather, they are trained to be good wives and
mothers for their future families. Some women were also forced to marry someone they do not love
for economic and political gain.
 During the American period, women became more open. They were allowed to study and work in
whatever field they want. They also became “liberated,” which is a term used by older people to
refer to Filipino women who have adopted American values. Men and women became equal, in
the sense that it is acceptable for both genders to have jobs and to be educated.
 Although men and women were able to maintain their status in society during the Japaneseperiod,
women were usually kept inside their houses to protect them from abusive Japanese soldiers. Men
also became busy defending the country, with most of them serving as soldiers.

Gender Roles in Current Philippine Society

Philippine society today is more open to allowing both men and women to perform different tasks, not
based solely on gender, but on an individual’s capabilities and strengths. For example, fields like

2
engineering, architecture, and medicine, which is often associated with men, have long been open to
women. Likewise, there are also a lot of male teachers, nurses, and even chefs and hairdressers.

Tips
Gender is a set of characteristics that pertains to a person’s masculinity or femininity while biology
determines sex. For example, a man is male because he has male sex organs. He, however, can be
considered feminine because the things he likes are often associated with women.

Key Points
 Gender refers to social, cultural, and psychological characteristics or traits related to males and
females based on certain social contexts.
 Gender roles refer to attitudes and behaviors that the society expects a person to exhibit based on
his/her sex.
 During pre-colonial Philippines, males and females enjoy the same rights and privileges. There are
different social functions that are assigned to different members of the society. However, there
functions that are specifically given to males or females or both.
 Gender roles during the colonial period had changed drastically. Women were restrained from other
activities outside their homes, while men were given more social functions. These roles also changed
as the Philippines was occupied by new colonizers.
 Current Filipino society has become more open to allowing people of different genders to do things
not based on their gender but based on their capabilities.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Socioeconomic Class)

The Philippine society can be categorized into various socioeconomic classes. During the prehistoric times,
our ancestors have developed a society where people were assigned with different social functions.
However, as the society changes, differences in one’s function in the society became wider and more
diverse.

Socioeconomic Classes during the Pre-Colonial Period

Prior to the coming of the Spaniards, the community is called a barangay. It is headed by a datu orraha.
Our ancestors were divided into three different groups: the maharlika, the timawa, and thealipin.

Maharlika (Leaders and Royals)

 first social class

 composed of the leaders (datu) and their families
 also called the group of the maginoo, raha, or gat

Timawa (Freemen)

 second or “middle” social class

 composed of all freemen living in the barangay
 consists of workers, warriors, merchants, and others who are not under debt bondage
 have their own property like their own houses and a piece of land to cultivate

Alipin (Slaves)

 third class
 serve another person or family as payment for debt
 became an alipin when their family lose in a war with another family
 are not bound to their master for life
 can go back to their previous status as soon as they pay off their debts, or if they marry amaharlika,
who will then pay for their debt
 has two kinds of alipin: the aliping saguiguilid and the aliping namamahay

Aliping namamahay

 has their own property, like a house or a piece of land

3
  often from the timawa class and became alipin because of debt or as punishment for a wrongdoing
 can go back to being part of the timawa class once they pay off their debt

Aliping saguiguilid

 does not have the right to own any property

 often came from a family of alipin or are captives in war
 can also be sold or exchanged for goods or other alipin

Socioeconomic Classes during the Spanish Colonial Period

Upon the coming of the Spaniards, they changed the society and created a new set of socioeconomic
class. During this period, the people were divided based on their ancestry—peninsulares, insulares,mestizo,
and indio.

Peninsulares

 Spaniards in the Philippines who were born in Spain

 came from “peninsula,” meaning "came directly from the Spanish peninsula"

Insulares

 Spaniards who were of Spanish descent but were born in the Philippines
 came from “insular,” meaning "from the islands"

Mestizo

 those of mixed ancestry

 usually children of Spanish and Chinese couples or of Spanish and Indio couples
 have both economic and political power, coming from their mixed heritage

Indio

 consists of the natives

 the lowest class in the society
 were stripped of their rights and freedom and were forced to bow down to the Spanish colonizers

This kind of system lasted for hundreds of years, until such time when some insulares and mestizos were able
to gain some form of power. In the 19th century, the so-called “middle class” emerged—theprincipalia and
the ilustrado.

Principalia

 consists of native leaders in the government and their families

 are often educated and served as a gobernadorcillo (town mayor) or cabeza de
barangay(barangay leader)

Ilustrados

 the children of the principalia who usually studied in Europe

 most of the popular artists and scholars at that time, including Jose Rizal

Modern Socioeconomic Classes

Socioeconomic classes changed when the Philippines gained independence from Spain. The Americans
introduced democracy and did not impose any form of socioeconomic classes.

At present, a person’s position in the society is based mainly on his or her family’s economic status.Social
stratification, or the division of society based on occupation and income, wealth or power; is simpler at
present than in the past.

4
The National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB) divided the population into high-income, middle-
income, and low-income classes.

High-income Class

 people earning an average of P200,000 a month, or approximately P2.4 million a year

 the “rich” class and accounts for merely one percent of the country’s total population

Middle-income Class

 people earning an average of P36,000 per month

 consists of professionals and small-scale entrepreneurs

Low-income Class

 people earning less than P10,000 a month

 consists of laborers and minimum wage earners

Social Mobility
Unlike in other societies where one who is born into a specific class has no choice but to die as part of the
same class, people in the Philippines usually have the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic
class to a higher one. This is called social mobility.

 the movement of people or families within or between different levels in the society
 the opportunity to transfer from a lower socioeconomic class to a higher one
 possible through education, or in some cases, through marriage

Key Points

 Knowing about one’s socioeconomic class is not a cause for discrimination. Everyone in the
Philippines has the same set of rights, regardless of his/her socioeconomic class.
 Anyone can move from one socioeconomic class to the other, depending on his/her educational
attainment and decisions in life.
 If one can move from one socioeconomic class to a higher one, it is also possible for one to move
from a higher class to a lower one.
 Social mobility is the movement of people or families within or between different levels in the society.
 Social stratification is the division of society based on occupation and income, wealth or power.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences (Ethnicity)

Ethnicity and Race

Every society consists of people from different families, ethnic groups, and races. This makes society very
diverse and unique.

 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called ethnic group, who have a common or shared
culture, language, history, religion, and tradition.
 Here, the people are divided into groups based on different social factors.

Examples: Filipinos, Malays, Anglo-Saxons, and Muslims.

 Race refers to a group of people who share the same physical attributes, such as skin color, height,
and facial features.
 People are grouped into different races based on their physical appearance.
 Human beings are classified into three major races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid.
 These classifications are based on the color of the skin, the shape of the face, texture of the hair,
shape of the eyes, and other prominent physical features.

5
 RACE
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Caucasoid Mongoloid Negroid
Skin color Fair Yellowish Dark
Hair Light colored; Straight; black Curly; black
straight or wavy
Eyes Round Almond-shaped Large round
Others High nose bridge Low to medium Low nose bridge
nose bridge
Origin Americas and Asia Africa
Europe

Two people belonging to the same race may be part of different ethnic groups. For example, Asians belong
to the Mongoloid race but consists of different ethnic groups like the Japanese, the Chinese, and the
Malays. They all share the same physical features but have different culture, history, and language.

Ethnolinguistic Groups in the Philippines

There are more than 180 ethnic or ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines, which are based on the
language each group use.

 There are eight major ethnolinguistic groups in the country:

1. Ilokano, 5. Bikolano
2. Kapampangan, 6. Ilonggo
3. Pangasinense, 7. Cebuano and
4. Tagalog, 8. Waray-waray.
 Other smaller ethnolinguistic groups are the Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Subanon, Maguindanaoan,
and Zambuangueño.

There are also indigenous groups in the country that may belong to the same ethnolingguistic groups, but
have a different culture, tradition, or culture. Some of them are the Mangyans of Mindoro, the Igorots of the
Mountain Province, and the Moros of Mindanao.

Issues About Race and Ethnicity

Ethnicity and race are categories that divide people based on their social affinity or physical similarity.
However, differences in ethnicity and race made some people believe that one ethnic group is better or
superior than others. Thus, this belief creates discrimination and prejudice against people from minor or
perceived to be “inferior” ethnicity or race.

There are different types of discrimination against one’s ethnicity or race:

Racism

 Racism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s race.

 In the 1970s, white Americans (Caucasians) discriminated black Americans (Negroids), who were
descendants of immigrants from African countries.

Ethnocentricism

 Ethnocentrism is discrimination or prejudice based on one’s culture.

 Recently, Muslim extremists discriminate Christians and non-Muslims in Muslim countries because of
their religion.
 In the Philippines, Muslims experience prejudice and discrimination in Christian-dominated regions
like in Metro Manila. Because of the ongoing conflict in Mindanao between the government and
Islamic militants, Christians tend to think that all Muslims are terrorists.
 On the other hand, some Christians and ethnic groups are discriminated and prejudiced in Muslim-
dominated areas.

