Bcit Slides mt2 Fall-2014 PDF

Magnetic Particle
Level II
(CGSB 48-9712)
1. Principles of Magnets and Magnetic Fields
Theory of magnetic fields - Magnetic domains
Materials that can be magnetized have submicroscopic regions called magnetic

domains that will have positive and negative polarity at opposite ends if
magnetized.
If a material is not magnetized, the magnetic domains are randomly orientated.
When the material is subjected to an indirectly induced magnetic external field

or if current is passed directly through the test object, the magnetic domains
align themselves and form a north and south pole in the test object.
Theory of magnetic fields - Earth's magnetic field
The Earth's magnetic field resembles that of an enormous bar magnet. The field
lines emerge from the southern half of the earth and re-enter in the northern half.
The earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind, whose charged
particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Theory of magnetic fields - Magnets
Lodestone is a naturally magnetized piece of the

mineral magnetite; is black or brownish-black with a
metallic luster..
Lodestone
Man-made magnets are made from a material that is
strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic
(or ferrimagnetic) material - including iron, nickel, cobalt
and some rare earth metals. Neodymium magnets,
(1980s, strongest & affordable rare-earth magnet).
alloy of neodymium, iron and boron (Nd2Fe14B). Uses -
compact permanent magnets for electric motors for Rare earth metal
cordless tools, hard drives, and magnetic hold-downs
and jewelry clasps
Electro-magnet are induced by passing current thru the

object or equipment. For example an AC yoke is an
electro-magnet used for MPI.
AC Yoke
Theory of magnetic fields
Magnetic field around magnetised material is

invisible to the naked eye.
But the field can be “visualise” with iron filing as

shown below. The pictures below show the
different flux pattern. Magnetic flux is the lines of
forces.
Magnetic lines of force Opposite poles Similar poles repelling

around a bar magnet attracting
Theory of magnetic fields
- Magnetic lines of force present in a magnetic field are

called the magnetic flux. The unit of magnetic force is the
Maxwell.
- Flux density is the flux per unit area ("B"). The unit of flux
measurement is the Gauss.
- Surface flux strength; flux can flow on the surface and in

AC magnetization will concentrate on the surface (skin
effect) ; whereas DC magnetization will be more distributed
throughout.
AC DC
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) German mathematician/physicist.
James Clerk Maxwell (June 13, 1831 - November 5, 1879) Scottish physicist
Theory of magnetism
Magnetic poles : bar and horseshoe magnet
Bar magnet with Ring magnet with

poles poles
Horseshoe magnet
with poles
Theory of magnetism
Laws of magnetism
- Like poles repel
- Unlike pole attract
Theory of magnetism
- Material influenced by magnetic field (ferro/para/dia-magnetic).

- Diamagnetic - Those materials that are feebly repelled by a strong magnet. Small
and negative susceptibility to magnetization. Eg Copper, Silver, Gold.
- Paramagnetic - Those materials that will accept magnetism but only slightly. Small
and positive susceptibility to magnetization. Eg. Magnesium, Lithium, Tantalum
- Ferromagnetic- Those materials that can be strongly magnetized and are suitable
for magnetic particle inspection. Large and positive susceptibility to magnetization.
Eg, Iron, Nickel, Cobalt
Ferromagnetic material have strong attraction and are able to retain magnetisation
after the magnetizing field is removed; especially hard or tool steel.
Theory of magnetism
Distance factors
- The further from the poles the weaker is the field
Theory of magnetism
Magnetic lines of force (flux) have the following characteristics:
- They form closed loops.
- They resemble rubber bands in that they will stretch and change shape under the
influence of any magnetic fields present.
- They return upon themselves and form close paths.
- They never cross.
- They seek the path of least resistance.
- They are most densely packed at the poles.
- They flow from north to south outside of the magnet and from south to north inside
the ferromagnetic material.
Theory of magnetism
Phenomenon action at discontinuity

If a ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with a strong magnetic field created by
a magnet or special equipment. If the specimen has a discontinuity, the discontinuity
will interrupt the magnetic field flowing through the specimen and a leakage field will
occur.
Theory of magnetism
Heat effects on magnetism

