Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Angelo M. Grandillo
JANUARY 1988
.-
--i
AC KNOW LED GEME NTS
my mother for having given up her upstairs k i tchen table for the
t'
1
T A BLE o F CONTENTS
P':HJt'
Abstract.......... . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Resume .••••••.••••..••••..••••.••••••••.••...••••.••••. Vil
List of Figures...................................... ... x
Lis t 0 f Ta b 1 es. • • • . . • • • • . . • • • • . • . • • • • . . • • • • . . . • • • . • • • •• X '1 i
1 l
3.3 VarIables Influencing Cast Structure... 43
l l l
-
CHAPTER 7: Summary and Conclusions •••••••••••••••• 174
i
Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
References ..•.•.••.•.•...••••..•••.•...............•...
lV
l\.BSTRACT
ladle sheli and the safety linlng and by using a ladle lid
throughout the cycle of the lad le, te~perature lasses from the
v
model predicts that electric arc furnace tap temperatLlres can bl'
1 o
decreased by about 33 C. Thus a significant improvement in
the McMaster Works tundish was performed, again using FJ\STP, and
and at the same time use excess energy which would have
o
minimum of about lS C superheat in arder for it to have
VI
1 Darl'-, cetle étude, il (". ,t démontr<? p01Jr des billettes
pr()dlli tes par co',16e contin ;l', qlle des améliorations semblables
V1 l
- ----------~-~---
lX
•
x
Figure 3.3: Trandverse cut of AISI Grade 5160 H (high casting
sl.lperheat) •
><1
Figure 4.5: Effect of argon bubbling in the ladle on steel
temperature profile in the tundish. (32)
Xl l
Figure 4.17: Temperature profile through a regular lining at
the end of each step in a cycle after the ladle
has reached working temperature.
Xlll
Figure 5.6: Schematic of heating system for molten steel in
the tundish during continuous casting. (42)
XlV
Figure 6.2: Iron powder addition method using a carrier gas.
(46 )
xv
-
LIS T 0 F T A BLE S
XVl
Table 5.4: Condition of trial heats for scrap additions in
the tundish.
l
Table 6.1: Increase in billet production cost ($ per tonne)
as a function of amount of powder added (shown in
weight %) and price of iron powder.
XV 11
PM
CHA PTE R 1
1
Introducllon
inèustry.
reinforcing bars.
2
Table 1.1: McMaster Works E1ectric ~rc Futnil~e Characteristics
Il. 2.
Manufacturer
Type
CONCAST
Curved
4• Number of strands 4
3
1.2 Scope of Present Work
4
-
Ul COlvlPOSITION
be summarized as follows:
6
•
CHA PTE R 2
7
." l 1
l - Ladle
2 - TundJ.sh
3 - Mould
4 - Spray Cool~ng zone
5 - Stralghtener
6 - Cuttlng Torches
7 - Electro-Magnetic Stirring
OJ
: .: .:.~ :.~':": :':.: ": }f.': : ': ~: ~:-:;': :'~.{~;':~';':~;'$;':~ ;:i:;':5;C''':~;':~:?5:t:f'::';':)i:,};:.JJ}J IJ.~~Ht~.:~:: !-,,'.;. '-': .:~ ~:-
•. • •• ; '• • • '.' '.' . . . . . : .. :
j
Continuous casting of metals has a history going
cont i nuous cast i ng of steel has und erg one i ts mos t rap id 9 rowth.
9
r
~ \
.,.,.,A'
ROLLS
o o
/ ';,. ., 1.
éf~ ,'~\I Il' ,
r'f'l '
'~ cJ~
WATE"
SPRAYS
SOL.IU
ME1AL--'
t0
overall reduction in steel production costs associated with
•
l continuous casting, when compared ta ingot casting, makes it
over the years. More than 40% of today' s total steel production
1t
Il
Il
-
~
ct 20
....
....ct
$$-
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o la -.-, $ $- Il
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1.000 50
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:::> 900 q5
~ WORLD StEEL PROIJUCliOIi
Z
c:(
0:::
800
700
WOAlD CII\JOf IIlIl PMX>UCI"'"
,\ ,
,
qO
w :55 1-
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t/) (%) ./ :50 zlLJ
z 500 u
:= qOO SIIARE Œ CC-PRODUCtiON ..-liilRLn C~- 25 UJ
~
D-
z 1ii'0' DI' ec--..cllON 1%1 ,," PROUUC 1 ON 20
0 300 \ /" ~D C('POOOUCIION
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..-'- J5
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.......... 1 _._ ......
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._----.::----_..--------........-.- --_ ...
:E: 100 .J~ • .,. .... -
5
0 0
'65 '70 ']'; '80 '85
(ALE~DfIR )fAR
CONCAST UNION A.G. WORLD (ASTER S RVEY 198Q.1.
1800
~1600 -
z:
~ 1QOO -f- f - f- t-
l-
V) 1200 - -- - - - -
."
1/)
UJ
1000 r- t- I- :--- - - -
z:
;: 800
u
f- - - - - - - - -
~ 600 1-- - - - r- f- - - -- r-
~ ~OO
",.ettlMfS
".AHDS t- - f-
~
z:
200
o rrfufu if "f r if
1
1968 69 70 71 72 73 7Q 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 814
,
,
"
YEAR
CONCAST SERVICE UNION A,G •• WORLD CASIER SURVEY 198~-1
COtHIHUOUS CASlIHG BillET MACHINEs 2
'IC:C~r: 2.5 IN OPERATION (7)
13
900
BOO
700 -r-
en
c:J
z:
CI; 600 --t--r-
0::
~
Vl
500 1- t - : - r-
0lil
Vl 400 - 1- t- r- t- r- f--
-
UJ
z:
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L)
300 M'CHINtl
f- f - i - - 1- - l -
~ ""AHol
200 1- !- 1- - r-
~
r1II ~ rf If ~
..; 100 n t- c- t- - r-
0
z::
0 fJ
1 1r rr
1968 69 70 71 72 73 14 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
YEAR
CONCAST SERVICE 11H10 A.G WORI DCASTERSlIRYllIQR4-1
BLOOH t\ACHtNES 1 ST RANDS IK OPERM ION 3
fo'ICùRL' 2.6
(7)
450
Vl 400
Cl
~ 350
0::
t;; 300
0lil 250
Vl
~ 200
::r: "ltHlH(~
'-' 150 "1 '''IAHOS r t-
~
~
100
~ 1 fl
...,. 50 r r
0
z:: 0 ri 1111111 1
1968 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 71 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
YEAR
COHCAST SERVICE UNiOn. WORlD CASTER SURVEY. 1984-1.