Discrimination against one’s race may cause crimes against it.

6
Genocide

 Genocide is the elimination of a group of people from the same race, ethnic group, religion or
nation.
 It is an extreme action against people from other ethnicity or race.
 The Holocaust during the World War II, done by the Nazis of Germany and headed by Adolf Hitler,
killed millions of Jews all over Europe.

Ethnic cleansing

 Ethnic cleansing is the harassment, rape, or forced migration of an ethnic group to vanish them from
a certain area or territory.
 This happens in certain areas in Africa.

Key Points

 Ethnicity refers to a group of people, also called ethnic group, who have a common culture,
language, history religion, and tradition.
 People from the same ethnic group share a common culture, language, religion, beliefs and
tradition.
 There are more than 180 ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines.
 Race refers to a group of people who share the same physical attributes, such as skin color, height,
and facial features.
 Racism is prejudice or discrimination against people of other races, with the idea that one’s race is
superior than the other.
 Ethnocentrism is similar to racism, but it discriminates based on differences in culture.
 Ethnocentrism and racism may lead to genocide or ethnic cleansing, which are crimes against a
specific ethnic group or race.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences(Religion)

Religion as a Cultural Variation

 We live in a world with varying and diverse cultures.
 Cultural variation or differences take many forms within and among societies. One of which is
religion.
 Religion can be defined as a set of practices and behaviors that relate to a group of people's belief
in a God or a group of gods.
 Sociologists studying religion consider it a part of society's culture.
 In most cases, religion not only affects a person's belief, but one's way of life.

Variety of Religion
 There are many religions around the world.
 Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, andBuddhism.
 Each of these religions has its own set of beliefs and practices that must be followed by its believers.
 In a society, several religions may exist and since religion affects an individual’s way of life, we can
observe the cultural variation in the form of different religions.

Religion in the Philippines

 The Philippines is a secular country, which means that the government does not prescribe a specific
set of activities or laws based on religion. A citizen's right to choose his or her own religion is
protected by the Philippine Constitution.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain portion of the
population practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the country.
 Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism are also practiced by a small number of inhabitants in the
archipelago.
 Different religions are being practiced in the Philippine society today. This variation in religion is a
product of the evolution of Philippine society across time.

7
Understanding Cultural Variation in the Form of Religion
 Cultural variations do exist as exemplified through different religions in the world, more so in our
Philippine society.
 For example, Christians and Muslims believe in one God, yet Hindus believe in many gods, while
Buddhists do not.
 The sets of practices and beliefs of a particular religion influence the behavior of its followers and
their interaction with other members of the society.

Issues Surrounding Differences in Religion

Because the people have different religions, issues and conflicts between religious groups or denominations
cannot be prevented.

Problems/Conflicts

 Since a difference in religion does not only mean worshipping a different god, conflicts sometimes
arise between their believers.
 Some believers of a particular religion feel like they are being marginalized, while some feel like
those following other religions are taking advantage of their number.
 It may come easy to be swayed by religious differences and start a conflict. A believer or follower of
a particular religion may offend a follower of another religion if he or she imposes his or her beliefs or
practices of his or her religion.
 In history, bloody wars happened because of religious differences, and unfortunately, conflicts
continue until now due to varying religions.

Solutions/Actions

 To prevent conflicts, the Philippine government, for example, has started recognizing some of the
special days in different religions.
 Employees are not required to work during Holy Week; wherein Catholics commemorate the
suffering and death of Jesus Christ.
 The start and the end of the Ramadan are also considered holidays, just like when the Chinese
celebrate the start of their new year.
 This way, the government allows followers of different religions to attend to their religious obligations
without their work getting in the way.
8
  To those conflicts brought about by differences in religion, the key word here is respect. And respect
entails a conscious effort of acquiring cultural knowledge and understanding which this course is
mainly about.

Key Points

 Cultural variation takes its many forms, one of which is religion.

 Religion is a set of practices and behavior that relate to a group of people's belief in a god or group
of gods.
 Among the major religions in the world are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
 In the Philippines, the majority of the population are Christians, with a certain portion of the
population practicing Islam, particularly in the southern part of the country while some inhabitants
practice Buddhism, Taoism, or Hinduism.
 Protestants also believe in Jesus Christ, but they do not share the same practices as Catholicism.
 The Philippine government has started to recognize special days in different religions to give the
believers freedom to practice their own religions.
 Despite being largely Catholic, the Philippines remains a secular country. A citizen's right to choose
his or her own religion is protected by the Philippine Constitution.
 Many conflicts happened because of cultural variations such as differences in religion.
 Recognizing cultural variation and showing respect to different religion can avoid conflict.
 Respect can effectively be achieved through the conscious effort of acquiring cultural knowledge
and understanding.

Cultural Variations and Social Differences(Exceptionality)

Exceptionality and the Exceptional People

People has different characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles, and challenges. However, there are people
who, from one reason or another, are described or categorized by the society as exceptional.

What do the words "gifted," "disabled," "challenged," or "different" mean to you? How does society influence
your knowledge and attitudes toward people with labels and differences?

Exceptionality

 a quality or a characteristic of a person that makes him or her different from an established norm in
a society
 various physical and mental interference or problems that affect a person and which makes it
difficult for him/her to function properly in society

Existing Categories of Exceptionality

Behavior Communication Intellectual Physical Multiple
Exceptionalities
Excessive fears Autism Giftedness Physical
or anxieties disability
A tendency to Deaf Mild Orthopedic
compulsive intellectual impairment
reaction disability A combination
Inability to build Language Development Health of one or more
and sustain impairment disability impairment disabilities or
satisfactory such as impairment
interpersonal asthma
relationships
Speech Blind and low
Impairment vision
Exceptional people

 who differ from societal and community standard of normalcy

 with learning or behavioral problems and with physical and sensory disabilities

9
  who are intellectually gifted

The characteristics which make a person exceptional may have been acquired from birth, through a
medical condition, or through an accident.

Exceptional People: Challenges and Problems

Exceptional people, disabled or intellectually gifted, encounter challenges and issues in dealing with other
members of the society.

Here are some of the common problems and challenges that exceptional people experience.

Overcoming Challenges and Problems

In the Philippines, despite the passage of Republic Act 7277 or the Magna Carta for People with Disabilities
(PWDs) in 1991, there are still significant barriers that keep them from fully participating in the society---
including the stigma surrounding disability and the society’s poor understanding of the abilities and
aspirations of exceptional people. However, the government, private sectors, media, and some concerned
groups have been working together to solve these existing problems.

Here are some ways on how both private and public sectors have been helping them.

This symbol is the International Symbol of Access (ISA). It can be found at places that are designated for all
persons with disabilities. The location or spot is intended for them.

Key Points

 Society categorizes people based on their characteristics, needs, desires, lifestyles, and challenges.

10
  Exceptionality refers to a characteristic of a person that makes him or her different from the
established norms in the society.
 Exceptional people are individuals who differ from societal and community standard of normalcy.
 Some of the problems and challenges that the exceptional people experience are discrimination,
limited access to educational opportunities, and isolation from society.
 Philippine Republic Act 7277 gives special rights and privileges to people with disabilities (PWDs).
 The Internationl Symbol of Access (ISA) is placed in all areas that are reserved for PWDs, regardless of
their disability.
 By law, all public schools in the Philippines are mandated to offer special education classes for all
students with physical or learning disabilities.

Cultural Variations and Social Difference(Nationality)

Nation, Nationality, and Citizenship

The line of distinction between the terms "nation" and "nationality" is quite thin. Most of the time, "nationality"
and "citizenship" are used interchangeably. However, it is important to note that these words do not mean
the same and pertain to different concepts. They differ in many aspects.

Nation

 a large aggregate of people united by common descent, history, culture, language, and economic
life inhabiting a particular country or territory

Example:

The United Kingdom is a country inhabited mainly by people of four nations: English, Irish, Scott, and Welsh.

Whereas the term nation emphasizes a particular group of people, country emphasizes the physical
dimensions and boundaries of a geographical area, while state is a self-governing legal and political entity.

Nationality
 a person’s instinctive membership to a specific nation or country
 can be acquired by an individual from the country where he/she was born (jus soli)
 can be acquired by an individual through his/her parents (jus sanguinis)
 An individual is national of a particular country by birth. Nationality is acquired through inheritance
from his or her parents.
 People with the same nationality often share the same language, culture, territory, and in some
cases, ancestry. They share the same rights and are protected by the same laws.

Citizenship
 a person’s legal and political status in a city or state, which means that an individual has been
registered with the government in some country
 An individual becomes a citizen of a country only when he is accepted into that country’s political
framework through legal terms.

Examples:

 An individual born in the Philippines has a Filipino nationality. Chances are, he may have a Brazilian
or Colombian citizenship once he has registered with that country.
 People of the European Union (maybe French, Germans, English, and others) may have European
Union citizenship, but that person’s nationality does not change.
 No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can have different citizenships.