- The Curie temperature is the critical point where a material's intrinsic magnetic
moments change direction hence loses its magnetism.
- The Curie temperature is named after Pierre Curie who showed that magnetism
was lost at a critical temperature
Material Curie temp. (F) Curie temp .(C)

Cobalt 2039 1115
Iron (Fe) 1416 770
Fe2O3 1247 675
Nickel 669 354
Theory of magnetism
Material hardness and magnetic retention

- Hard steel (tool steel) are hard to magnetise and de-magnetise; hence
retain magnetism. They are good for making permanent magnets.
- Soft or mild steel is used for fabrication of structures and pressure vessel.
Easy to magnetise and de-magnetise; hence retain little or no residual
magnetism.
Later in the sections on hysteresis loop and de-magnetisation; the hard and
soft steel characteristics will be better defined.
Terminology associated with magnetic particle testing
- Magnetic flux : maxwell

- Magnetizing force (H) : oersted
- Flux density (B) : gauss
- Reluctance
- Permeability (B/H = μ)
- Coercive force
- Residual magnetism
- Retentivity
- De-magnetization
- Hysteresis loop/curve
- Flux leakage
- Induction
- Flash point
- Viscosity
- Contrast Ratio
Hans Christian Ørsted (14 August 1777 - 9 March 1851) Danish physicist
2. Characteristics of Magnetic Fields
Bar magnet and ring magnet
Bar magnet has poles (N&S) and Ring magnet has no poles and
magnetic field outside the bar magnetic field are all internal
Current Type
- Alternating current (AC) is the most basic source – single phase or 3-phase.
A A
Single phase 3-phase

t t
- Direct current (DC) is either from a stored media (eg batteries, capacitors) or
converted from AC (eg. half-wave DC or full-wave DC)
A A A
Battery HWDC FWDC
t t t
Alternating Current
Cyclic effects
- Due to cyclic nature of AC, the indication will appear to be “dancing” (particle
mobility) and hence better delectability.
Surface strength characteristics

- AC will have concentration of the field lines on the surface (skin effect); better
detection of surface or very close to surface discontinuities. Not good for sub-
surface or deep discontinuities (3-5mm).
Safety precautions
- Caution when using AC; high voltage and amperage
Source of current
- Generator or public utility will produce AC; 120V single phase or 440V 3-phase.
No rectifiers are required so the weight of the equipment is reduce, lighter and less
expensive; AC is also used for demagnetizers
Half-wave (Pulsating) Direct Current
- Derived from AC (single phase) but taking only one half of the wave; hence there
is a pause between each half –wave (pulsating)
- Good for particle mobility (due to pulsating) and field penetration
Direct Current (FWDC)
- Derived from AC (single phase) but taking both halves of the wave; hence there is
no pause between each half-wave.
- Good for field penetration but particle mobility is compromised.
Direct Current (FWDC : 3-phase)
- Using 3-phase AC it is possible to use rectifiers to produce a FWDC that look very
close to pure DC (little ripples). It can be filtered to pure DC as shown below.
Relative sensitivity of different methods
- AC magnetization is most effective for surface defects.

- AC magnetization is not effective for subsurface defects.
- HWDC is recommended for subsurface defects.
- HWDC superior penetration to FWDC.
- HWDC dc dry method gives the greatest penetration.
3. Effects of Discontinuities on Materials
Surface and sub-surface discontinuities
Indications
- Anything that is revealed during the inspection
Imperfections
- Any anomalies (deviation from the design or specification)
Discontinuities
- Indications that are flaws (faults); which may or may not acceptable
Defects
- Discontinuity that does not comply to an acceptance criteria or accepted norms.
- It can be detrimental if put in service
When we find something during an inspection, we call it an indication. Then if we can

attribute to be flaw then we call it a discontinuity. If the we compare it to an acceptance
criteria and it exceeds the acceptable limits then we call it a defect.
Surface discontinuities
- Discontinuities that are located at or very close to the surface (1-3mm approx.)
Sub-surface discontinuities
- Discontinuities located below the surface (3-5mm approx.); may go deep but then
the indication may be too fuzzy to interpret.
Fuzzy indication
Sharp indication
DC flux – near and sub‐surface flaws
AC flux – surface flaws
Design factors
Mechanical properties
- Properties like tensile strength, hardness and toughness will influence how the
material is use in fabrication and hence usage (service)
- Eg. for cold weather application (say below -40oC); a charpy test for toughness is
maybe required.
Part usage
- what is the part use for; how critical is the part?
- Eg. a turbine shaft may use a more sensitive technique such as wet florescent on
the wet bench
Relationship to load-carrying ability

