4.

2 WRITTEN ALGORITHMS FOR WHOLE-NUMBER OPERATIONS

When a class of students was given the problem 48 + 35, the following three responses were
typical of what the students did.

Which of these methods demonstrates the best (least) understanding of place value? Which
method is the best? Justify.
Section 4.1 was devoted to mental and calculator computation. This section presents the
common written algorithms as well as some alternative ones that have historical interest and
can be used to help students better understand how their algorithms work.
Algorithms for the Addition of Whole Numbers
An algorithm is a systematic, step-by-step procedure used to find an answer, usually to a
computation. The common written algorithm for addition involves two main procedures: (1)
adding single digits (thus using the basic facts) and (2) carrying (regrouping or exchanging).
A development of our standard addition algorithm is used in Figure 4.4 to find the sum 134 +
325.

Observe how the left-to-right sequence in Figure 4.4 becomes progressively more abstract.
When one views the base ten pieces (1), the hundreds, tens, and ones are distinguishable due
to their sizes and the number of each type of piece. In the chip abacus (2), the chips all look
the same. However, representations are distinguished by the number of chips in each column
and by the column containing the chips (i.e., place value). In the place-value representation
(3), the numbers are distinguished by the digits and the place values of their respective
columns. Representation (4) is the common “add in columns” algorithm. The place-value
method can be justified using expanded form and properties of whole-number addition as
follows.

Note that 134 + 325 can be found working from left to right (add the hundreds first, etc.) or
from right to left (add the ones first, etc.). An addition problem when regrouping is required is
illustrated in Figure 4.5 to find the sum 37 + 46. Notice that grouping 10 units together and
exchanging them for a long with the base 10 pieces is not as abstract as exchanging 10 ones
for one 10 in the chip abacus. The abstraction occurs because the physical size of the 10 units
is maintained

with the one long of the base 10 pieces but is not maintained when we exchange 10 dots in
the ones column for only one dot in the tens column of the chip abacus. The procedure
illustrated in the place-value representation can be refined in a series of steps to lead to our
standard carrying algorithm for addition. Intermediate algorithms that build on the physical
models of base 10 pieces and place-value representations lead to our standard addition
algorithm and are illustrated next.
The preceding intermediate algorithms are easier to understand than the standard algorithm.
However, they are less efficient and generally require more time and space. Throughout
history many other algorithms have been used for addition. One of these, the lattice method
for addition, is illustrated next.

Notice how the lattice method is very much like intermediate algorithm 2. Other interesting
algorithms are contained in the problem sets.
Algorithms for the Subtraction of Whole
Numbers The common algorithm for subtraction involves two main procedures: (1)
subtracting numbers that are determined by the addition facts table and (2) exchanging or
regrouping (the reverse of the carrying process for addition). Although this exchanging
procedure is commonly called “borrowing,” we choose to avoid this term because the
numbers that are borrowed are not paid back. Hence the word borrow does not represent to
children the actual underlying process of exchanging. A development of our standard
subtraction algorithm is used in Figure 4.6 to find the difference 357 - 123.
Notice that in the example in Figure 4.6, the answer will be the same whether we subtract
from left to right or from right to left. In either case, the base 10 blocks are used by first
representing 357 and then taking away 123. Since there are 7 units from which 3 can be taken
and there are 5 longs from which 2 can be removed, the use of the blocks is straightforward.
The problem 423 157 is done differently because we cannot take 7 units away from 3 units
directly. In this problem, a long is broken into 10 units to create 13 units and a flat is
exchanged from 10 longs and combined with the remaining long to create 11 longs (see
Figure 4.7). Once these exchanges have been made, 157 can be taken away to leave 266. In
Figure 4.7, the representations of the base 10 blocks, chip abacus, and placevalue model
become more and more abstract. The place-value procedure is finally shortened to produce
our standard subtraction algorithm. Even though the standard algorithm is abstract, a
connection with the base 10 blocks can be seen when exchanging 1 long for 10 units because
this action is equivalent to a “borrow.”
One nontraditional algorithm that is especially effective in any base is called the subtract-
from-the-base algorithm. This algorithm is illustrated in Figure 4.8 using base ten pieces to
find 323 - 64.