Filipino Nationality
 The Philippine nationality law is based on the principles of jus sanguinis or "right of blood." Therefore,
anyone with a parent who is a citizen or national of the Republic of the Philippines can acquire
Philippine citizenship. This is the primary method of acquiring citizenship.
 For those born in the Philippines to non-Filipino parents, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000
(R.A. 9139) provides a trail for administrative naturalization for those who qualify.
11
Issues Regarding Nationality and Statelessness

What are some issues concerning nationality and statelessness?

Right to a Nationality

 Every person has a right to a nationality.

 The right to a nationality is a fundamental human right. It is an individual’s right to acquire, change,
or retain his or her nationality. Thus, a country’s law cannot deprive a person the right to gain a
nationality, in case he or she loses it.

Statelessness

 People who does not have a nationality of any country are considered as stateless people.
 According to Article 1 of the 1954 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), "a stateless person is someone who is not
considered as a national by any State under the operation of its law."
 Most stateless people are considered "refugees" while others lose their nationality due to war,
conflict, or if their country is annexed by another country and loses its sovereignty.

Case Study: Statelessness in Sabah

Most Filipinos living in Sabah, Malaysia are considered "stateless." Thus, they are not recognized as people
with a nationality; they don't belong to any country or nation.

Since Sabah is a contested territory between Malaysia and the Philippines, the people in Sabah experience
problems in securing their nationality. Filipinos from nearby Sulu and Tawi-tawi, even those who were born in
Sabah, were not recognized by the Malaysian government as Malaysians. Worse, they are also denied of
their Filipino nationality since they are not properly registered in the Philippines. As a result, they do not enjoy
the rights and privileges that citizens of both countries enjoy.

This concern is also true in areas and territories under war and conflict.

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) handles all issues regarding refugees and
stateless people. The role of UNHCR is to identify stateless people and protect their rights, as well as to
prevent statelessness from happening all over the world. They also aid stateless people in acquiring new
citizenship in other countries.

Key Points

 Nationality is the person’s automatic membership to a specific nation while citizenship is a person’s
political status in a city or state.
 No one will be able to change his nationality, but one can have different citizenship.
 Every person has a right to a nationality because it is a fundamental human right.
 Statelessness is not having a nationality of any country.
 The role of the UNHCR is to identify stateless people and protect their rights, prevent statelessness
from happening all over the world and aid them in acquiring new citizenship in other countries.

Chapter 2: Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

Social behavior and phenomena are broad and complicated sociological concepts. These involve every
event between at least two individuals and include all knowledge and experiences a person acquires in the
entirety of his lifetime.

Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructions that influence a person’s life and
development.

12
Political Behavior and Phenomena
In sociology, political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority, governance, and
public opinion are put into practice.

A political behavior of a person or a group may be influenced by their political views, ideology, and levels
of political participation. An obvious example of an act of political behavior is the act of voting.

Political phenomena are not only limited to public office as this also include how institutions like school, a
church, or companies are ran and governed.

Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

Also known as bandwagon effect, a cultural behavior is that event when certain individuals behave a
certain way merely because other persons do as well.

Cultural phenomena happen when something or someone gains widespread popularity. However, it is
noteworthy that it is not the subject that is the cultural phenomena but rather a process of becoming
famous.

Interactions within Society

The social, political, and cultural behavior and phenomena in the society are results of the interaction within
society. People talk and share stories. People share ways of living among other things. People do things
together and work for the attainment of the common good and social order. These behaviors, be they
usual or not, are but a natural response to changes, and ideologies developing within society as a result of
constant interactions between members of society.

Key Points

13
  Social phenomena are the individual, external, and social constructions that influence a person’s life
and development.
 Political behavior and phenomena include events through which authority, governance, and public
opinion are put into practice.
 Cultural behavior is the event when certain individuals behave a certain way merely because other
individuals do as well.

Social, Political, and Cultural Change

Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time. Cultural change, on the other hand, is the
transformation of culture or the way people live.

 Communication is a vital human process. Through communication, people exchange information

and thoughts.
 Unlike in the older times, communication is made easier.
 Nowadays, people can share information in just a click. New media – social networking, texting (text
messaging), through e-mail, and the likes – have defied time and distance.
 While it makes the world as if borderless, this form of communication may produce individuals who
lack the basic understanding of direct and personal connection.

Transnational Families
 A transnational family is where one parent, or in some cases both parents, lives and works in another
country while the children remain in their country of origin.
 While these families remain secured financially, its members are also exposed to its setbacks.
 Children who become overly unsupervised find themselves meeting up with peer pressure, over
independence, and lack of family orientation. These may result in alcohol or drug abuse, unwanted
pregnancy, mood swings, or early marriage.

Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of governance in the
country changes. Governance is the kind of system or ideology used to express authority in a country. It
may be a democracy, monarchy, oligarchy, and others.

Local public services are provided by the government to people living within its jurisdiction, either directly
(through the public sector) or by financing provision of services.

Youth Volunteerism
Volunteerism is the use or involvement of a volunteer or free labor in community services.

Mechanisms of Changes
There are different mechanisms or tools of social and cultural changes.

Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed, transmitted, and
adopted by another one and considered as its own.

Examples:

 Migration
 Globalization

Invention is the process whereby new cultural elements are created to solve social and cultural problems.

Example: Internet

Discovery is the process whereby we recognize or gain a better understanding of already existing elements
present in the environment.

Example: Scientific Research

14
Changes within Society
Change is said to be constant. It is inevitable. It is expected to happen. No one can stop it. But the big
question is what makes it happen. Of course, there are many factors—social, political, or cultural.

Along with time, people, environment, and ideologies change. People move in and move out. People live
and die. People's stories and experiences change. People make discoveries and innovations.

Environment change as well—nature, water, earth, minerals, climate, seasons, sources of raw materials, and
energy.

New knowledge replaces the old ones. Slavery has been banned. Civil rights are granted to those who
were once deprived of it. Same-sex marriage is in its worldwide recognition. Everything changes. Nothing is
permanent but change, so they say.

And all these contribute significantly to changes people experience socially, politically, and culturally.

Key Points

 Social change is the transformation of social institutions over time.

 Cultural change is the transformation of culture or the way people live.
 Political change happens when the rulers of a country lose power or when the type of governance
in the country changes.
 Diffusion is the process through which the cultural traits of one society are borrowed, transmitted,
and adopted by another one and considered as its own.
 An invention is a process whereby new cultural elements are created to solve social and cultural
problems.
 Discovery is the process whereby we recognise or gain a better understanding of already existing
elements present in the environment.
 Changes are inevitable, and therefore, all of these, be it socially, politically, and culturally must be
for the benefits of all.

The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

The Study on Culture, Society, and Politics

Culture is the subject of Anthropology, society is for sociology, while politics is for political science. These are
disciplines of the social sciences.

The very goal of these disciplines is to prepare people for active and responsible civic engagement through
the development of critical thought. Exposure to these areas of discipline necessarily expose its learners to
the following:

 social diversity and inequality,

 self-reflective knowledge and practice,
 appreciation of complexity, and
 advocacy for social change and order.

Anthropology is the study of humans and their society in the past and present. Dealing with what makes us
human, anthropology delves in objects and materials we have created, our interconnectedness and
adaptability with environment, our lifestyle, our modes of communication, and our understanding of the
world around us.

Goals of Anthropology

 describe and analyze the biological evolution of mankind

 describe and assess the cultural development of our species
 describe, explain, and analyze the present-day human cultural similarities and differences
 describe and explain human biological diversity today

15
Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government, and the analysis
of political activities and political behavior. Primarily, it helps people gain an understanding on “who gets
what, when they get it, and how they get it.”

Political science helps us understand politics, political institutions and behavior, public policy, and
philosophical concepts, such as justice, equality, fairness, and liberty; and on how the said subject matters
affect economy, public and private life, law, and public services.

Goals of Political Science

 be immersed in current affairs

 build an understanding on the local, national, and international politics
 learn how political activities are organized in and out of our country
 provide substantially critical and scientific contribution to government and society

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. This social sciences discipline mainly
focuses on society—its functions, its members, and its diversity.

Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family; the functionality and relevance of
state as an important human institution; social issues on religion, crime, race, social class; and the stability
and instability of societies.

Specifically, sociology tackles the basic unit of the society—the family; the functionality and relevance of
state as an important human institution; social issues on religion, crime, race, social class; and the stability
and instability of societies.

Goals of Sociology

 understand ourselves better

 build a better understanding of mankind
 help with decision-making, both our own and that of larger organizations
 gather systematic information from which to make a decision, provide insights into what is going on
in a situation, and present alternatives

Key Points

 The study on culture, society, and politics will prepare people for active and responsible civic
engagement through the development of critical thought.
 Learning the areas of anthropology, sociology, and political science expose its learners to social
diversity and inequality, self-reflective knowledge and practice, appreciation of complexity, and
advocacy for social change and order.
 Anthropology is a social science discipline that study humans and their society in the past and
present.
 Political science is a social science discipline that deals with systems of government, and the analysis
of political activity and political behavior.
 Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.