- Is the part design to carry load?
- Eg. a lifting lug will require a critical inspection as it will be used in the lifting of the
component it is attached to – may be a weld lug or bolted lug.
Georges A. Charpy (1 September 1865 – 25 November 1945) French scientist

4. Magnetization by Electric Current
Circular and Longitudinal Field
The two basic magnetic fields are:

- Circular field, and
- Longitudinal field
Faraday’s right hand rule

- Describe the relation between
current and magnetic field induces
in a wire (part) carrying a current.
If electron flow is used then left hand

rule applies
Michael Faraday (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) English physicist
Circular Field
Field around a straight conductor

- Using the right hand rule; the magnetic field around a conductor will be circular
and hence the term circular field.
Circular field
Circular Field
Field in parts with current flowing - long, solid regular parts
Head shot using
contact plates
Circular Field
Field in parts with current flowing - tubular parts
Head shot using
contact plates
Head shot using
central conductor
Circular Field
Field in parts with current flowing - irregularly shaped parts (holes/slots)
Head shot using
contact plates
Head shot using
central conductor
Circular Field
Methods of inducing field - contact plates (direct)

- Current is passed directly thru the part
- Good contact is critical; if not it may arc (sparking); same if the current is too high
Circular Field
Methods of inducing field- prods (direct)

- Using two prods (electrodes) and passing a current thru the part (indirect)
- Good contact is critical; if not it may arc (sparking); or if current is too high.
Circular Field
- Methods of inducing field - central conductors (indirect)

- Using a conductor (copper bar), pass through the hollow part and the current flow
to induce the magnetic field
- No arcing of part as there is no direct flow of current thru part
Circular Field
- Methods of inducing field - through cables (indirect)

- Similar to a central conductor except a cable (wire) is used
- Again no arcing of part
Circular Field
Methods of inducing field - leeches and clamps (direct)

- Similar to prods, except the contacts are held by magnets or clamps
- Arc is possible if contact is not good or current too high.
Leech
Clamp
Circular Field
Discontinuities commonly found by circular fields

- Any discontinuity perpendicular, or at angle but not parallel, to the circular field
- Longitudinal cracks, seam, laps, stringer etc.
Circular Field
Discontinuities commonly found by circular fields - examples

Circular Field
Current calculations
- Do some samples with the various equations
Direct contact
- Solid round part
- Solid rectangular part
- Solid irregular part
- Hollow part
Central conductor
- Hollow/ring part
- Irregular part
Prods
- Thickness and spacing
Circular Field
Direct Current Field Distribution

Solid Non-magnetic Conductor
- Magnetic field strength varies from

zero in the centre to maximum at
the surface
- Field strength outside the conductor
decreases exponentially with
distance
Circular Field

Solid Magnetic Conductor
- Magnetic field strength increase

from zero in the centre to maximum
at the surface with a field strength
greater than a non-magnetic
conductor due to permeability,
distance; same as the non-magnetic
conductor
Circular Field

Hollow Non-magnetic Conductor

from zero inside surface to
maximum at the surface
distance
Circular Field

Hollow Magnetic Conductor

from zero in the centre slowly to
inside surface then rapidly to
maximum at the surface with a field
strength greater than a non-
magnetic conductor due to
permeability,
distance
Circular Field

Hollow Part with Central Conductor
- Magnetic field strength is strongest

on the inside of magnetic hollow
part and decrease slightly at the
outside surface (good for ID
discontinuities),
distance
Circular Field
DC Field Distribution vs AC Field Distribution
- DC increase is even
- AC the increase slow then rapid
- AC field concentrated near the surface
- AC has “skin effect” (good for surface
discontinuities),
decreases exponentially with distance
Circular Field
Safety precautions
- Ensure good contact; clean contacts
- Do not over-amp (too high current)
- Will prevent arcing (sparking) and over-heating
Advantages of circular field