SLAB MACHINES 1 ST RANDS IN OPERATION
~ICCRL 2.7 q
( 7)
\4
2.2 Components of a Continuous Casting Machine
15
methods. The major disadvantages of this system are in its
ineffectiveness for accurate speed control due to the long
response time of the system and the high risk of slag
entrainment caused by vortexing, especial1y when casting at
lower speeds (i. e. lower tund ish levels) •
16
3) Removal of Non-Metallic Inclusion
Much work has been done and is being done on
optimizing tundish design i.e. size, shape, etc. and
incorporating flow control devices aimed at increasing sleel
residence time in the tundish 50 as to enhance inclusion
flotation. 8 ,9,lO,11 A good example of the results which can be
17
- - -----------
~ Il'
~
(
...
0
,
~
A
' ...... _--
----
il ~ ---
: 0 B
---
U>S §--- 0
1
/J
'--
c
...
:-
..... UJ
c 2.0
a
.....
Ul
:J
r-1
U
c 1.5
.....
\4-
a
c...
ID
Ll 1.0
E
:J
C
C
ro
ru 0.5
~
r-
0.0
None A
nr-
8 C
Types of dams
Figure 2.8: Relation between mean number of inclusions
(> 100 m iCrOn5) in 51 abs and flow control. (8)
18
fr"~
, ......... ~
".
C:rain ~lze
develop locally just below the meniscus (i.e. the steel level in
the rnould) as described hy Brimacombe ane Samarasekera. l8 • 1
This phenomenon causes a drastic decrease in the local heat
The variables which have been found to have the most affect on
mould wall temperature are:
20
•
l)cooling water velocity
the geometry, they will be the first to shrink and lose contact
with the mould. Even though the faces solidify, the ferrostatic
21
(a) mould
solld stQQI }
-- 1-air gap
Ilquld
staal
1
~ -J
(b)
<f
Jf
--4-
io
--
"L J
22
•
23
2.2.3 The Spray Zone
cause the steel surface to reheat from the inside allowing the
24
•
25
r
1 l' /
-- -
-
Billet
26
1
27
for this reason that the described approach to spray zone design
is today taken one step further; computer controlled spray
zones. with computer control, caster conditions are
continuously monitored and as conditions change, adjustments to
the spray zone are made automatically. This insures that the
prescribed boundary surface conditions are kept under the best
control possible.
28
• ---- -------------------------
29
travels down the skid, and hits the length sensor, the torches
30
CHAPTER 3
31
-*"l..\ ,J;... .. ~'"",
- r?",L-~ EQUIAXED
~.!"X -
W
N - -
\ 1 -
-,1\ \
'-- ---~-~
1 111-
33
From the literature surveyed it is evident that
surface cracks occur as a result of thermal and/or mechanical
1 stresses placed on the solidifying shell. l8 • 4 A relatively
thin she11, being weaker, is more susceptible to cracking than a
relatively thick shell. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show transverse
cuts from two heats of AISI Grade 5160 H, 10l.6mm billets
produced at McMaster Works. Figure 3.3 shows how nonuniform
heat transfer in the corners can give rise to a relatively thin,
weak she11. These re-entrant corners, which constitute areas of
weakness, can result in a strand breakout or in surface and/or
subsurface cracks.
~--
34
Il
36
Figure 3.3: Transverse cut of AI SI Grade 5160 H (high casting
superheat) •
36
•
3.2 l nternal Structure 0 f Con t i nuous ly Cast Bill ets
egu i axed zones. The si ze of these two zones i s very impor tant
egu i axed dendr i tes, are more suscept ible to cr ack i ng .. It has
also been found that a long columnar zone increases the severi ty
37
13700C and the solidus temperature. It has been propased that
cooling and reheating cycles, which can occur in the spray zone
1,
38
•
The impor tance 0 f stee 1 chem i stry i s thus
sur face and inter nal cr acking a t tempera t ures nea r the sol id us.
surface cracking.
AxiaJ_ segregation (also refer red to as cen terl 1. ne seg rega t ion)
becomes severe when col umnar g rowth predorn inates. Fig ure 3.4
shows how the size of the equiaxed zone influences the index of
39
~
a
-ri
f.J
~7
dl
H 6
bl)
dl 5
U)
H
dl
4
+J
c: 3
dl
U
2
4-4
a 1
>< 0
dl
"j
J::
H 0 10 20
30 40 50 60 70
Equiaxed Crystal Ratio (%)
~ -:-161)( 161. (87)( 181. )( · ··210 x 210.
( 0 .. ·250 x 250. 0-··244)( lX)
(Dimensions in nun)
40
•
When examining longitudinally cut sections, either
col umnar gr owth then leads to sorne reg ions grow i ng f as ter than
liquid above since the bridges choke off any liquid supply.
equiaxed crystals.
41
l-Columnar growth
3-A solidification
bridge forms
5-Actual macrostructure
42
,,,
J
mesh, etc. require uniform core properties. High solute
concentrations in the billet core, as is evidenced in
1 Figure 3.6, can result in breakage problems further downstream.
In today's market environment, the billet producer must overcome
the problem of segregation in order to guarantee customers a
high quality product. Failure to do so will more th an likely
result in a loss of business.
1) casting temperature
2) machine design
3) section size
4) flow conditions in the liquid pool
5) steel composition
43
Figure 3.6: Core segregation in high-carbon spring wire
resulting in breakage during drawing operation.
r
\
44
In discussing these variables, the focus will be on the
individual and combined effects of casting temperature and flow
l conditions in the liquid pool (i.e. electromagnetic stirring).
45
thlS 1S that InternaI cracks will tend to preferentially forrn
down from the top face (i.e. inner radius); hence the narne
beneficlal.
46
..
1
1
superheats for the reason just given. For small section sizes
'Er
48
~~------~-~----------_.
•
1
M S'
2.2 , Mn
2.0
o 0 •
O.B·
49
.--------------
50
1
Equlued ColUftnar Oendrlte Cellular Planar
Oendrlt.
(JI:] ~ ~
~~ ~
~
il
Q ~ ~
I"creas I"g G/R
Decreaslng At
...