Anthropology and Sociology

Humans are interesting subjects for a study. The human story has a lot to say from their way of living to the
associations they form. The two interrelated scientific studies of society and colloquially known as the twin
social sciences are anthropology and sociology.

Anthropology
16
  Anthropology is the study of people throughout the world, their evolutionary history, how they
behave, adapt to different environments, communicate, and socialize with one another.
 Anthropology provides us with a big picture of what it means to be human.
 The study of anthropology is concerned with the biological features that make us human (such as
physiology, genetic makeup, nutritional history, and evolution) and with social aspects (such as
language, culture, politics, family. and religion).

Sociology

 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships. This social sciences discipline
examines how human actions in modern societies are shaped by social groups and by wider social,
economic and political pressures.
 Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from
the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social
stability to radical change in whole societies

Anthropological and Sociological Perspective on Culture and Society

In sociology, society is the leading concept while culture is subordinate. In anthropology, on the other hand,
culture comes first as a subject matter followed only by society.

Let us put the two concepts this way.

 When talking about culture, we are talking about things that are tangible, almost like objects. They
are our language, our technology, and our institutions - things like our churches, our schools, or even
our houses.
 However, culture is also intangible; it is our values and our behaviors. Our culture includes our norms,
the standards or rules of acceptable behavior.
 Culture is what makes society "them." It gives a community the form, shape, or identity.
 Society, sociologically speaking, is the people living and interacting with one another to create a
culture. Its population bonded together by their shared beliefs, attitudes, languages, and institutions;
in other words, by their culture

Society and Culture as a Complex Whole

Edward B. Tylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, art, belief, law, morals,
custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

 With this premise, it can be said that culture is a result of society, which these two come together
and dependent on each other.
 Culture just like every person which comprise society is susceptible to change or even death.
 The society is not constant. Its members change from time to time. As a result, culture change along.
New trends exist. Technology innovates, and new forms of communications and thus interaction
have been created.
 People evolve over time as a result of their exposure to renewed or changed laws, values, and
standards of society.

Key Points

 Anthropology is the study of people in the world, their evolutionary history, how they behave, adjust
to different environments, communicate, and socialize with one another.
 Sociology is the study of human institutions and their relationships.
17
  A culture is a way of life of a group of people. Its subjects include people's symbols, language,
values, and norms.
 Society is a community or group joined because of sustained bond and interaction.

CHAPTER 2: Defining Culture and Society

Lesson 1: Society and Culture

Culture and Society

Culture and society are two different concepts. Each has its own meaning and function.

Culture
 Culture is "that complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of
society" (E.B. Tylor 1920 [1871]).
 Culture encompasses almost all social aspects including our "language, customs, values, norms,
mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations, and institutions of family, education,
religion, etc."
 Our culture defines who we are.
 Whatever it is that we do, it is part of our culture.

Society
 Society can be defined as the interaction among people where they can share a common culture.
 Society can also refer to people from a particular place that shares the same culture.
 A common location may not just develop a common culture; it can also be formed by gender,
shared beliefs, values, norms, or activities.

For example, people from Bicol love spicy food while people from Iloilo are known to be sweet and caring.

Can you identify a common cultural practice in your society?

The Relationship of Culture and Society

Culture and society are two closely interrelated concepts. For culture to exist and to be developed, it needs
human interaction; it needs people to interact with one another, and it needs people to practice it
continuously. Without a society practicing their common culture, the culture may cease to exist.

Culture is also essential to society because, without culture, society will be dull and will not continue to
thrive. A society without culture is like a body without a soul and vice versa. Culture and society need each
other so they can both develop and prosper.

Lesson 2: Aspects of Culture

Aspects of Culture: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

There are different aspects of culture as art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name
a few. These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of the society. It continuously restores itself
whenever customs are not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.

Examples:

 In the aspect of music, we can see that music may change from time to time. The traditional music
during the 1920s was mostly jazz, ragtime, and broadway musical while the popular music during the
1970s was disco music.
 Because we are now more inclined in using computers and tablets especially when playing games,
some children were not able to play street games anymore. This pushed some game developers to
introduce Filipino street games as video games.
 When it comes to language, we can also see how culture adapts to changing times. We have
already developed new words related to the internet like memes, netizens, vines, and others.

18
Aspects of Culture: Shared and Contested
Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning
experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with other people.

If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in various ways and situations. Because of diversity,
culture is subjected to debate and analysis.

Tips

 Our society needs to preserve our indigenous culture as well as try to develop it further and spread it
further so that we can still maintain our identity as a nation.
 Our culture changes and adapts to our current society but that doesn't mean that our traditional
culture should be forgotten.
 Different cultures exist in the world but there is no culture greater than the other. We should learn to
accept our differences and help other culture learn ours as well as we should also try to learn theirs.
 We should also not judge the customs, norms, and beliefs of others because it is their unique culture.

Key Points

 Culture is a set of behaviors that we have absorbed and a set of characteristics that help us relate
and bond with other people.
 Society is a group of individuals coming from the same place which shares the same culture.
 It is crucial to preserve and spread our culture and our traditional ways if we want to keep it alive.
We are facing lots of changes, developments and technological advances today and we tend to
forget to look back on our old culture and traditions.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It changes based on the current situation of our society.
Culture continuously restores itself so it will remain relevant.
 Culture is best learned when it is shared. There are a lot of cultures that exists in our world and to get
to know the culture of others as wells as to spread ours; we need to share it with them.
 If culture is learned and shared, it is also contested. Because of diversity, culture is subjected to
debate and analysis.
19
Aspects of Culture: Socialization and Enculturation
Society is different from culture. Within a society are many diverse cultures. While the members of society
share many of the same expectations and experiences, the cultural groups create ones that differentiate
them from others in the community.

Socialization is the process through which people learn to understand the societal norms or expectations
and societal values as a member of the society.

Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in which a
person is immersed.

Agents of Socialization
There are different agents of socialization: family, community, mass media, and religion.

Family
 The family is the first social group that we all have. It is considered as the most important social group
that a person has. It is also considered as the principal agent of socialization.
 We first start learning things with the help of our parents and our whole family. They are the main
source of our traits, behaviors, the values, norms and rules that we follow, and the ideas we initially
believe in.

Community
 Outside our homes, we get to interact with people and institutions from our community. One is the
school. In schools, we expose to ideas, values, norms, and behavior that may be different from what
we learned in our family.
 We also get to interact with other people from our community who become our peers. Since
children and teenager spend most of their time with their peers, researches show that peer groups
can create their sub-culture (Mondal, 2015).
 Our peers can also influence us with different norms, values, and behavior that they got from their
families, and vice versa.

Mass Media
 One of the biggest influences in our culture is mass media. Mass media comes in the form of
television, movies, books, magazines, and now even social networking sites. Mass media proved to
play a major role in shaping the culture and behavior of an individual (Mondal, 2015).
 Unfortunately, we can learn both good and bad behaviors through mass media that is why it is very
important that we are supervised when we are accessing all forms of media.

Religion

 Another agent is our religion. Through our family, we are immediately exposed to the teachings of
our religion. It helps shape us as individuals and equips us with the attitude and behavior our religion
deems right.

Aspects of Culture II
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in various
ways and situations.

Aside from these characteristics, there are also other aspects of culture as discussed below:

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning language, behaviors, customs, values, norms, and others to
acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn the culture. Socialization also teaches us how to interact with
other people and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature. It is an
essential part of building our character and preserving, spreading, and strengthening our culture.

Another way of learning other cultures is called enculturation. For example, your friend migrated to America
with her family. You noticed on her Facebook that after three months of being in America, she started to
act and look differently and she is using some slang words you only hear Americans say. This is the process of

20
enculturation. Your friend is slowly starting to adapt to the American culture because it is necessary so she
would fit in.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another, and even from one society to another. One
good example of this is the transmission of a culture of the Spanish to the Filipinos during the Spanish
colonization. The transfer of Spanish culture to the Filipinos is done through both socialization and
enculturation. We learned their culture by socializing with them, through the church and the schools they
established.

Tips

 The people or groups we socialize will greatly affect our behavior because we learn most of it
through them.
 Socialization begins during our childhood, even just right after we were born. The first group that
teaches us socialization is our family.
 Throughout our lives, we will get to interact with a lot of different people from different cultures. We
will learn different behaviors, norms, or values from them. It is up to us to identify what we will
keep/practice and what we will reject.
 Not all behaviors that we acquire can help us. There are some behaviors we learn that can be
destructive in the long run.

Key Points

 Enculturation is the process by which an individual adopts the behavior patterns of the culture in
which a person is immersed.
 Socialization is an ongoing process of learning language, behaviors, customs, values, norms, etc. to
acquire a personal identity.
 There are different agents of socialization that help us acquire and learn the culture. These are
ourfamily, school, peer groups, mass media, and religion, to name a few.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive. It is also shared and contested in various ways and
situations.
 Culture is learned and transmitted through socialization/enculturation.

