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Zhang, Zhang, Wang - 2016 - Bending Collapse of Square Tubes With Variable Thickness PDF
Zhang, Zhang, Wang - 2016 - Bending Collapse of Square Tubes With Variable Thickness PDF
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper aims to study the bending collapse behavior of thin-walled square tubes with variable
Received 8 October 2015 thickness in the cross-section. Three-point bending test is carried out for thin-walled square beams with
Received in revised form different thickness for flanges and webs. The relative strength of the flanges versus the web plates is
25 November 2015
found to have significant influence on the force response and deformation pattern. Numerical simulation
Accepted 10 December 2015
of the experimental test is also performed and the numerical results compared very well with the
Available online 17 December 2015
experimental results. Moreover, the difference between the quasi-static and dynamic responses of the
Keywords: square tubes under transverse loading is analyzed. A response surface method is finally employed to
Bending optimize two thin-walled beams under impact loading. The optimization results show that putting less
Square tube
material in flanges and more in the web plates is an efficient way to improve the bending resistance of
Energy absorption
the beams under transverse loading. Adopting graded thickness in the web plates is an effective and
Variable thickness
Optimization design promising approach to further increase the energy absorption efficiency of the beams.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction [20] or tube tapering machine [21], can easily produce plates or
tubes with graded thickness. Actually, early studies were per-
Thin-walled metallic tubes are widely applied as structural formed by researchers [28,29] to investigate the inversion of cir-
components in various engineering fields, especially in moving cular tubes with variable thickness. However, the uncontrollable
vehicles such as automobiles, ships, aircrafts and etc. The perfor- thickness distribution hampered further investigations and appli-
mance of them under accidental impact events is therefore of cations. Second, the performance of structures with variable
interest to the researchers for the occupant safety considerations. thickness is definitely not worse than that of those with uniform
The energy absorption characteristics of metallic tubes under thickness due to larger design domain. This has been validated by
various load conditions [1] have received extensive investigations recent experimental or numerical studies that investigated thin-
including axial crushing [2–5], lateral crushing [6–9], transverse walled tubes with graded thickness in the cross-section [22] or
bending [10–16] and etc. Various approaches were proposed by along the longitudinal direction [23–27].
researchers to improve the performance of them under impact Under transverse loading, the bending collapse mechanisms of
loading. For example, introducing multi-cells [4,5], foam filler [10– square tubes are similar as those subjected to axial crush. The
13], grooves [17,18], reinforced ribs [19] and et al. The purpose of energy is primarily dissipated by bending along static hinge lines,
these methods is generally to increase the energy absorption rolling at moving hinge lines and stretching in toroidal regions
efficiency of them during deformation and to attenuate the peak [2,14–16]. The theoretical model proposed by Kecman [14] is
force which might cause damage or injury. shown in Fig. 1(a). It can be noticed that the deformation is not
Recently, introducing thickness variables in thin-walled struc- uniformly distributed in different regions of the tube. For axial
tures to improve their crashworthiness performance has attracted crush, the contribution of each plate in energy dissipation of a
increasing interests in the researcher community [20–27]. The square tube is approximately equal, while the webs of the tube
reason is twofold: first, the manufacture of such structures apparently dissipate more energy than the top and bottom flanges
becomes more and more cheap and convenient. New emerging during bending since the latter just bends along static hinge lines.
material processing technology, such as tailor rolled blank (TRB) Therefore, a natural idea to increase the energy absorption effi-
ciency of the tube is to put more material in the webs and
n
accordingly reduce that in top and bottom flanges.
Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanics, Huazhong University of
Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, Hubei, PR China. Tel.: þ86 27 87543538;
In the present work, the bending collapse of square tubes with
fax: þ86 27 87543501. variable thickness in the cross-section is investigated. Three-point
E-mail address: zhangxiong@hust.edu.cn (X. Zhang). bending test for square tubes with uniform but different wall
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2015.12.006
0020-7403/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
108 X. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 106 (2016) 107–116
Fig. 1. (a) Collapse mechanism proposed by Kecman, (b) Web plates of square tubes.