In (1), observe that the 4 is subtracted from the 10 (instead of finding 13 - 4, as in the
standard algorithm). The difference, 10 - 4 = 6, is then combined with the 3 units in (2) to
form 9 units. Then the 6 longs are subtracted from 1 flat (instead of finding 11 - 6). The
difference, 10 - 6 = 4 longs, is then combined with the 1 long
in (3) to obtain 5 longs (or 50). Thus, since two flats remain, 323 - 64 = 259. The following
illustrates this process symbolically.
The advantage of this algorithm is that we only need to know the addition facts and
differences from 10 (as opposed to differences from all the teens). As you will see later in this
chapter, this method can be used in any base (hence the name subtractfrom-the-base). After a
little practice, you may find this algorithm to be easier and faster than our usual algorithm for
subtraction.
Algorithms for the Multiplication of Whole Numbers
The standard multiplication algorithm involves the multiplication facts, distributivity, and a
thorough understanding of place value. A development of our standard multiplication
algorithm is used in Figure 4.9 to find the product 3 x 213.

Next, the product of a two-digit number times a two-digit number is found. Calculate 34 x 12.

The product 34 x 12 also can be represented pictorially (Figure 4.10). It is worthwhile to note
how the Intermediate Algorithm 1 closely connects to the base block representation of 34 x
12. The numbers in the algorithm have been color coded with the regions in the rectangular
array in Figure 4.10 to make the connection more apparent. The intermediate algorithms
assist in the transition from the concrete blocks to the abstract standard algorithm.
One final complexity in the standard multiplication algorithm is illustrated next. Calculate
857 x 9.

Notice the complexity involved in explaining the standard algorithm! The lattice method for
multiplication is an example of an extremely simple multiplication algorithm that is no longer
used, perhaps because we do not use paper with lattice markings on it and it is too time-
consuming to draw such lines. To calculate 35 4967, begin with a blank lattice and find
products of the digits in intersecting rows and columns. The 18 in the completed lattice was
obtained by multiplying its row value, 3, by its column value, 6 (Figure 4.11). The other
values are filled in similarly. Then the numbers are added down the diagonals as in lattice
addition. The answer, read counterclockwise from left to right, is 173,845.
Algorithms for the Division of Whole Numbers
The long-division algorithm is the most complicated procedure in the elementary
mathematics curriculum. Because of calculators, the importance of written long division
using multidigit numbers has greatly diminished. However, the long-division algorithm
involving one- and perhaps two-digit divisors continues to have common applications. The
main idea behind the long-division algorithm is the division algorithm, which was given in
Section 3.2. It states that if aand bare any whole numbers with b0, there exist unique whole
numbers q and r such that a = bq + r, where 0 ≤ r < b. For example, if a = 17 and b = 5, then q
= 3 and r = 2 since 17 = 5 x 3 + 2. The purpose of the long division algorithm is to find the
quotient, q, and remainder, r, for any given divisor, b, and dividend, a. To gain an
understanding of the division algorithm, we will use base ten blocks and a fundamental
definition of division. Find the quotient and remainder of 461 divided by 3. This can be
thought of as 461 divided into groups of size 3. As you read this example, notice how the
manipulation of the base ten blocks parallels the written algorithm. The following illustrates
long division using base ten blocks.
Think: Three groups of 3 units each leaves 2 units left over. Since there is one group of flats
(hundreds), five groups of longs (tens), and three groups of units (ones) with 2 left over, the
quotient is 153 with a remainder of 2.
We will arrive at the final form of the long-division algorithm by working through various
levels of complexity to illustrate how one can gain an understanding of the algorithm by
progressing in small steps. Find the quotient and remainder for 5739 ÷ 31. The scaffold
method is a good one to use first.
Check: 31 x 185 + 4 = 5735 + 4 = 5739.
As just shown, various multiples of 31 are subtracted successively from 5739 (or the resulting
difference) until a remainder less than 31 is found. The key to this method is how well one
can estimate the appropriate multiples of 31. In the scaffold method, it is better to estimate
too low rather than too high, as in the case of the 50. However, 80 would have been the
optimal guess at that point. Thus, although the quotient and remainder can be obtained using
this method, it can be an inefficient application of the Guess and Test strategy. The next
example illustrates how division by a single digit can be done more efficiently.
Find the quotient and remainder for 3159 7.

Therefore, the quotient is the sum 400 + 50 + 1, or 451, and the remainder is 2.
Check: 7 x 451 + 2 = 3157 + 2 = 3159.
Now consider division by a two-digit divisor. Find the quotient and remainder for 1976 ÷ 32.

Therefore, the quotient is 61 and the remainder is 24.

Check: 32 x 61 + 24 = 1952 + 24 = 1976.
Next we will employ rounding to help estimate the appropriate quotients. Find the quotient
and remainder of 4238 ÷ 56.

Therefore, the quotient is 70 + 5 = 75 and the remainder is 38.

Check: 56 x 75 + 38 = 4200 + 38 = 4238.