Aspects of Culture III: Patterned Social Interaction

Patterned Social Interaction

Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify the good and
the bad?

There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.

Exchange
It is the most basic pattern of socialization. Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever
we do something good, we will receive something good in return (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

21
Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you play outside with your friends.

Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal. Cooperation is
considered to be essential for human survival because, without cooperation, social life would be
unmanageable (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: The cooperation between the husband and wife in raising their children. Without their
cooperation, their child would not grow up the way they want him/her to be.

There are also negative social interactions that are necessary for us to develop and sharpen our behavior
and culture.

Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation because instead of working together towards
a common goal, competing individuals or groups battle to achieve the target that only one can have
(Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You badly want to win the spelling bee competition because you want your parents to be proud
of you. You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Whether or not you win, at least you got to
enhance your spelling skills.

Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to achieve
their goals. But conflict isn't always considered as bad. The existence of a conflict can strengthen the unity
within a group because they are threatened by an external factor (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict arises between you
and your parents, you and your sibling team up.

Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person (Dictionary.com).
People usually coerce others when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.

Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you’ll tell your mother that he
failed his exam.

Aspect of Culture: Requires Language for Social Interaction

In every interaction that we do, language is the most important tool that we always use.

 Language is considered as the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of our
culture are passed on through our mouths, there are no written records (Young, 1930).
 We can perform the patterns of social interaction through the use of language.
 Language is not only restricted to verbal language, but we also use non-verbal language or body
language when we interact with others. Our first interaction with a stranger is usually a smile. This
shows that language, whether verbal or non-verbal, can help us learn and acquire culture.

Aspect of Culture:Integrated and at Times Unstable

The patterns of social interaction are connected with each other and may change from time to time. Our
social interaction may change from being cooperative to having competition or conflict. A simple social
exchange may lead to cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.

Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came to school the next
day, you saw your sibling being bullied by his classmates. You immediately came to his aid and you
cooperated with each other to stop the bullies. This scenario shows that even if you and your sibling fight
almost every day, you will still tend to unite in times of need.

Tips

 Social exchange as a pattern of social interaction is not always active. Sometimes when we do
harm to others, we already anticipate that they will do something wrong to us in return because of
this concept.
22
  Competition is not always negative as well. There are also good games that push us to do our best
to win and in the process enhance our skills.
 Conflict may result in hostility between the conflicting parties, but may lead to unity and
cooperation among the members of the same group.
 Our social interactions are integrated so it varies depending on the situation. We may be friendly
and cooperative towards one person today, but this might change when we feel threatened.

Key Points

 Social interaction is the mutual influence of two or more people on each other’s behavior.
 There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition,
conflict,and coercion.
 Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do something good, we will
receive something good in return.
 Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal.
 Competition is when individuals or groups battle to achieve the goal that only one can have.
 Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to
achieve their goals.
 Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person.
 Language is an essential part of social interaction. Without language, we will find it difficult to
interact with other people.
 Some parts of the patterns of our social interaction are integrated. This connection affects our
behavior towards other people.
 Our social interactions are also unstable; it may change depending on the situation we are in. We
may be in conflict with one person today but may become friendly with him or her in other
situations.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive; shared and contested in various ways and situations;
learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation; patterned social interactions,
integrated and at times unstable, and requires language for social interactions.

Aspects of Culture I
There are different aspects of culture as art, music, language, food, daily life, clothing, and religion to name
a few. These aspects of culture show us that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive.

Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive

Culture constantly changes and adapts to the current state of the society. It continuously restores itself
whenever customs are not fit in the current situation anymore. It does not remain stagnant.

Shared and Contested

Culture is learned and acquired through different interactions with people. Culture is a shared learning
experience. Because culture constantly changes, we get to share the learning process with other people. If
culture is learned and shared, it is also contested in different ways and situations. Because of diversity,
culture is subjected to debate and analysis.

Aspect of Culture II
Culture is learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation.

Learned through Socialization or Enculturation

Socialization is an ongoing process of learning language, behaviors, customs, values, norms, and others to
acquire a personal identity. It helps us learn the culture. Socialization also teaches us how to interact with
other people and helps us develop the behaviors that we think are inborn or part of human nature.

Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation

Culture can also be transmitted from one person to another and even one society to another. One good
example of this is the transmission of a culture of the Spaniards/Spanish to the Filipinos during the Spanish
colonization. The transfer of Spanish culture to the Filipinos is done through both socialization and
enculturation.

23
Aspects of Culture III
We have learned that culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive; shared and contested in various ways and
situations; and learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation.

Let us continue identifying some aspects of culture.

Patterned Social Interaction

Socialization helps us acquire both good and bad parts of our culture. How do we identify the good and
the bad?

There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition, conflict, and coercion.

Exchange
It is the most basic pattern of socialization. Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever
we do something good, we will receive something good in return (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You help your mother wash the dishes so that she will let you play outside with your friends.

Cooperation
Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal. Cooperation is
considered to be essential for human survival because, without cooperation, social life would be
unmanageable (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: The cooperation between the husband and wife in raising their children. Without their
cooperation, their child would not grow up the way they want him/her to be.

There are also negative social interactions that are necessary for us to develop and sharpen our behavior
and culture.

Competition
Competition may be viewed as the opposite of cooperation because instead of working together towards
a common goal, competing individuals or groups battle to achieve the target that only one can have
(Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You badly want to win the spelling bee competition because you want your parents to be proud
of you. You studied and practiced hard and eventually won. Whether or not you win, at least you got to
enhance your spelling skills.

Conflict
Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to achieve
their goals. But conflict isn't always considered as bad. The existence of a conflict can strengthen the unity
within a group because they are threatened by an external factor (Thompson and Hickey, 2005, p.129).

Example: You and your sibling fight over the TV almost every night, but when conflict arises between you
and your parents, you and your sibling team up.

24
Coercion
Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person (Dictionary.com).
People usually coerce others when they cannot achieve their goals on their own.

Example: You force your brother to do your chores by threatening him that you’ll tell your mother that he
failed his exam.

Requires Language for Social Interaction

In every interaction that we do, language is the most important tool that we always use.

 Language is considered as the transporter of a large part of our culture because some parts of our
culture are passed on through our mouths, there are no written records (Young, 1930).
 We can perform the patterns of social interaction through the use of language.
 Language is not only restricted to verbal language, but we also use non-verbal language or body
language when we interact with others. Our first interaction with a stranger is usually a smile. This
shows that language, whether verbal or non-verbal, can help us learn and acquire culture.
 Integrated and at Times Unstable
 The patterns of social interaction are connected with each other and may change from time to
time. Our social interaction may change from being cooperative to having competition or conflict.
A simple social exchange may lead to cooperation. A small competition may result in a big conflict.
 Example: You and your sibling fight over little things almost every day. When you came to school the
next day, you saw your sibling being bullied by his classmates. You immediately came to his aid and
you cooperated with each other to stop the bullies. This scenario shows that even if you and your
sibling fight almost every day, you will still tend to unite in times of need.

Tips

 Social exchange as a pattern of social interaction is not always active. Sometimes when we do
harm to others, we already anticipate that they will do something wrong to us in return because of
this concept.
 Competition is not always negative as well. There are also good games that push us to do our best
to win and in the process enhance our skills.
 Conflict may result in hostility between the conflicting parties, but may lead to unity and
cooperation among the members of the same group.
 Our social interactions are integrated so it varies depending on the situation. We may be friendly
and cooperative towards one person today, but this might change when we feel threatened.

Key Points

 Social interaction is the mutual influence of two or more people on each other’s behavior.
 There are five patterns of social interaction: exchange, cooperation, competition,
conflict,and coercion.
 Exchange or social exchange is our expectation that whenever we do something good, we will
receive something good in return.
 Cooperation is when people or groups of people work together to achieve a common goal.
 Competition is when individuals or groups battle to achieve the goal that only one can have.
 Conflict arises when people disobey rules, control a person by force, or hurt other people just to
achieve their goals.
 Coercion happens when a person uses threats or force to persuade another person.
 Language is an essential part of social interaction. Without language, we will find it difficult to
interact with other people.
 Some parts of the patterns of our social interaction are integrated. This connection affects our
behavior towards other people.
 Our social interactions are also unstable; it may change depending on the situation we are in. We
may be in conflict with one person today but may become friendly with him or her in other
situations.
 Culture is dynamic, flexible, and adaptive; shared and contested in various ways and situations;
learned and transmitted through socialization or enculturation; patterned social interactions,
integrated and at times unstable, and requires language for social interactions.

25
 Lesson 3: Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism
People have a tendency to judge or evaluate other culture in the context of their own culture. Language,
behavior, customs, or religion, which are understandably unique for every culture are the common subjects
of these judgments. Sociologically speaking, this ideology or tendency is known as ethnocentrism.

Ethnocentrism is the idea that one’s own culture is above or superior to all others. It is also the belief that
one's own culture is the main or normal standard by which other cultures may be measured or understood.
Ethnocentrism is failing or refusing to see the world and its aspects in a wider or encompassing perspectives.
It may cause people to practice bias and intolerance.