5t
1
improvements were seen with EMS. Table 3.2 shows the test
52
F
•
~
L.C. 0 2.4
0.76 0.28 0.85 0.011 0.01+ 2
L.E. 280 2.4-
-
54
•
This is also shown in Figure 3.11. As superheat decreases, th~
same equiaxed zone size can be achieved with and without EMS.
1 Another set of data, seen in Figure 3.12, shows that as
superheat decreases, the size of the equiaxed zone increases and
from perfecto
55
Superheat (OC)
56
•
~
"""""'"
'" 1 • S~vere
• • •• . ~
A Slightly severe
Good o
u
o~
• l '.
..c
---.,~-~~-- ---s----
10 r- 1
Ul
"
-ri g
'0
C 1 0
::l
+J 1 0
C 0
-M
0 0
+J
ru c
<.TI
~
Q)
..c 1 " 0 0
H
C)
1 o
0..
::l Q
,~
U)
1
, 1 ,
o 50 100
h'ldth of equlaxed crysta l zone (mm)
J
stirring intensity is insufficient, growth of columnar dendrites
is not hindered. In the case of billet casters, where casting
t speeds can be relatively high, thus residence time in the EMS
58
CHA PTE R 4
1) furnace to ladle
2) ladle to tundish
3) tundish to mould(s)
superheat.
59
Table 4.1: Impllcations associated wlth the lack
of control of liqUld steel superheat
1 ln the tundish when us ing meter ing
nozzles as a means of steel flow
control.
60
•
1 --'1 1
1 1
0
1 N
1
...
0
-- ...
r-"
0
1
0
.
ID .... 0
":' 1f1
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CO ~
0
,...; 1f1 0\
,...;,...; ,...; ?0
Il Il Il
~
en
C C
III > 0
<lJ Ci
1:'0 en
1
0
'0 m
+J
!II
0
m -
U
0
1
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0
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a
Q)
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1
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1
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62
i
.a
•
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T
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1.- ~
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m
1
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(%) ~ :Juanba'-'.:J
63
unJer normal operating conditions at McMaster Works. For this
64
of tap). Flgure 4.2 shows the dlstrlbution of llquid stt?C' 1
temperature loss between the ladle dnd the tundlsh (l.e. flrst
ca st) •
ladle and the tundish was 140 o C. Thus, with the àlm
0
temperature in the tundish being 1525 C, ft would be
analysis.
65
o
4-------~~----~------~_.'.-----r-------r------_r~
\
\
\
...
o \
\
\
'.\
o
'.\
\
....
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o
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... 0
\
\
ID
>
t-
o
...
al
ca
'.\ G
, ~
\
,, .. C
, \
\ H
,, \
\
,, \
\
'. ~
\
,,
,, C
,, ,, a
\
o o
..
\
\
,
u
M
o
Cl
ca -
U
-
\
10
o ... 0
, o \
. '.
,
171
\, .. Ol
,,
. o .. \ '-:J
'\, .'.
'.,
~
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,.ca
o 10
,
., ... '-
\
\
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, Ol
'.
...
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1=1
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66
•
-
Parameter Table
o 1 PARAME TER 2 VALUE 3 STANDARD 4 T-VALUE 5 SIG LEV.
DEVIATION
------------------------------------- ------------------------
1 INTEACEPT 551 6700 108 6300 5 078 o 0001
2 SLOPE o 6134 0.0664 9 238 a 0001
(J)
o 1 SOURCE 2 SUM OF 3 D.F. 4 MEAN 5 F VALUE 6 SIG LEV 7 MULT 8 STD OEV
~
SQUARES SQLIARE R-SQ OF RE GR
--------~---------------------------------------~----- ----------------------------------
1 REGRESSION 19180 1 19180 0 85 34 a 0001 0.4325 14 99
2 RESIDUAL 25170 112 224 7
is ta be attnined.
gas bubbl ing ln the ladle, such as argon or nitrogen, before the
68
•
2860 - ---
Oc = (5/9) (oF - 32)
:t
-0
Vl
• Argon Stirred
z 2780 o Not Stirred
:J
....
2760
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 00 90100110120
CASTING TIME. MIN.
It
,
69
Between heat variabilty arises from differences in
its source. This implies that aIl the energy inputs and energy
3) energy 1055 from the steel to the 1adle brick and from
70
',)
1
~
Sur"rhc"t ln HeL1l _ _ _.....
---,..
n",1t ln "rt,,1
ln Tur,,\l~h
\
Figure 4.6: Diagram of energy flow in the ladle for steel
casting. (33)
11
Figure 4.6 shows how the energy content of the
loss(!s during the period which the steel i5 in the ladle. The
is, the lower the losses from the steel will be. Figure 4.7
ladIes than for large ones. It is also seen that energy losses
and chrome-magnesite.
72
----- -------------------------
1
IlSO )000
'~II 't'f"'"
l '0 lont'
u ...
• m
1
11
W
a: "'7J
...
:J
0(
~SO
~
a:
w tioldln, tum.n,
i,...
leoo
~
;1
~
-.
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"'urntlle
ltSO
tHO
•
10
-f
lO
.-
CO
"ME Imln.t
-i-
10 100
•
)1'9"
Alum,n.
JOOO
Ho tcmnll
1ln to'I"
u
•
1&1
lX
-
"t'
~
:J Holdm. ln m ln,
~W IUO ~
~D 'r. e:
~ noo r.l
-
14lumonl
1&1 ~
•
14, ."
AlumIne
-""
l
73
4. 1 Theoretical Slmulations of Thermal Cycling of LadIes
74
1
4.1.1 Procedure
be made; sorne due to the limitations of the model and some just
1ining and the 1adie shel1. The thickness of the working 1ining
75
r •
.-..
tapping from the EAF into the ladle, was assurned instantaneous
since the time required to fill the lacile wa5 relatively short
the steel level in the ladle was relatively slow thus the ladle
segment had a contact time of 130 mInutes (JO minutes plus 100
77
-, .....
10 min tap
ladle (T=1650t: )
17 hours
preheat wait
'\
[ ~fl35
30 min
1 o min
preheat
hold
&
stir
~
u
~
Cl)
-
newly-Iined
ladle
J 25 min
0 100 min
cast
ladle preparation
of the lining became the initial thermal profile for the next
79
,
j
..... ......