- Fast and good coverage; one shot will be good for whole part
- High amperage; good penetration for sub-surface discontinuities (using DC)
Disadvantages of circular field

- High amperage; safety precautions from electrocution
- Good contact and not too high amperage; arcing and over-heating. “Never burn a
inspected part”
- Not good for transverse orientated discontinuities (ie. parallel to field)
Longitudinal Field
- Field produced by current flowing in a coil

- Coil of a few turns (3-7); use to create a longitudinal field
- Each turn will produce individual circular filed but combining the adjacent circular
field a longitudinal field is created.
Longitudinal Field
Principles of inducing flux

- The way magnetic field is induced is dependent on part geometry (and size), coil
shape and size.
- For example a wet bench coil is usually 10-14” in diameter; so the parts are limited
to anything less than the coil diameter. If the part is longer than 15” (approx.), then
more than 2 coil shots have to be performed.
- A yoke has the coil (solenoid) external to part and the induced magnetic field “flow”
into the part much like a horse-shoe magnet.
Longitudinal Field
Use of coils, cables and yokes
Stationary coil Wrapped coil
Yoke
Portable coil
Longitudinal Field
Current calculations - do samples with the various equations

- L/D ratio
- Number of turns
- Fill factor & placement (inside edge / middle of coil)
- Part length
- Use of extensions
(for coil – stationary, portable and wrapped)
Yoke – AC & DC
- Do not need calculation as amperage is note on unit (say 4Amps)
- Orientation is critical in yoke
Longitudinal Field
Quick break & transient (eddy) current

- Quick break (fast break or controlled break) is the sudden ending or stopping of
magnetizing current. This breaking of the current results in a transient (eddy)
current induced into the part..
- When a direct current is shut off, the field around the conductor falls rapidly to
zero. This rapid change of energy generates a voltage and a current that is in the
opposite direction of that in the circuit resulting in a transient current being induced
into the part.
- The resulting current was greatly increased when using quick break on
ferromagnetic material; hence and increase in the residual magnetic field inside of
the part resulted in a better field for inspection for finding transverse discontinuities
in the ends of longitudinally magnetized bars.
- These types of discontinuities are often concealed by the strong polarity at the bar
ends.
- With the use of the quick break technique, the resultant transient current makes
certain that the field stays true to the end of the bar, enabling the inspection of
transverse discontinuities.
Longitudinal Field
Quick break & transient (eddy) current

transient current generated flows inside the bar resulting in
very ends of bar are not truly longitudinally a near surface field, allowing part to be truly longitudinally
magnetized and any transverse indications in this area magnetized to the very ends of the bar; hence allowing
may not be reliably detected transverse indications to be found at the very end of bar
Residual field n bar generated Residual field n bar generated
by slow break by quick break
Longitudinal Field
Advantages
- No direct induction so no arcing (sparking)
- Good for circumferential or transverse discontinuities
- Good portability (yoke)
Disadvantages
- Not good for longitudinal discontinuities (ie. parallel to field)
- For long part (more 15”-18”) need more than 1 shot for coverage.
Multi-directional magnetization
Combination of shots that will be used to inspect a part in one or two steps; usually
without re-positioning of the part. Eg. swinging field technique
- The two basic flux directions is achieved by the use of two phases of a three
phase mains supply.
- One phase is connected to the longitudinal flux generating system which can be
either a coil or a flux flow system. A second phase is used to generate
circumferential flux, usually by current flow through the work piece.
- As there is in sinusoidal A.C. a cyclic change in current value from zero to
maximum positive, down to zero, on to maximum negative and return to zero - fifty
times per second, and as there is a lag between the two phases, at any instant
there will be different amplitudes of longitudinal and circumferential fields.
Swinging field (Approach 1) :

solid part
- Direct contact
- Coil
Swinging field (Approach 2) :