Seeing the belief and behavior of others, which are different from yours, as brute, confusing, or dirty is an
ethnocentric thought or behavior. The tendency to be avoidant, doubting, or questioning towards
members of another culture is also a manifestation of ethnocentrism.

Cultural Relativism
Not all people are ethnocentric. There are those who use wider perspectives in associating their culture from
another’s. There are people who accept and respect the evident differences from members of the society.
When people recognize that each culture is naturally different from others, that is cultural relativism.

Cultural relativism does not mean that we should immediately accept and tolerate cultural differences.
Instead, it requires understanding the culture of other people in their own cultural context free from
another’s biases.

Cultural relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their cultural context, and
should be treated as such. Introduced by Franz Boas in 1887, according to him,"...civilization is not
something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization
goes."

With cultural relativism, it is suggested that the way people live should be evaluated not based on your own
cultural context but on the social community the people themselves inhabit. Cultural relativism means
respect and tolerance.

In conducting their sociological studies, social scientists are recommended to practice or to show cultural
relativism. There should be no reservations and blind opinions while they are immersed in a community of
their subject. One may also practice this concept by learning and recognizing that there are reasons or
cultural significance why people of a certain community act and talk the way they do.

How Cultural Relativism Mitigates Ethnocentrism

It is believed that each person, in one way or another, possess an ethnocentric attitude or behavior. There is
nothing wrong with that because not all people are equipped with sufficient knowledge and exposure to
cultures across the globe, unlike social scientists or anthropologists. Thus the hardship in understanding and
tolerating other’s acts and values. But we also have to recognize that ethnocentric behavior if not
controlled may cause trouble to oneself, especially in this modern times when everyone calls for social or
cultural inclusion.

Historically, colonialism was justified by ethnocentrism. When Europeans reached the areas populated by
the natives whom they consider savage and uncivilized, they saw the promise to civilize and tame the
people they conquered through religion (Christianity) and colonialism. Despite its advantages, we can say
that the Age of Exploration changed the course of world history in a way which deprived the conquered.

It is widely believed in the field of sociology that ethnocentric behavior may be mitigated through the
recognition and application of cultural relativism. A person can practice cultural relativism by recognizing
that our culture shapes what we consider to be beautiful, ugly, appealing, disgusting, virtuous, funny, and
abhorrent and that this should not be the basis for evaluating other culture. Cultural relativism shapes our
understanding of different issues in the society as to why certain religion believe in this and other not, or how
come this group eat this type of dish, wear this weird clothing, sing and dance along music while others
prefer not to. What we need is an open heart and unbiased and critical mind, exposure, education, and
26
involvement in activities, programs supporting and recognizing the uniqueness and beauty of every culture
for us to truly grasp what cultural relativism means.

Key Points

 Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the main standard by which other cultures may
be measured. It is also the tendency to think of one’s culture as superior to other cultures.
 Cultural Relativism is the idea that all norms, beliefs, and values are dependent on their
cultural context, and should be treated as such. It calls for an unbiased evaluation and
understanding of other cultures.
 Recognizing and applying cultural relativism mitigates ethnocentrism.

Lesson 4: Cultural Forms and Threats

Cultural Heritage
Legacy is what remains after one’s time. Handed down from one generation to another, legacy magnifies
one’s life and living. It is said that legacy is what cultural heritage is.

According to John Feather, cultural heritage is a human creation intended to inform.

 architectures such as buildings, houses, and structures

 artifacts like books, documents, objects, images, clothing, accessories, and jars
 things that made people who they are like oral stories, values, laws, norms, rituals, and traditions

Cultural heritage helps historians and archaeologists understand and decipher the way of living people of
yesterday had. Through these objects, we are presented with facts and figures which help us draw the
landscape of the world once was.

Tangible and Intangible Heritage

Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by society or group and passed on
from generation to generation. Cultural heritage can be categorized as either tangible or intangible.

Tangible Heritage
Tangible means perceptible, touchable, concrete, or physical. A tangible heritage is a physical artifact or
objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science, or technology of a specific culture.

Objects that can be stored are included in this category:

 traditional clothing,
 utensils (such as bead work, water vessels),
 vehicles (such as the ox wagon),
 documents (codes, laws, land titles, literature), and
 public works and architecture built and constructed by a cultural group (buildings, historical places,
monuments, temples, graves, roads, and bridges fall into this category as well).

Intangible Heritage
Intangible is the opposite of tangible. Unlike tangible heritage, an intangible heritage is not a physical or
concrete item. Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in the culture.

Intangible heritage includes:

 songs,
 myths,
 beliefs,
 superstitions,
 oral poetry,
 stories, and
 various forms of traditional knowledge such as ethnobotanical knowledge.
27
Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage
There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and hurry to look for
historical materials to display. Due to the ascent of demand for cultural materials, opportunists saw this as an
avenue for them to earn money. They invented materials and claim that these were excavated or
unearthed and once owned by a cultural group.

 Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include Hitler diaries, crystal skulls of
Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status/story of Saint Nicholas' companion Black Peter (intangible).
 Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage are one of the
issues concerning sources of our culture.
 Aside from authenticity issues, preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage lasting and
existing is also a primary concern.

Threats to Tangible and Intangible Heritage

There was a time in contemporary history when museums were in constant search and hurry to look for
historical materials to display. Due to the ascent of demand for cultural materials, opportunists saw this as an
avenue for them to earn money. They invented materials and claim that these were excavated or
unearthed and once owned by a cultural group.

 Documents whose authenticity are yet to be determined include Hitler diaries, crystal skulls of
Mesoamerica (tangible), and the status/story of Saint Nicholas' companion Black Peter (intangible).
 Authenticity or truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage are one of the
issues concerning sources of our culture.
 Aside from authenticity issues, preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage lasting and
existing is also a primary concern.

Key Points

 Cultural heritage is a representation of the ways of living established by society or group and passed
on from generation to generation.
 Tangible heritage is a physical artefact or objects significant in the archaeology, architecture,
science or technology of a particular culture. It includes buildings and historic places, monuments,
artifacts, etc.
 Intangible heritage is that which exists intellectually in the culture. It includes oral traditions, social
practices, performing arts, rituals, festive events, etc.
 Authenticity is the truthfulness of origin, attributes, and intentions of cultural heritage.
 Preservation or the act of making a cultural heritage lasting and existing should be on the top list of
the government.

CHAPTER 3:Human Biocultural Social Evolution

Lesson 1: Macroevolution and the Formation of New Species
Biological Evolution of Man
The current biological makeup of humans has had long and complex origins. Biological evolution of
man refers to the long evolutionary history of the human species from primates. It is not an overnight
phenomenon. Millions of years have been involved in the process of reaching the biological traits of
humanity that are occurring at present. In this lesson, the origin, factors, and developments involved in this
evolutionary process will be discussed.

The Meaning and Significance of Human Evolution

Evolution is the process of developing the physical and biological change in a species over a period of
time. Natural changes and events forced species to adapt to the environment while some faced extinction
for being unable to do so. In this case, modern humans, belonging to the genus Homo, are seen as
byproducts of events and processes that occurred in the past.

Human evolution, however, must not be seen as a linear process. Scientists argued that human evolution
developed much like the branches of a tree wherein each branch extends into smaller, more specific
stems. It just so happened that among all stems, only one evolutionary profile—the current human being—
was able to adapt and further develop.

28
The Transition from Early to Modern Humans
The biological transition of humans from its earliest state to its current physical and biological makeup took
millions of years to complete. Despite this, scientists, through the help of archaeological pieces of evidence
and modern technology, were able to identify and distinguish distinct transitional stages of human
evolution. These stages are described below.

The Significance of Artefactual Evidences in Understanding Evolution

Artefactual evidences are the only source of knowledge in understanding the lifestyle and the
developments that occurred in each transitional stage of human evolution. Early human species were
discovered through fossils which are remains hardened in rock. Scientists study the structure, shape, and
development of skeletal properties including head shape and teeth to determine biological differences
across early to modern species.

Artefactual evidences can also include tools that are used for hunting and gathering or symbolic writing
found in caves. As mentioned previously, these were used by the Homo erectus, though scientists are still
hoping to find further evolutionary data on other species. Below are some authentic examples of
artefactual evidences that greatly contributed in understanding human evolution:

 An antelope leg bone with cut marks was recently discovered in Africa. This prehistoric tool served as
evidence for early hunting practices and carnivorous diet among early stone-tool making humans,
the Oldowan hominin.
 A cave discovered in South Africa filled with carbonized leaves and grasses made archaeologists
believe that cooking food was already practiced among early humans.

Appreciating the Past through the Present

It is important for modern humans to learn about their origins and developments. Nowadays, technological
advances has made delving into the past more accessible. Interactive and national museums, for example,
make a great venue for learning more about the prehistoric past. The great biological evolution that the
human species has been through is complex and developmental. As human beings, we are called to
understand and appreciate these advances.