Energy
En ergy lost to Energy lost
surroundings absorbed by steel
by
(J)
C)
lining
between the flame and the 1 ining, and the preheat t ime.
regular lining rose faster and to d higher final levei than that
preheating when the ladle was insulated. Figure 4.13 shows how,
cl t the end of prehea t i ng, the enerc;y input 0 f the b urner was
81
1
...
'C1
•
1 ~
.
. v•
f'4
V
..J
..
ID
~
.. •
• 4.t ...
ln
G. •
:»
r1
.....
·· ...
, c:
C-
•
rot
ta}
. ...
(ri
a
:::t ·.
•
CE ~ . ... ......
N
...... a:
U)
...
0
-
J:
UJ
X
H
a. CI t-
.. (!)
Z
Ci)
.. ID H
t-
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'Cil
. ... l1J
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a:
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..
a..
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~" .
.,
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(~o)
.
o
"If
3l:tn.1 Vl:t3dH31
..
o
o Il
o
82
"
~
C:>
"
•
.-4
u
II)
~
.<:) •
..J
L
....• ....
ln
•
rot
:l
01
U
•
..J
Q
.
, •
a:
~
~
U
.,• ~
....
fi')
•
rot
::J
'.
....•
Q
C
" .·
CU
~
--
U)
~
ct
-
~
1:
....0 W
L
H
en t-
ID
Z
CIl H
t-
oc(
UJ
" 1:
W
ct
ID Q.
ID
,.
o~--~--+---~--4---~--~---+--~~-i----r---~--+---~~~
o o o o o o o
....
o(JI o
i i o o o
2
la ~
" O'l
.
\
Figure 4.12: Predicted progression of hot-face temperature rise
for regular and insulated ladIes during preheating
of newly lined ladles.
83
•
Regular Ladle
2 2 2
413 MJ/m 262 MJ/m 151 MJ/m
supplied retained lost
by by to
burner lining surroundings
(100 % ) (63 0/0 ) (37%)
Insulated Ladle
2
413 MJ/m 322 MJ/nf 91 MJ/rrf
supplied retained lost
by by to
burner Ilning surroundings
(100 % ) ( 78°/0) (22% )
84
1
2) Attaining Working Temperature
1
A ladle is said to have attained working
repeatable from one cycle to the next. Figures 4.14 and 4.15
show how the lining energy content increased, for a regular and
contact time of 130 minutes. After about the fourth heat (i.e.
cycle 4), the energy content of the lining converged to a
for the first heat can of course be reduced if the lining energy
85
1
1 i
'r-
--.l
I .• +---+ 0
0
N
\
~
\
.. i
~
\. .... N"'.1n
t ~
l'
~~~dd
uuu
~< >->->->->- or
uuuuu CI
...z
.... 0
.. .. .
, UJ
rln
....
1
\
tt).~
00 ~
u
-
Z
H
.....
:l:
r
LU
..J
(J
~ d:
"
~
'"
~
\.
--- 0
ro
...
)-
(J
~
, t- e
~ ot.,
,
<'-
~
l:
.....
Z
H
t- ',01>-
,
'.
~
1<
--- LU
1 :S~H'"
~
1- ~ < H
.. l,
t'
--- t- .....
i:
1:
.... ,.0 ln
l-
..
~
,,
"
i:
' ,
<
i--- .~
/.
/:' ~Q.
//
.•1.... .f 1
,•
3Œ,
0
. 0
. 0. 1
0
. 0
.....
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ID ln
(satnor 80- 3 X
• tri N
°
.lN31NO:J lV3H
1
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1
.
1 L 1 0
0
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.i-
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f" ",
\
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al
: zH
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lin
en ~
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:
<:
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1-
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il oC ICI
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il Il.
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•.::1
--- -i-
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1
~~
../ l _L 1
jo.
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10
•
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0
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. 1
0
~
1
. .0 0
N
. 1
....
0
0
87
•
Heat t
1
88
1) Lining Comparison at Worklng Temperature
contdct time of 130 minutes). Figures 4.17 and 4.18 show how
t.he tpmper3ture between the hot face and cold face, for a
the cycle both for the regular linlng and the insulated 1ining,
a) Ladle preparation
surroundlngs and from th.? working lining hot face to the cold
pre par ..3t ion (i. e. 5 1 ide 9 a te ma k e - u p), the pre h e a t bu rI' e r i s no t
89
.
o
o
N
o 0
~ r
1 1
w •
~
m
zM
~
~
~
U
C
~
e
~
w
~
u
r
u
a
~
9
c z
~
~
w
~
H
~~H~ ~
c
~
~
m
!Œ
~
~----~--~L-·~L4----~-----+-----+----~----~____~____+c
o
~
. c
~
. o
~
. o . o. o.
N
(setnor 80-9 X ) lN31NO~ A9~3N3
90
t
1 1
-E
-
1
1
Y
1
<J 6 E
1
1
lU
U
ct
11.
....
a
:t:
~
a
CI
u..
UJ
u
Z
....U)<
i; H
0
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
...
1)
"
~ ...
o IIJ CD
"
(:J 0) 3~nl V~3dW3.L
... 1-
~ ~iffi~~
~5~ ~mib~
uIDŒ~Q.ID'"
..., 0
;
1
0 .
0
ln
....E
-
<J
1
E
',/
'::1
l'~}' LU
,
~ U
, ,1
,/
oet
J~' lL
,Y
/~ " t-
/ .. 0
/
~f ,'.
-/
..
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J:
:J:
0
I<JkJ'
:r
/ : a:
lL
.t
,:;
. 1 .,
LU
u
/
J <J #
l,
zoC(
t-
(J)
) <J# 0
ln
H
a
1 ~b
/ \
, \
/
1
/
cri
,,'
<J ~,
\
\
1
1
,
1 Cl <J ~,
/
1
,
1
. 1
1
,
.
0
..
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CD
0
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~ .
0
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. 0
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3~nl'l~3dW31
0
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ca
0
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~
0
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N
(:1 0)
preheat of l225 0 C for the regular lad1e and l3lS oC for the
insulated ladle in the bottom 1/5 section of the sidewa11.
93
c) Ladle Wait for Tap at EAF
1
prior to tap the ladie is picked up and taken to
cycles show that on average the ladle waits for about 8 winutes
before the furnace tap begins while for 25% of the heats the
and a special effort is being made to insure that ladIes are not
increase is not Iinear and even at the end of cast (i.e. after
94
1
The highest rate of energy pickup by the lining
1 from the liguid steel occurs during the initial contact time.