hollow part
- In-direct contact (central

conductor
- Coil
Toroidal magnetization
- toroid is a doughnut shaped object

- purpose of using toroidal magnetization is to create a noncontact type of magnetic
induction to eliminate the possibility of arc burning that may be produced by a direct
contact shot
- performed in one step compared with other methods that might require multiple
inspection steps, because the magnetic field is uniform and completely
encompasses the part (assuming uniform part geometry)
Primary effect - magnetizing current (mag shot) produces a field surrounding the part
Secondary effect - circumferential current flow is developed within the test piece by the
collapsing field.
Tertiary effect - strong toroidal magnetic field is created as a product of the secondary
current flow within the part.
Discontinuities perpendicular to the field direction within the part may now be detected.
Secondary current is induced in

ring only as result of movement of
magnetic field of bar magnet in
relationship to ring. Induced
current in ring creates toroidal
field (blue line)
Use coil on a wet horizontal and a high permeability, low retentivity ferromagnetic
laminated core through part to concentrate the flux and make it perform more efficiently.
When coil is energized, a longitudinal field flows the laminated core and to some extent
in part.
When coil is de-energized, this field collapses and induces a circumferential current into
part. This in turn induces a strong toroidal field surrounding the part in a radial direction
Magnetic flux during
magnetizing pulse is
concentrated in core
inserted through test
object
Use a tabletop transformer fixture connected to the wet horizontal machine or portable
MT machine using a standard clamp block
wet continuous method can be use and be removed from the machine when not
needed
Table top, closed loop transformer
fixture showing close proximity of
primary and secondary (ring shaped test
object) windings with core
Magnetic field adequacy and direction

When it is necessary to verify the adequacy of magnetic field strength (and direction),
one of the following may be used
- Magnetic field indicator (pie-gage)
- Artificial shims (QQI); castrol strips; magnetic card
- Hall effect tangential field probes
Hall effect meter

Hall effect meter – eg measure field in bolt hole

Magnetic field adequacy and direction

Castrol strips
Pie gage
Shims (QQI)
Hall effect
meter
5. Selection proper method of magnetization
Factors determining the selection
- Alloy, shape and condition of part

- Type of magnetizing current
- Direction of magnetic field
- Sequence of operations
- Flux value (hall effect gauss meter)
Examples:-
- Weld
- Shaft/bolt
- Small casting (landing gear)
- Large casting (bonnet)
6. Inspection materials
Inspection particles
The magnetic particles used for MPI is essentially iron fillings with a dye (make it more
visible): -
- Wet particles: suspended in a liquid (vehicle or media)
- Dry particles: just particles and dye.
They can be visible and florescent magnetic particles:-

- Visible particles are used for visible MPI with white (normal) light
- Florescent particles for use with UV or black-light
Characteristics of magnetic particle:-

- High permeability (low retentivity)
- Size and shape for consistent results
- Non-toxic
- Free form contaminants (dirt, grease, rust etc.)
Inspection particles
The magnetic particles used for MPI is essentially iron fillings with a dye (make it more
visible): -
- Wet particles: suspended in a liquid (vehicle or media)
- Dry particles (powder): just particles and dye.
They can be visible and florescent magnetic particles:-

- Visible particles are used for visible MPI with white (normal) light
- Florescent particles for use with UV or black-light
Characteristics of magnetic particle:-

- High permeability (low retentivity)
- Size and shape for consistent results
- Non-toxic
- Free form contaminants (dirt, grease, rust etc.)
Liquids (Suspensions) and Powders
Dry particles (powder)

- Assortment of color (depending on the background); grey, black, red, yellow, blue
- Use as supplied; spraying or dusting
- Not affect by cold and heat resistant (upto 600oF/315oC)
- Good for detection of near surface flaws
- Portable equipment on large surfaces (large castings)
- Superior particle mobility
- Easy to remove (falls off)
Dry particles (powder)