Tips

 Human evolution is always forward. It is not likely that humans will regress in terms of physical and
biological makeup in the coming centuries.
 Note that before the existence of the genus Homo, the Australopithecines first emerged. They are
the earlier part of human evolutionary transition.

Key Points

 Evolution is the process of developing physical and biological change in a species over a period of
time.
 Human evolution must not be seen as a linear process, but rather as branches wherein each branch
extends into smaller, more specific stems.
 The transition from early to modern humans included the Homo habilis, Homo erectus, andHomo
sapiens from the genus Homo.
 Fossils are artefactual remains that hardened in rock.

Lesson 2: Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution

Sociopolitical evolution of man:Neolitihic revolution

Mobile phones are already part of our everyday lives. In a way, it represents technological advancements
due to the constant changes in the key features of smartphones and tablets.

This evolution and development of mobile phones only show how culture changes through time. From the
early writings of the cuneiform up to the present features of the different units of smartphones and tablets,
we can say that the way of life of the people constantly changes and this concept is called cultural
evolution.

29
What is Cultural Evolution?
Cultural evolution explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills, attitudes, languages, etc.
of the humans over time. It believes that as humans transform themselves, their culture becomes
progressively complex due to social, environmental, and biological factors.

The cultural evolution of early humans can be traced to the beginning of Stone Age when they started
creating and using tools made out of stones. This is the earliest known period of human culture which started
roughly 2-3 million years ago and ended around 6000 and 3000 BCE (Before the Common Era). This period is
also known as the pre-historic period because writing was not yet invented during this time. It is divided into
three separate periods:

 Old Stone Age (Paleolithic),

 Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), and
 New Stone Age (Neolithic).

Paleolithic period is the first phase of the Stone Age. This period started the creation and use of crude stone
tools which is the most primitive among the three periods. The word "paleolithic" is derived from the Greek
words palaios (old) and lithos (stone) meaning "old stone age."

The early humans who existed during this period showed their skills with fire and stones that changed their
diet and food consumption. Hunting and fishing were the primary activities of the early humans during the
Paleolithic period. They also had their religious rituals based on nature and developed their own language
based on sounds and hand signals.

Mesolithic period is the second phase of the Stone Age. It was considered as the transition period between
Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. The word "mesolithic" is derived from the Greek wordsmesos (middle)
and lithos (stone) meaning "middle stone age."

Early humans during this period gradually domesticated plants and animals. They also started to form their
own settlements and communities. Hunting, fishing, and food gathering were the primary activities of the
early humans. They also started to use "microliths" or smaller and more delicate stone tools.

Neolithic Period
The word "neolithic" is derived from the Ancient Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone) meaning "new
stone age."

Neolithic period started during the last phase of the Stone Age and at this point, modern humans started to
exist. From being food gatherers, they became food producers and introduced the concept of farming.
They also became herders from being hunters during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods. They crafted
better stone tools and invented the axe. Pots and jars were evident during this period which served as their
food containers and storage. Modern humans also formed their permanent homes and started to have
their own tribes and villages.

Key Points

 Cultural evolution is the idea that the human culture such as beliefs, knowledge, customs, skills,
attitudes, languages, etc. constantly change.
 Stone Age was the earliest period in the evolution of human culture when it started the use of
weapons and tools made out of stones.
 Paleolithic period is the first stage of the Stone Age and it started the use of fire and stone tools of
the early humans. Hunting, fishing, and other practices such as religious rituals based on nature and
language based on sounds and hand signals also emerged during this period.
 Mesolithic period is the transition period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. It witnessed
the gradual transformation of human culture such as domestication of plants and animals, formation
of settlements and communities, and food gathering.
 Neolithic period was the last stage of stone age when modern humans started to exist. Modern
humans introduced farming, started herding animals, and formed their permanent homes and
settlements.

30
Nature has greatly influenced primal lifestyle. As such, developments in human life also occurred at the
importance of the natural environment. In this lesson, a significant era of sociopolitical evolution will be
tackled—the Neolithic Revolution.

The Neolithic Revolution

Paleolithic period involved humans as hunter-gatherers in society. They are nomadic people who can easily
transfer from one area to another to hunt animals or gather plants for consumption and survival. This had
been the practice until around 12,000 B.C. E. (Before Common Era) where humans started to domesticate
animals and crops. This era of a newfound lifestyle is called the Neolithic Revolution.

From hunter-gatherers or nomads, people became farmers through domestication, the process of
increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate certain traits that will make them useful
for other human needs. The domestication of animals and plants implied that humans stay in a particular
area to enable their resources to grow and expand. Some plants and animals utilized for domestication
include wheat, barley, corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and sheep.

One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present, the country
of Iraq. It was believed that it concurrently existed with other Neolithic societies in China, the Americas, and
Africa.

Implications of the Neolithic Revolution to the Evolutionary Process

The Neolithic revolution has facilitated an economic and societal shift that paved the way for further
developments in early human lifestyle. As such, advances in different aspects of human life started during
this era.

Below are the implications of the Neolithic Revolution in sociopolitical, economic, and human development.

A. Sociopolitical
 The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the creation of civilization through permanent
settlements dictated by reliable food supply.
 Development in domestication techniques and practices allow for a more complex society and the
possibility for urbanization.
 With the emergence of towns and cities came the birth of trade and marketplaces. This led to the
economy and a hierarchical society with public leaders and castes.
 A form of social stratification was developed – created idea of inequality and ideas of social power
and influence.

B. Economic
 Because of the domestication of crops and animals, an abundant supply of food and resources
were maintained.
 An introduction to a selective breeding process of plants and animals that would allow for the
development of new species.

C. Biological
 Increase in lifespan and human population across civilizations.
 People learned to play different social roles apart from being farmers (e.g. craftsman, priests,
leader).

Evidence for the Existence of the Neolithic Revolution

Some artifactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in
influencing sociopolitical development.

Here are some of the actual shreds of evidence found to support the existence of this era.

 Morphological changes among Neolithic people, including brain size and mandible, simply dietary
changes from solely eating plants to consumption of meat.
 A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to be built during the Neolithic revolution
and served as a communal storage facility.

31
  Palaeolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but in the Neolithic, there is an increased caries rate.
Neolithic teeth are also more worn down and pitted owing to hard inclusions from poorly ground-up
flour.
 Molleson (1n9b94) has proved that there are changes in the bones of women that are task-related
and associated with cereal grinding.

Tips

 The shift from a hunting-gathering society to the Neolithic revolution occurred gradually. It took
thousands of years for this change to happen.
 If you looked at a map of early civilizations under the Neolithic period, you would notice that all
civilizations are near a body of water. This is strategically done by early humans because bodies of
water may also function as a source of food and other resources.

Key Points

 The Neolithic Revolution is a period where agriculture and farming became prominent through plant
and animal domestication.
 Domestication is the process of increasing human control in breeding animals or plants to regulate
certain traits that will make them useful for other human needs.
 One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present, the
country of Iraq.
 The Neolithic Revolution has sociopolitical, economic, and human implications to evolutionary
process.
 A form of social stratification was developed – created idea of inequality and ideas of social power
and influence.
 Many artefactual pieces of evidence prove the existence and success of the Neolithic revolution in
influencing sociopolitical development. A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria was found to
be built during the Neolithic revolution and served as a communal storage facility.

Lesson 3:
SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN: EARLY CIVILIZATIONS AND THE RIGHTS OF THE STATES
From a hunting-gathering lifestyle to a Neolithic society, major changes took place in terms socio-economic
factors of early human life. Despite this already drastic movement, human lifestyle continued to develop
into more organized socio-economic and political systems.
 What factors contributed to these changes?
 How did these developments influence future socio-political movements and policies?

The Neolithic revolution, through the domestication of plants and animals, paved the way for the
beginnings of early civilizations like Mesopotamia. In this lesson, the development and implications of these
civilizations will be discussed and explained.

The Rise of Civilizations

Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic period where the early humans learned to settle in just
one area to domesticate plants and animals for survival. The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia,
particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq. The latter was part of the Fertile Crescent, an area in the
ancient Middle East that is believed to be “cradle of civilization” and the birthplace of agriculture,
urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land area. This area housed two bodies of water,
the river Tigris and the Euphrates, which also became valuable resources for the early civilizations.

During these periods, civilizations were mainly agrarian societies that treated both genders equally as the
first labor only involved farming, domestication, and harvesting. Though this may be the case, social roles
began to emerge with some members of the community becoming priests or priestesses, laborers, and
farmers.

The Development of States

In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4, 000 BCE, two significant developments took place that
influenced the flow of the socio-political process of the early civilizations.

These are:
32
  the rise of states, and
 the invention of writing.

Historians believe that these developments occurred because of trades between different regions. The
early civilizations would have had some form of writing to document or record traces of their products and
deals.

During the Copper Age (5,900-3,200 BCE), the system of commerce grew with prosperity leading to the
development of cities and changes in socio-political positions with some civilizations promoting a kingship to
replace priestly rule to be able to foresee the flow of trade and negotiations with other regions. This era
gave rise to numerous developments such as the invention of the wheel and the transition from the use of
stone tools to copper tools.