The model predicts that for the bottom 1/5 section of the
sidewall, where the total contact time is the longest (130
minutes), about 65% of the total energy picked up by the lining
occurs during the 30 minute ladle hold (i.e. 65% of the energy
is picked up during the initial 23% of the contact time). For
the upper 1/5 section of the sidewall, where the contact time is
Simulation
Regular Ladle
372
Insulated Ladle
293
f~::ence 1
(14.5 hpd)
Measured 351 + 28 264 + 22 87
(11 hpd)
- -
1 1
96
•
Insulated laàle were ln service, both having started on new
1in1ngs. The data was gathered after bath ladIes had reached
worklng temperatures (ie: after 5 heats on the linings). As can
be seen, the results predlcted in the simulation show a hotter
hot-spot temperature for both regular and insulated ladIes.
This can be attributed ta the fact that the simulations were
based on a shop production rate of 14.5 heats per day (hpd)
whereas during the test period the actual production rate was on
average Il hpà. The lower actual production rate than the one
simulated had the effect of i~creasing the time during which the
1adle was empty, thus the average working temperature of the
11ning should be lower than predicted. If however, the model is
looked at strictly from the point of view of comparing the
97
•
experienced by the liquid steel were evenly distributed
throughout the bath.
1
Figure 4.19 shows a breakdown of where llqUld
steel temperature is lost for both the regular ladle and the
insulated 1adJe and for the top 1/5 and bottom 1/5 of the
ladle. Th~ energy terms have been converted to equivalent
liquid steel temperature losses ta the 1ining and surroundlngs.
The model predicts that, for the cycle simulated, the equivalent
liquid steel temperature lost to the lining is about the same
for bath the regular and insulated lining5, and for bath top and
bottom 1/5 sections. From Figure 4.16, it is evident that
during the time of liquid steel/lining contact, the lining
energy content profiles are essentially parallel. Thus the
model results imply that the incorporation of insulating tiles
does not cause the 11ning to pick up additional energy however
98
1
o
Equivalent liquid Steel Average Temperature Loss ( C)
(
to IInln9 Oc
40 t =130 min to linlng : 39 Oc
to surroundln9S 42 Oc to surroundings: 27 Oc
82 Oc 66 Oc
Average . 68 Oc Average 56 Oc
Difference: 12 Oc
99
1
100
Incorporation of a Captive, Lightweight Ladle Lid
101
• -----------------------------
Average 56 Oc Average 34 Oc
Average Difference. 22 Oc
102
contp.nt. Minion and Leckie showed that the measured working
~I
"
103
1
1
In traditional EAF steelmaking, the raIe of the
furnace was to melt scrap, dephosphorize, desulfurize and
decarburize. AIso, because the furnace provided the only energy
input to the molten steel, it was necessary to heat the steel to
high enough temperatures in order to account for aIl heat losses
in the system, as was described previously. In the past (ew
years there has been considerable interest in ladle refining
furnaces. Their cost effectiveness within the overall
steelmaking operation has resulted in a tremendous growth in the
number of ladle furnace (LF) installations around the world.
104
2) Steelmaking furnace refractory life and furnace
availability are improved.
3) Power and electrode consumption is decreased in the
EAF.
4) Temperature and composition control is improved with
corresponding savings in alloys.
5) Ladle reflning practices can be carried out without the
need for an increased tap temperature.
6) The steelmaker is given the ability to sequence cast
several heats jn cases where the steelmaking facilities
would not allow hlm ta do 50 previously.
7) A buffer is provided between steelmaking and casting
which gives the steelmaker more flexibility.
8) Desulfurizing efficiency of the synthetic slag cover is
increased because the ladle furnace heats the slag, and
thus increases its fluidlty and causes better slag
metal mixlng.
105
\
~
•
As mentioned previously, a ladle refining facility
106
1
'" ,..- -- r
Humber of
Ot..nlrtloM
12
X- 1.29 P.rœnt
10 L a - 0.020 Percent
-
0
.....
4
0
134 1.36 1.38 1.40
" Mn
22
20
18
16
14
12
-
C>
(l)
10
2
0
0.42 0.44 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.48
" Carbon
HIIIII.... of
OtH.nJatID...
15r'-----------------------------------------------------------------------------,
14~
131-
121-
111-
10~ ,. , Oc = 5/9 (oF)
91-
-
~
I•~
8~ /.~~
71-
61-
51-
o
1 II I
'In
~
CI)
41-
31-
•
:LIIJI-Lf.RJ~'I/IIIJIIIJJ.L
W~
in two forms:
casting machines)
function of the thermal cond i tian of the steel suppl ied by the
stab lli zes and for most of the cas t the temper a tures rema i ns
110
~----~------~----~------~-----+------+------+---r--~~ ..
--------- ------- --- - - - - ----------------,r---------4---; 0
~
~
'0 UJ
c: ID
UJU
....0 -....c
UJ
:J
0
ID
-E
Q)
E
lJ
-M
:::'1
....
1-
0"
.-t
...J D
....
C
.,. ""'CDlU
,
\
U
.
o
~-----+------+------+------~----~------~------~~--~o
..~ ~.. ..~ ~~ !2 ..~ i.... ,... i~
(::1) 9'-'n~ g'-'9dW91.
11t
----------------------------,.
112
I---~-
i I~
.r
1 13
1
1 14
performed by Research personnel and completed in November 1984.
Thi s work was the basis for the design of the present tund ish
1 used at McMaster Works (the previous tundish had a capacity of
only 5 tonnes). Water modeling is used extensively at Stelco
R&D for defining problems, recommenCling changes, development and
optimizing equipment prior to commissioning. 41
115
1
FRONT VlEW
SIDE VIEW
1 16
J-
Vt= Vp+Vm+Vo
of non-metallic inclusions.
stratification.
1 17
•
Table 5.1 presents water model data ot how the
Optimum Flow Control Inner 71.0 179.9 407.3 3).4 74.7 0.0 ,
Outer 81.8 272.4 433.4 32.3 77.7 0.0
1
119
•
MAIN FLOW
~
~--
......._-.....,-~~"
SECONOARY FLOW
FRONT V\EW THRU SLOTS
SIDE VIEW
120
content, etc.) and tundish brick or lining system used (i.e.
cald tundish practice or preheated tundish). In arder ta reduce
these temperature fluctuations at the beginning of cast, end of
cast and during ladle changes in sequence casting, systems
capable of rapidly heating steel entering the tundish have been
developed and are employed in several plants around the world.