- Large size (#8A red – 180microns); less sensitive than wet florescent.
- Not use in confined space without safety breathing apparatus
- Difficult for overhead positions
- Does not leave evidence of coverage
- Low production than wet florescent
- Difficult to adapt to any automatic system
Contrast and background
Contrast
- state of being strikingly different from something else, typically something in close
association
- dye makes an indication more visible to the human eye
- different colored dyes; blue, yellow, and green, but it seemed that the red dye
resulted in best response to visible observation
- term "contrast ratio" is generally used to express "seeability"
- white dye on a white background, the contrast ratio would be one-to-one; no
contrast between the dye and the background.
- red dye, the contrast ratio is said to be six-to-one, making that contrast very
noticeable on a white background surface
- contrast ratio of a fluorescent dye is said to be forty-to-one
- hence, fluorescent penetrant produces a much higher degree of "seeability" or
sensitivity as compared to visible dye penetrants
Particles in suspension:-
- particles suspended in a vehicle such as water or light petroleum distillate applied
by flowing. spraying. or pouring
- available in both fluorescent and non-fluorescent concentrates
- premixed with suspending vehicle by the supplier. but usually supplied as dry
concentrate (powder) or paste concentrate (to be mixed by the user)
- suspensions normally used in wet horizontal MPI equipment; dispensed from an
aerosol or other dispensers
Liquid requirements as vehicle/media

- wetability; good wetting for surface of parts
- viscosity about 5 mm2/s (5 centistokes) at room temperature; good particle
mobility.
- flammability; flashpoint of 57oC (135oF) are lowest practical flammability threshold
- odor; not objectionable and no (little) undesirable contaminants (sulfur)
- fluorescence; because most wet suspensions use fluorescent particles and many
oils are also naturally fluorescent, an
- oil with a low level of natural fluorescence is desirable
- non-toxic and does not damage part (eg sulphur, halogen)
Using water as vehicle/media:-

- not flammable
- easily available; cheap
- suitable conditioning agents are added which provide proper wet dispersing
(wetability)
- corrosion protection (corrosion inhibitor) for parts being examined and the
equipment used
- disperse the magnetic particles without evidence of particle agglomeration.
- minimize foaming; it should not produce excessive foam which would interfere with
indication formation or cause particles to form scum with the foam
- conditioned water should be essentially odorless (use germicide)
Using oil or petrol distillate as vehicle/media:-

- significant advantages for the use of petroleum distillate vehicles the magnetic
particles are suspended and dispersed in petroleum distillate vehicles without use
of conditioning agents (good wettability)
- petroleum distillate vehicles provide a measure of corrosion protection to part and
the equipment used
- disadvantages are flammability. fumes. and availability
- select and maintain readily available sources of supply of petroleum distillate
vehicles that have as high a flash point as practicable
- work area with proper ventilation
Product Name: BAYOL 35
Product Description: lsoparaffinic
Hydrocarbon
Intended Use: Solvent
Advantages of suspension:-
- small size (7C black: 20microns; 14A: 6microns); more sensitive than dry powder
- able to remain in discontinuities until they are removed
- contrast is invariably higher with wet fluorescent
Disadvantages of suspension
- Hard to remove; oil remnant not good for processes (eg. welding)
- Handling procedures; especially with flammable liquid (petroleum distillate)
- Mixing suspension; additives for water vehicle
- Odor and ventilation requirements
Mixing procedures for suspension

- pour water or light oil distillate into a container or tank
- weigh or measure the required concentrate
- pour concentrate into the container or tank; stir as required
- take a sample and measure the concentration with centrifuge tube
14A concentrate : 1/6 oz./gal. (1.25 g/l)

0.15 - 0.28 ml/100ml
7C concentrate : 1.25 oz/gal (9.4 g/l)

1.3 – 1.7ml/100ml
Note: use of a reference concentration when new suspension is mixed
Stationary equipment with circulating bath/suspension
trough
Mixing suspension - accurate proportions