In 3,000-2,119 BCE, during the early Bronze Age, copper instruments were replaced with bronze tools. Along
with this, the rise of city-states continued to flourish, thereby laying out a foundation for economic and
political stability. As a result, more empires, civilizations, and states began to rise and develop.

Implications of the Rise of Civilizations and States

The rise of civilizations and states led to urbanization, economic focus, political power, and material
development. These changes allowed both positive and negative implications that directly affected future
developments in the sociopolitical evolution of men.

Below are some implications of the rise of civilizations and states:

 Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as tension grew among them. Soon, professional
armies and weaponry began to make their appearance.
 Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork occurred along with the rise of civilizations and
states. During this time, people began to discover various raw materials, such as iron, copper, and
bronze for making tools and weapons.
 Political system: Because of economic factors such as trading, the leadership among city-states
began to be more organized and developed. With the kingship system replacing the priestly
leaders, each state had its executive branch that centralized decisions and communications with
other states.

Evidence for the Existence of Civilizations and States

Artefactual evidence prove the existence and occurrences of early civilizations and states.

Here are some of the actual evidence found to support the existence of this era.

 In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley discovered the remains of two four-wheeled wagons that
dated back to the time of Mesopotamian.
 Excavations in the 1840s revealed human settlements in Mesopotamia during 10, 000 BCE.

Tips

 Mesopotamia, in Greek, translates to “between two rivers”. This translation refers to the river Tigris
and the Euphrates that surrounds the land.
 The Mesopotamian civilization existed even before Egyptian civilizations. After the Middle Eastern
civilization began, Egyptian civilization soon developed along the Nile River.

Key Points

 The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia, particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq.
 The Fertile Crescent is an area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be “cradle of civilization”
and the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science due to its fertile land
area.
 In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4, 000 BCE, two important developments took place that
influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of the early civilizations. These are the rise of
states and the invention of writing.

33
  The implications of the rise of civilizations and states include warfare, developments inmetalwork,
and changes in political systems.

Lesson 4: SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION OF MAN: DEMOCRATIZATION

The early civilizations created new environments, called city-states, which introduced new developments in
various aspects of life. What outcomes have led to these continuous progress and ventures?

The rise of civilizations and city-states paved the way for the introduction of new developments during the
Copper and Bronze Age. Now, we look at how those impacted the following periods and developments.

Democracy and Democratization

Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of democracy.

Democracy means rule by the people. The term comes from the Greek words demos, which means
"people," and kratos, which means "rule." While democracy is often traced to the Greeks, particularly the
Athenian democracy during 5th century BCE, a form of primitive democracy is said to must have existed
during the hunting and gathering period in independent tribes.

The form of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said to be a form of direct democracy, where citizens
participate directly in decision-making. On the other hand, the evolved form of democracy or
the representative democracy that became widespread in nation-states is where officials are elected to
represent a group of people.

Historical Path to a Democratic City-State

Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa eventually spread to the nearby civilizations of Greece and
Rome. Both Greeks and Romans adapted to the farming culture developed by the Mesopotamians, even
following the latter’s socio-political structure of kingship. Eventually, they were able to engage in trade as
their resources highly develop and impacted socio-economic growth.

Greece
 Societal status and groups began to develop:
o the king (bearing the highest position in all Greek city-states),
o the aristocracies and noblemen, then
o the farmers.
 Wars were already occurring between city-states, and tension grew between social classes.
 Greek kings have growing ambitions to transform themselves into palace-laden rulers just like their
predecessors from the Bronze Age.
 The need for power was not feasible as the primarily abundant metal during the period was iron, a
relatively cheaper metal compared to bronze. If the king seeks greater power, he cannot easily do
so easily as the weaponry and machinery, primarily made of iron, were much cheaper, and can be
afforded by practically anyone within the city-state.

In 750 BC, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the kings, the noblemen collectively acted on
ousting them, leading to a successful establishment of the first republics.

The Beginnings of Democratization

The developments in the Greek city-states led to the birth of democracy and the rise of democratization in
societies.

Oligarchy

 Greek Kings were thrown off by the noblemen.

 City-states began to change the form of leadership into oligarchy, where rulers were made up of
aristocracies.
 Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the ongoing wars between city-states, even
ordinary people like the farmers learned to arm themselves and rebel against drastic changes.
 The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and aristocracies, so ordinary people also
used their collective power against an abusive government.

34
Tyranny

 Since there are a few noble people in the government, city-states ,in effect, were now ruled by a
tyrant, a positive term for a Greek leader that means “boss.”
 Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land owners and farmers.
 For some time, peace and equality emerged among social classes.
 In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a tyrant made some wrong and abusive
decisions that lead to another revolution ousting the tyrant rule.

Birth of Democracy

 Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of Greek city-states proposed that power
must account for the common people.
 This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution, eventually developing the city-states
into a democratic setting.
 In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise of
democracy in Greece.

It should be noted, though, that not all Greek city-states followed this ruling, especially the poorer, more
backward areas. Still, the political change in Greece has also soon led Rome to follow a democratic ruling
thereafter.

Also, keep in mind that citizen participation in democratic decision-making during this time is limited to
males and therefore, not the total population.

Significance and Implications of Democratization

The development of democracy led to changes that greatly impacted the ordinary people by reducing
inequality and promoting fair treatment for all. The beginnings of democratization in Greece laid out a
foundation for modern-day democracy.

Also, the establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and artistic implications that
eventually distinguished Greek and Roman civilizations from any other ancient civilization. Below are some
artefactual evidences of the artistic and cultural implications of democratization:

 Greek literature began to arise as poet Homer created his epics, Iliad and Odyssey.
 Stone temples that appeared as early as 600 BC were improved through classical Greek structures
upon the rise of democratization.

Key Points

 In Greece, societal status and groups began to develop with the King bearing the highest position in
all Greek city-states, followed by the aristocracies and noblemen then the farmers.
 In 750 BCE, with high tensions and alarm over the intentions of the Kings, the noblemen collectively
acted on ousting him, leading to a successful establishment of the first republics.
 It was in 594 BCE when Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event was considered as the rise
of democracy in Greece.
 The establishment of a democratic government promoted more cultural and artistic implications.
 Wars and tension across Greece and between city-states were one of the primary influences in the
rise of democracy.

Importance of Artifacts in Interpreting Social, Cultural, Political, and Economic Processes

Artifacts
Archaeologists have discovered artifactual pieces of evidence even dating back to the beginnings of
human evolution. As a result, present-day social and biological scientists were able to open a window to
what life was in the past. In this lesson, the significance and value of artifacts in several aspects will be
described and discussed.

35
Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a long time through
archaeological endeavor or by chance. Apart from serving as windows to the past, artifacts are also
deemed significant because they are tangible, authentic proof that a certain period in history actually
occurred.

The Significance of Artifacts

Artifacts have significant contributions in interpreting social, cultural, political, and economic processes that
occurred in the past. Their existence proves and describes these aspects thoroughly. The discovery of
artifacts and the understanding of various processes has provided a stable foundation for the socio-
economic, political, and cultural growth that humans have come to recognize today.

Importance of Artifact Preservation

There are various reasons why artifacts must be preserved and taken care of. Some of which are the
following:

 *Artifacts are irreplaceable. * Artifacts, being made hundreds, even thousands of years ago, are
very delicate objects that cannot be replaced by any available material in the present time.
 Artifacts are key to understanding the past. Practices that occurred in the past would not have been
known if not for the discovery of artifacts.
 *Artifacts give people a sense of identity. *Artifacts greatly describe culture and society. It provides
people with an opportunity to further understand their identities and heritage, as well as some
collective qualities that their culture may have.
 The past is yet to be fully discovered. Despite the seemingly great successes archaeologists have
significantly made in recent years, there is still more to discover about history. Treating artifacts like
pieces of puzzles will eventually provide a general picture of the past.

Present-day “Artifacts” for the Future

Many advances have already been made and discovered within this century. It is logical to treat these
discoveries as significant elements that can help shape the future. As such, the technologies and
developments that the world has today must also be well-preserved. These must be treated with certainty
that one day, these “artifacts” will be discovered and put to understanding by the future generations.

Tips

 Artifacts may consist of any tangible object that was originally part of the distant past but recently
discovered. They may include bones, fossils, tools, and a lot more.
 Archaeologists are responsible for digging out artifacts. Anthropologists study an area’s culture.
Together, they work to create a holistic picture and identity of a certain group.

Key Points

 Artifacts are objects made or modified by humans in the past. They are recovered after a long time
through archaeological endeavor or by chance.
 Artifacts have implications in the understanding of social, cultural, economic, and political
processes.
 It is important to preserve artifacts because they are irreplaceable, help understand the past, and
give people a sense of identity.
 Present-day discoveries and technologies will one day be artifacts for the future generation.

Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics

Source: Quipper

36