121
1
'"
Refractory
Channe'
Coollng jacket
"
\22
""'
0
•
~ Conventlonal Chan~ of ladle
Te.ming end
from ladl. to Tundllh
G) + 10 heata
...!5
CIl
'-
G)
+6
~~-~-=~~~~~~/~~~~~
"
~
..
G)
ca
Standard te.mlng
tempe rature
-c
E
II
...
4D
Q)
o 10 20 30 ~ 50 eo 70 80 QO 100110120130140150 180
123
•
"
124
1
-
"0
G)
Q
G)
()
SUS-30.4
SUS~30
()
CIl c::::J Experimental
1:o n=20G
c EZI ConventtonaJ
n=21e
o 0
def.ct
125
Tundish heating systems like the one described can
provide fine-tuning in temperature control required for critical
1 quality type steels. The capital cost requirements for
equipping tundishes with such a system can be significant. The
applicability of such a system for McMaster works is not
presently justifiable sinc~ temperatures are generally high.
This system may be considered at some time in the future once
better temperature control is achieved and superheats are
lowered substantially.
1
126
•
5.3 Scrap Addition to the Tundish to Reduce Superheat
The amount and composition of the scrap added must be such that
altered.
128
temperature of 1571oC. In REACTION, by specifying an initial
molten steel temperature T and setting AH=O (for an ideal,
adiabatic condition), a value of A was calculated. By running
the program for several values of T, Figure 5.10 was obtained.
In the form presented, this graph can be used to determine the
amount of scrap required to drop the temperature of the molten
steel by the desired amount. Thus the relation established is
as follows:
129
•• 1 1
1
1 \ \
\ " 1- 0
"If
~ \
\
\
,
.r-II
-
U
\
~
-r-
0
"g <l
Q ...-- c.
.
X 0
ru t.
ID
Cl
Cl
1 "1- 11
N
CU
X t.
\ IL :J
~
ID
\.( 0 t.
N CD
a.
E
CD
lSl r-
\
Il
.. 'C
CD
t.
.....
::l
q 0'
Q)
!-o
.... a:
\
~
\
"1- ID
\ \
.. 0
1 1 1
--1
lb
N
o
N
11
.... -0 ID o
130
r
~-------4--------+-------~------~~------~-------+~ .
Il
·
.·
~
N
...·
..-.
r-4
0
...· CU
...-4
+J
-ri
-a:
C
-ri
CD
0
"-
a:
CD
·
-(
", 0
....
0
~
L
•
Q 0 ·
i•
.,
.
0
ID
N
0 ·
0
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
... ...
0 "0
0
0
.
0
.
0
....
0
.
0
.
0
.... .
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
~
...
0 0 0 0 0
..JsqwnN ~sl..Jno.:J
~
Figure 5.11: Dimensionless relationship for melting kinetics of
J
steel cylinders immersed into liquid steel at
" l570oC. Both liquid steel and cylinders are
assumed to have a liquidus temperature of 153S o C
and a so1idus temperature of 1490 oC.
1 31
•
in the radial direction of a cylinder and ln this partlcular
Fo = rA t .•• (5.3)
R(initial)
Bi = k-(
h R ... 1
InItIa )
••• (5.4)
\32
In examining Figure 5.11, it is seen that for
133
1 ,.1
1
ID
/
1
/
d
,1
/
,~'
-
· ri
1
/
/
-
Dl
m
o
1
1
-'
/
~/ o
1 r--
/ ru
+
1
x
r--
CD
o
1
U
~
x
IJ..
t-------~--~N~-----------r------------~----------~O
o '}' '1
(0.:1) 601
134
Table 5.2: Compos i tion of test cyl i nders, 1 iqu id steel and
bath cond i t ions.
C Mn P S Si Cr
Liquid steel
Chem i s try CI.39 1.15 0.011 0.026 0.30 0.12
Cylinder
Chemi s try (1.38 1.60 0.028 0.023 0.18 0.11
135
-----------..
second immersion.
the bath was present. This l imited the immersion Ume of the
pulled from the ba th. The immersion depth into the ba th was, on
average, about 300mm whereas the total bath depth WilS 600mm.
cylinders varied from the immersion line to the base. Also, the
Table 5.3. For each immersion time, a Four ier Number was
136
(
(
137
~~-- ---~-------------------------
--
t d Fo R/R ('ln l
. t' Symbo1 used
I a 1)
( sec) (mm) on Figure 5.13
5 29.1 o .378 1.22 Â
22
28.0
27.2
1.513
1.664
1.17
1.14
•4-
138
Table 5.3. By plotting values of R/R(initial) vs. Fourier
Number cnto Figure 5.11, a value of the average heat transfer
1 coefficient in the tundish pourbox was determined.
observed tha t for the lower immersion times, the points obtained
the form of a gdp forms between the cylinder and the solidified
shorter immer sion t imes the res i stance causes a th inner than
the pred icted curves, i t was assumed that there was per fect
contact between the cyli nder and the solid if ied shell. This of
W/rn 2 _oC.
139
+-----~~----_+------~------4_------~----~~ .
ID
·
..·
~
N
...·
0
....
-
· ....
~
CO
....
+J
-
C
-ri
ID
0 · CI:
.......
a::
ID
0 ·
0
....
.
L ~
•
i 0 ·
i
4J
0 N
4'4
al 0 ·
.
..
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
...
0
0
...
0
0
0 "0
0
0
0
0
0
....
.
0
..
0
0
. ..
0
0
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
0
0
0 ·
""sqwnN ""sl..Jno,:j
140
The present tundish at McMaster Works, with the
therefore predicts that crops from the McMaster Works Bar Mill,
but the smaller sections available from the bar mill are more
the trial heats to which scrap was added. The results obtained
.
l
beneath the impacting stream where the turbulence was highest •
t4t
'. ........
• e
~
~
4'4
a ."
:J~
~~
1
ID
E
1
1 or4
1
1 ....
1 ca
1 C
1 or4
1 ~
1 ID
1 CD
1 U
1 1
"J'li. 1
1
1
,,
1
oo
ID
....
.....,
o
143
,...
Il
C
1
a
8 ....
>,..
c.o
Il
C
/
1
1
-.,..e
C
a.
•c. aa /
~ V!