Fig. 2. Specimens of square tubes with different wall thickness for side plates.
thickness in the four side plates are firstly conducted. The non- of two opposite side plates of the tubes is then reduced by a Wire
linear explicit finite element code LS-DYNA is then employed to cut Electrical Discharge Machining (WEDM) technique. The pre-
simulate the test and the numerical model is validated by the cision of the cutting is below 20 mm. The original square tube and
experimental results. The dynamic analyses of square tubes under the specimen after cutting are shown in Fig. 2. Three different wall
transverse loading are then performed and the influence of load thicknesses ta: 0.8, 1.4 and 2 mm are investigated here and three
speed is analyzed. Two relevant optimization problems are for- specimens are prepared for each case. The sectional dimensions of
mulated for square tubes under impact loading and the optimal the specimens are also presented in Fig. 2.
designs of thickness variables (distribution of the material) in the The structural material of the square tubes is aluminum alloy
cross-section are finally found out by a surrogate optimization AA1100-O. The tensile test is performed on a 10 kN capacity Zwick
method. The advantage of tubes with variable thickness over those Z010 universal testing machine to obtain the stress–strain relation
with uniform thickness is revealed and some suggestions are of the material. The specimens are taken parallel to the axial
offered for design of structures against transverse loading. direction of square tubes and standard dimensions as specified in
the ASTM E8M-04 for tensile test are adopted [30]. The tests are
conducted in room temperature and the engineering stress–strain
2. Specimen preparation and experimental setup characteristics of the material are shown in Fig. 3. The mechanical
properties of it are given as follows: Young's modulus E ¼68.0 GPa,
Square tubes with uniform but different wall thickness in the initial yield stress σy ¼30.5 MPa, the ultimate stress σu ¼90.5 MPa,
four side plates are experimentally investigated in this section. To Poisson's ratio ν ¼0.33.
keep the symmetry of structure during deformation, same thick- Quasi-static three point bending tests are also performed in
ness is assigned to the opposite side plates of the tube. The thin- ZWICK Z010 machine with computer control and data acquisition
walled square beam specimens are fabricated by using commercial systems. The experimental setup and geometry for three-point
square tubes with inside width b¼26 mm and wall thickness bending test are shown in Fig. 4. The diameter of the cylindrical
t¼2 mm. The tubes are firstly cut to L ¼250 mm and the thickness punch and supports is 10 mm and the span between the supports
X. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 106 (2016) 107–116 109
Table 1
Test plan for three-point bending.
1 0.8 2.0 x
2 0.8 2.0 x
3 0.8 2.0 y
4 1.4 2.0 x
5 1.4 2.0 x
6 1.4 2.0 y
7 2.0 2.0 x or y
8 2.0 2.0 x or y
9 2.0 2.0 x or y
Fig. 4. Experimental setup and geometry for three point bending test.
The characteristics of the deformation patterns and punch
force–displacement responses of the specimens are analyzed here.
is D¼200 mm. The testing is displacement controlled with the Fig. 6 presents the deformation pattern of the square tubes. A
punch being moved vertically downward to load the specimens general view is given in Fig. 6(a) and more details are shown in
and the loading velocity of the punch is 0.5 mm/s. As shown in Fig. 6(b). The deformation pattern is found to be highly correlated
with the wall thickness of the plates in the square section. A
Fig. 2, if ta atb, the bending resistance will be different when
parameter FW is defined as the ratio of the thickness of flanges to
loaded around x- or y-axis. Therefore, both cases are tested. The
that of webs. The parameter FW of the specimens is therefore
test plan is given in Table 1.
equal to ta/tb or tb/ta considering bending around different axes. A
total of five FW values: 0.4, 0.7, 1.0, 1.43 and 2.5 are
considered here.