1::J-C 1
1
/
-CI)
.41 1
1
.,..e
~~ 1 t-
1 1
1 1 a
1
1
1 .,..c
1 .6J
1
1
U
.,
10
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
,
1
,
1
144
1
u
••u
'"
,""
/
/
/
/
, "
/
1
1
1
1
1
1
-
c:
-
1 of'4
1 E
1
1
1 Il
e
of'4
....
D
c:
...,
of'4
ID
a ID
...c
U
4'4
0
:1 ...ca
C
> ...
La
• a8
0.
L
va
t\l I:II!C
I!
~
4'4
lE
...
c.
.u
o
Il... ...o
...
ln
145
The billet crops used were of the same grade as the liquid steol
being cast in order to avoid any possible chemistry variations
1 in the final product. At the scrap addition rates used, no
prob1ems were encountered except that the manua1 addition method
used was awkward. Also, when open-stream casting ls used, even
without scrap additions, a skull tends to form in the pourbox
towards the end of a heat. Tt was felt during the trials th~t
liquid steel superheat while at the same time allowing the heat
to be cast faster and increasing the yield by the amount of the
146
scrap added. It is believed that tundish temperature can be
successfully maintained to within + sOc by adopting a more
controlled scrap feeding rate. Smaller and more frequent scrap
additions can be used to maintain the tundish temperature
profile ln a ~ SoC control band. This however can only be
achieved by an automated control loop requiring the continuous
method based on the use of the implicit solution for the finite
difference formulation of the general heat transfer governing
equations.
141
- -----------------------------------------------------~
CHA PTE R 6
1
Controlling Steel Temperature in the Mould
148
the columnar zone. With operating constraints on the superheat
reguirements for flowability, an external method of enhancing
1 heat removal within the mould would be most desirable. The use
149
1
t5t
-~----------------------------.
Sirei rnpll
- -- DIC;IJlbuhonlaundpr
(Iundlsh)
ConlllllfOll')
caslll1q molli
Waler -c:::~~~~ =: .......,,........ 4 - - - Willer
Water - '---...--r==-="=
Slab
1
152
mIcrostructure. It was found that the powder addltlon had a
was observed.
(
The iron particles, all other factors being equal,
relatively quickly
front decrease
nucleation sites
(
153
These effects aIl contribute to minimize columnar grain growth
and severity of axial segregation.
1
Similar studies using iron powder were also
conducted on continuously cast 420X175mm slabs. Powder addition
ranged from 1 to 2%. Among the beneficial effects observed
werei
1.3-1.5
2) the equiaxed zone was increased by a factor of 1.4
3) greater structural and physiochemical homogeneity
4) reduced central looseness and segregation
154
possIble to increase withdrawal rate by a factor of 1.5 to 2.0.
The authors aiso expect a reduction in material rejected, an
improvement in rhomboidity in billets and an increase in the
0rades of billets that can be continuously cast.
..
Rarnacclottl et a 1 • 49,50 have conducted detailed
studies on the effect of iron powder addition during the casting
of 140Xl40mm billets for reinforcing bar applications. An
(
155
apparatus for feeding the powder to the mould WdS developed and
1s shown in Figure 6.3. The system consists of a stordge hopper
1 and a feeding hopper. A screw feeder transports the powder to a
c si Mn S P Al 02
The powder was fed at a rate between 1.5-3.0% for the standard
156
1
AIICON
157
•
From the study, the experimenters wer~ able to
draw the following conclusions:
1
1) the feeding of iron powder into the mould during
continuous casting did not create negative
possible.
8) there is a possibility of using thi.c; technique for: the
difficult to cast.
158
6.2 Trial Work Performed at McMaster Works
highly dutomated plant near Sorel, Quebec. The raw material for
the production of their ATOMET Iron powders is a high purity pig
(
159
iron supplied by the smelter of QMP's parent company, Quebec
160
Table 6.1: Increase in billet production cost ($ per tonne)
as a function of amount of powder added (shown in
weight %) and price of iron powder.
161
•
~t present, the McMaster Works caster Cdn meet the overall shop
levels make it such that the cas ter becomes a bottleneck in th~
Achieving the two goals stated above can more than make the
increase in production cost due to the iron powder additIon
worthwhile.
162
Thesp cri ter i a can be adequ a tel y :net by choos i ng a powder of
10 Kg of A'roMET 602 were r ecei ved for evalua t ion. Table 6.2
l\na 1 yses [?erfo rrned a t McMas ter Wo rks showed t ha t the oxyg en
con tent () f the +45m i c ron fr act ion of ATOMET 28 was on aver age
163
Table 6.2: Properties of ATOMET 28 and ATOMET 602 i ron
powders (as per QMP catalogue) •
Granul)metry
Chemica1 Analysis
C 0.07% o .10%
0 0.18% 0.10%
Fe 99+% 99+%
164
Thus an adequate powder feed i ng system, able to
powder dnd gas travelled through a tube and was discharged from
~he end of the tube. Several versions of this system were tried
associated with the lise of a carrier gas, was that at the exit
feeding system.
·,v.IS rut ln place WhlCh COl'~j adequately feed the iron powder
discharging into a 'T' pipe. One end of the 'TI pipe was
165
-
.... ,.......
--
--1
7 (
! /) \
---r . 'J /
J
8
----9 ~ _ ' r, of • . '
l ll , 2 3
:D-=-=-
1 \[)iL_~ (~=jV ~--:-. ~_:::. :::~ :::::: :)
" l , ,
~T l '"
Q. -9 -. -
~~~-
01
/C'~,- 7---- ::
.4
'-",,? 0 -
1- Storage 91n
Screw Housing
0' ~-~~-.-'-o' 2-
~)~
;:
o 0\ 3-
4-
Screw
Drive Shaft
\
'\ ----- li
l __ L J 5- Bearings
Drill Motor
~-----~ ~.r --- - 6-
'\ 7- Rheostat
'-~-
8- 115V-AC
,, ~- :o:::::~
~ ~_.2~ ~ - -- -, - - -::J - - 1L
g- Screw Speed Control
10- Discharge Spout
\
----~ ~ ------- 11- Feed Angle Adjustment
~ 12- Height Adjustment
- '"~ ........