3. Finite element modeling When the webs are relatively stronger or weaker than the
flanges, the deformation patterns are quite different. As shown in
The simulation of the experimental test is performed by com- Fig. 6(b), for test #1 with FW ¼0.4, the inward fold deformation is
mercial explicit finite element code LS-DYNA. As shown in Fig. 5, small and multiple folds are formed and propagate along the axial
the thin-walled square beam is loaded by a rigid cylindrical punch direction. It is interesting to find that this type of deformation
with a prescribed velocity in the transverse direction and sup- mode is similar to the tubes with foam-fillers [10,13]. According to
ported by two stationary rigid cylinders. Due to variable thickness the investigations by Santosa [13], the lateral support of the foam
in the cross-section, solid elements instead of shell elements are resulted in a higher bending strength and retarded the formation
employed to discretize the structure. The beams are discretized by of inward fold, which prevented the drop of load carrying capacity
58464 eight-node brick elements with one point integration and a of the section during deformation. This special deformation mode
total of 23040 Belytschko-Tsay 4-node shell elements are formed more plastic hinge lines and therefore dissipated more
employed for the punch and supports. Three elements are bending energy. Apparently, the thicker web plates also provide
assigned along the thickness direction and the characteristic size stronger lateral support and hamper the inward collapse of the top
of the mesh along the length direction is 2.0 mm in the two end flange. An illustration for the formation of multiple folds along the
regions. The center segment where the major bending deforma- axial direction in square tubes with foam filler or thicker side
tion is expected is modeled with finer mesh size of 1.0 mm. By supports is presented in Fig. 7. During bending of the section, the
110 X. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 106 (2016) 107–116
Fig. 7. An illustration of deformation for square tube with foam filler and thicker side support.
X. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 106 (2016) 107–116 111
process, the results may be different. To find out the most efficient
112 X. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 106 (2016) 107–116
thickness distribution scheme of square tubes with constant mass, In dynamic loading, the deformation mode of the beams is
structural optimization designs are necessitated for the beams almost the same with quasi-static loading and it is therefore not
under transverse loading and relevant problems will be solved in provided here. The difference in force responses is large and the
later section. force curves versus punch displacement for the specimens are
given in Fig. 9. The results for quasi-static loading are also pre-
sented in the figure for comparison. As the increase of loading rate,
the major difference is the appearance of an initial peak force. The
5. Comparison of static and dynamic loading
magnitude of the peak force increases gradually with the increase
In accidental impact events, the transverse loading is always of load speed. After the initial stage, the tendency of the force
dynamic and therefore, it is necessary to understand the difference response curve is almost the same for various load speeds. The
of deformation and force responses between quasi-static and force level in this stage is just increased slightly with the increase
dynamic loading. The dynamic loading of specimens with different of loading rate. Apparently, this is due to the inertia effect of the
FW values in the test is analyzed in this section and three different beams under dynamic loading. However, an exception occurs at
load speeds: V¼5, 10 and 15 m/s are employed. FW¼2.5.
Fig. 9. Force responses and deformation of square tubes under different load velocities. (a) Specimen for test #1, (b) Specimen for test #3, (c) Specimen for test #4,
(d) Specimen for test #6, (e) Specimen for test #7, and (f) Deformation of test #7 at V ¼ 10 and 15 m/s.
X. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 106 (2016) 107–116 113
As shown in Fig. 9(e), the force level in the latter stage at method. Finally, the approximate surrogate optimization problem
V¼15 m/s is lower than that for V¼10 m/s. This is caused by the is constructed and solved.
switch of deformation mode at higher load speed. The deformed
shapes at punch displacement of 50 mm are presented in Fig. 9(f) for 6.1. Formulation of optimization problem 1
V¼10 and 15 m/s. When V r10 m/s, the web plates protrude out-
ward during bending while they deform inward to the section at An illustration for optimization problem 1 is shown in Fig. 10(a).
V¼15 m/s. Actually at V415 m/s, for example V¼ 20 or 25 m/s, the The beam section is eudipleural along the central axis. The thick-
web plates are also found to deform inward to the section. A slight ness of each plate is uniform and a total of three thickness variables
decrease in impact force is resulted by this switch of fold direction of t1, t2 and t3 are employed. Maximizing the SEA value during the
the web plates. The reason for this switch is not quite clear but transverse impact loading is the objective while as a constraint, the
apparently deformation mode with smaller resistance is preferred mass m of the structure is kept constant during design. The SEA
and it is triggered by thin web plates (large FW value) and high value and mean crushing force are determined at a stroke distance
load speed. of δ ¼50 mm. The constant mass is set to the value when each plate
gets the average thickness of 1.4 mm. Therefore, the mass constraint
can be expressed as t1 þ t2 þ2t3 ¼ 5.6 mm.