1 13- Trolley
~i '~--~ç,:~ 1-- I?- 14- Handle
/
,~-------"
seizing. A 19mm drill motor was used to drive the screw. The
powder flowrate was controlled and regul~ted by means of a
rheostat. with this system, both types of powder could be
effectively fed. At the discharge spout the powder had enough of
167
..
controlled with the rheostat available. Calibration of the
work was completed the apparatus was deemed ready for the
trials.
lee
Several trlal heats were produced with the powder addition. Due
to the llmited work area available around the mould the trials
with inert gas nor aluminum wire feeding is required. AIso, the
lirnited the success of the trial. The major problem was that
aIl the movement on the caster floor the apparatus could have
169
•
Despite the problems two relatively problem-frep
heats were produced. Table 6.3 shows the chemistry of the trial
show macro etches of the trial billet sampI es ,md the control
and wiped clean. This last step was found to give excellent
forming.
sample and the control sample for the two heats, the following
170
1
..,
171
.J
l
,
Figure 6.6: Heat #33241 trial billet sample macro-etch.
.' .. t, .
l" ",:
!
" ~
\
\~
1
SummQry and Conclusions
steels destined for critical end uses such as hi9h cArbon sprlng
t
174
•
superhea ts are requi r ed when liqu id steel tempera t ure los ses are
175
In order to achieve temperature control, it was
them. One of the mi3jor energy los ses for the l iquid steel
176
•
in agreement wlth results documenteù at Stelco Hilton
Works where aIl the ladles were modified to incorporate
a captive Ild system.
McMa ster Works t und ish was determ i ned by Steico resea l'ch
177
Witllln heat vanability sueh as the front end
o rder to red uce superhea t . Fur ther mod if ica t ions to the FASTP
determ ined by immer sing steel cylinders into the l iquid steel
178
•
The two heats which were produced relat 'vely problem free
\79
A reductlon ln the columnar zone Size and ln core
sys tem.
plans for making scrap additions to the tundish nor iron powder
additions to the mould but they may be consldered at sorne time
180
• -----------------------------.
APPENDIX 1
package which was developed for the purpose of solving heat and ma~s transfpr probh'llI!-.
of relatlvely simple grometry lt is ba:t!d on the explicit fimtc dlff<,rencf' fornllllat.101I of thf'
( 1)
The formulation reqUires the sectIOn being analyzed he divided lOto discretf' nod('s and an
,,
• , • •,• . • •
1
energy ln
t
1 l~nl'lllY ( >l! L
1
•
l 2 3 l-l 1 1+1 n-1
tIl
•
thus:
Rat.e of em'rgy )
Rate of ener gy ) (Rate of ener gy ) ( Rate of encrgy )
accumulation Hl
( into no de i - out of node i + generated in node 1 (
nod<, 1
or
(2)
CI = Heat capaclty of no de 1
e: = Value of 0, at t + llt
1 .6.t = Iterative lime in element
181
·1 ",
now,
(3)
(4)
n1pulating the terms of equatlOn 5, it can be found that the following cnterion must be
satisfied,
l (6)
Equations 5 and 6 represent respectlvely the exphC1t fimte dlfference formulation and its
correspond ing stabihty criterlOn for any mternal node 1 A simIlar balance must be con-
ducted for the surface nodes 1 and n, keeping in mInd the convention chosen that energy
flows ln the direction from 1 to n. Therefore, for surface no de l, the energy balance equates
ta the followmg,
(7)
8a = Amblent temperature
182
•
1
F = Vlew factor (0 to 1)
(8)
( l 0)
A B
n-l
•
t t
n l
•
2
then;
Pt C l VI (0'1 - 0d
+- ~t - (Il )
~
On
= m(or 6'1 = m)
lJ~
18 <
~---------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - -
1
whcrc m - partItion coefficient
k 1 -+ 2 A 1 (mOn - (2)6t
0'n
6Xl(PnCnVn + mp1C1Vt)
(12)
for stablllty;
(13)
The equatlOns just presented are the basis for the FASTP software These equations
arC' fllrther extcndcd to mass transfer by usmg analogous molecular properties instead of
thNmal propertlCs. The formulation of thcsc eqllations have also bcen expanded to incor-
pNate other fcatures ln the program Sllch as stlrring of a series of consecutive nodes, phase
changes and mtC'rboundary reslstance to provlde for non-Ideal contact between surfaces.
The followlng 18 a simple ex ample of a session wlth FASTP The problern solved IS
Illu~trated below.
BRICK
3
~ = 2300 Kg/m
0
C = 1000 J/Kg- C
K = 1.5 W/m-oC
184
•
1
LJO , (''-1 "'J.N 1 1 0 ,,(II Vt (\ 1 \1\ J.l Th "N',I ~ K
OR (21 MASS lRANS~ER PROBLEM •
IN 5 1 UNITS
FOR A SlAB
IN DIHFNSIONtSI
PaulJe
Plealle press (reluru> ta continue
(JUO'J
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7
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185
l , l 'fI Il' 'vi AU T , r , l ,,. '1 f flll' ~ tH ,\11 rH Ir
'J .... !. 1'f."JlffIJJIIHII~I~ ,H'" L
- l' I}/ll', III~ 1 1,llfll 1 M 1 NV(J! VI " PH"Sr 1 HMII,! ' Il /lUI
.1, AI.'f IHII ~ ANi IrllFFi'nllrJ[IAI<Y Pl',I' IMII f', <JI' f A'<lIII"tl
( nif f 1 (_ 1 r NI ( 1 1 - Y ES 2 ' NO 1 2
186
DO YOII IoIAtll TO MAY~ "UMf CIIANt,H, II' Illf INl'ttT [l ... I ... < n t
DO YOII IoIMll 10 FYfCIIIF IHl Fktl',PAM '1)
no 1'011 IoIMH 10 'dur rXF(ïlll{lN (.'
UO YOU IoI ... NT ... SUMM"'R~ m ~ OliR 1 Nf'l (1 l'''' 1" 1 N MF M(lR, (II
••• •••••••
~ *~ •••••••••••••••••••••••••
._ ....•.•.. ......•...................
~
SEC r No 1 DI H No Ulon
THERMAL PROPERTIES
bTARTING TEMPERATURES
••• DO YOll IoIANT 10 MAKE SOME CH!'N<;E.S If} rHE IN~UT DA!.\ Ir)
Df} 1'01' IoIAtIT Ta EXECliTE litE f ROfjRAM ' l '
••• DO YOIJ IoIAtJT TO ~~IOP EXEClll 1011 (n
••• 00 YOU WANT A SUMMAR) OF YOUR 1NPU r DA TA 1N MlMOPY 1 1)
187