6. Structural optimization with thickness variables The optimization problem is formulated as:
Pm δ
Maximize SEA ¼
To find out the most efficient scheme for the thickness dis- m
tribution in the section of square tubes with constant mass,
structural optimization design problems are solved in this section. Subjected to : 0:8 mm r t 1 ; t 2 ; t 3 r 2:0 mm
To better simulate the real design of accidental impact events, t 1 þ t 2 þ 2t 3 ¼ 5:6 mm ð1Þ
dynamic loading with a constant speed of 10 m/s is applied. Two To further reduce the design variables, an alternative problem
optimization problems are analyzed here. Firstly, square tubes with two design variables can be solved.
with uniform but different wall thickness in the four plates are
optimized. Secondly, graded thickness variables are introduced to Pm δ
Maximize SEA ¼
the webs of the square beams. The geometric and loading condi- m
tions are the same as experiment in Section 2 and the finite ele-
Subjected to : 0:8 mm r t 1 ; t 2 r 2:0 mm
ment model described in Section 3 is adopted since it has been
8 mm r t 3 ¼ ð5:6 t 1 t 2 Þ=2 r 2:0 mm ð2Þ
validated by experiments to give very good predictions. The lower
and upper bounds of the design variables are set to 0.8 and A full set of quadratic polynomial functions is chosen as basis
2.0 mm since no fracture of material was found in the experiment functions here. The basis functions are therefore 1, t1, t2, t12, t1t2,
of square tubes with the thickness in this range. t22. Central composite experimental design is utilized for RSM
Structural crashworthiness optimization problems are gen- sampling since it is powerful when combined with full quadratic
erally solved by surrogate methods due to its highly nonlinear polynomial model. A total of 9 experimental points are required
characteristics. The response surface method (RSM) [33] is one of for central composite design with two design variables. The sam-
the most effective and efficient surrogate methods in solving pling points are listed in Table 3 and numerical analyses are per-
relevant problems. Accompanying with design of experiment formed on these points. The relevant energy absorption indices
(DOE) technology, RSM was widely employed in various engi- and force responses are also presented in Table 3. By least-squares
neering fields including crashworthiness [22,34–35], tube hydro- data fitting, the approximate response surface function of SEA is
forming [36], laser cutting [37], welding processes [38–39] and etc. expressed as
The response surface method is employed here to solve the pre-
SEA ¼ f ðt 1 ; t 2 Þ ¼ 1768:544 764:354t 1 195:432t 2 þ 162:986t 1 2
sent optimization problem and the basic process of RSM optimi-
þ 15:560t 1 t 2 36:913t 2 2 ð3Þ
zation is as follows: the form of the basis functions is selected first
and design of experiment techniques are then employed to Substitute Eq. (3) into Eq. (2) and solve the optimization pro-
determine sampling points in the design domain. Numerical ana- blem, the optimum point is (0.8, 0.8). That is, t1, t2, t3 are 0.8,
lyses are carried out in the selected points and the basis functions 0.8 and 2 mm, respectively. Substitute t1 and t2 into the approx-
are then fitted to the responses at these points by the least-squares imate function Eq. (3), the predicted optimal SEA is 1091.4 J/kg. A
Fig. 10. Illustrations for optimization problems with thickness variables: (a) Problem 1, and (b) Problem 2.
114 X. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 106 (2016) 107–116
Fig. 11. Comparison between uniform and optimal design (a) force responses, (b) Deformation patterns.
Table 5
Design points and relevant numerical results for problem 2.
Point t1 (mm) t2 (mm) t3 (mm) Mass (g) Pm (kN) Pmax (kN) SEA (J/kg) CE
Fig. 12. Comparison between uniform and optimal design (a) force responses, and (b) deformation patterns.
the uniform design (1.4, 1.4, 1.4) and the optimal design (0.8, 7. Conclusion
1.553, 1.847) is plotted in Fig. 12. The SEA value of the optimal
design is about 10% higher than that of the uniform design. The Three-point bending collapse of square tubes with variable
deformation patterns are presented in Fig. 12(b). Both designs thickness in the cross-section is investigated in the present work.
develop multiple-fold mode, whereas there are some differences The primary works and conclusions are summarized as follows:
in the extent of deformation. More material in the upper region
of optimal design results in smaller inward collapse of the top 1) Three-point bending tests are performed quasi-statically for
flange. square tubes with uniform but different wall thickness in the
116 X. Zhang et al. / International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 106 (2016) 107–116
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