- Visible : 1.2 to 2.4ml/100ml
- Florescent: 0.1 to 0.4ml/100ml
Centrifuge tubes
- Visible : with 1.5ml stem
- Florescent: with 1.0ml stem
visible florescent
7. Principles of Demagnetization
Hysteresis loop/curve
- magnetic hysteresis loop or curve is a graph that plots magnetizing force and
magnetic field strength
- use magnetising and de-magnetising procedures
Permeability:
μ
Permeability - ease with which a magnetic flux is established in a part
Reluctance - opposition of a magnetic material to establish a magnetic flux
Residual magnetism - amount of magnetism remaining after the

magnetising force is removed
Retentivity - ability of material to retain residual magnetism
Coercive force - the reversing magnetising force required to remove the

residual magnetism in a part
Soft steel:-
- Thin hysteresis loop
- High permeability
- Low reluctance
- Low coercive force
- Low residual magnetic field
- Low retentivity
Hard steel:-
- Wide hysteresis loop
- Low permeability
- High reluctance
- High coercive force
- High residual magnetic field
- High retentivity
Residual magnetism
When the magnetising current is removed not all the magnetic field is removed (see
hysteresis loop/curve)
- Same direction and weaker than the magnetic field
- A stronger magnetic field will overcome a weaker one (useful when de-mag circ
field)
Reasons for requiring demagnetization

- Affect magnetic compass (navigation) and delicate instruments
- Attract metal (shavings, chips) causing wear or binding
- May cause “arc blow” – deflect molten metal in DC welding
- Magnetic particles may not be removed and hence cause problem later
Residual magnetism
Residual magnetism can be measured using

- Gaussmeter (magnometer)
- Hall effect gaussmeter (fieldmeter) Hall effect meter
Gaussmeter
Residual magnetism
Longitudinal and circular residual fields

- Difficult to judge if a circular field is de-mag as it is difficult o measure as the flux
lines does not leave the part (unlike longitudinal field)
- So a circularly magnetised part should be long mag (stronger field) before de-
magnetising
To demagnetise a part that has been longitudinally magnetised

- use the reduce and reverse method
Reversing the magnetic field

- Reverse part in the magnetic field
- Reverse the current through the coil
- Reversing the coil (flip it by 180o)
Reducing the magnetic field
- Reduce the magnetising current
- Move the part away from magnetic field (coil)
- Move the coil away from the part
Any combination of the above maybe used.

Methods of demagnetization
AC Coil Method
- AC flows in one direction (“-”) and then the opposite direction (“+”)
- at every cycle the current is reduced
- that means the current is reversing (AC) and reducing with each cycle
- If coil does not have a reducing current rheostat; pull part way from the coil
DC Coil Method
- DC does not flow in like AC, so to reverse the direction it has to be done
mechanically (ie reverse the DC current or flip the part)
- reduce first then reverse
- at least 10 reversals but not more than 30 (1 reversal per second)
- DC de-magnetisation is more penetrating than AC; better for large part
Part that have been de-magnetised should be stored in the East-West direction; so
that it does not pick up the earth’s field.
The amount of residual that is allowed in a prat dependents on the specification. At

times the residual may not reach zero,. For instance in some specification the
maximum allowed residual may be 3 gauss.
If a part is to be heat treated (say pass the Curie temperature); demagnetisation may
not be required.
AC Yoke Method
- With AC yoke move the yoke away from the part while the current is on
8. Magnetic particle testing equipment
Equipment-selection considerations
Type of magnetizing current

- AC (single phase): yoke, portable unit, prods
- AC (3-phase): stationary unit (wet bench), multi-directional units
- DC battery: yoke (battery powered)
Location and nature of test

- In-situ (on-site): yoke or portable units
- Small objects and/or movable
Test materials used

- Weldments: yoke, prods
- Aircraft parts: bench, yoke, portable units
- Purpose/area of test
- Spot inspection and small area: yoke
- Whole casting, full exam: bench or multi-directional unit
Manual inspection equipment
Portable – yoke, portable MPI machine (with prods, clamps, coil)
Reason(s) for portable equipment

- do inspection in-situ (on-site) or remote location (eg. off-shore); ie. part cannot be
move to lab or test center
- do a quick job with little set-up; like yoke
Capabilities of portable equipment

- similarity to stationary equipment; AC/DC; circular/longitudinal fields
Manual inspection equipment
Stationary – bench, multi-directional units
- should be capable of handling large and heavy parts with cranes or forrklift
- flexibility in use; both circular and longitudinal field or both
- need for stationary equipment; better coverage; penetration (DC); efficient on large
repeat quantities; better sensitivity with wet florescent
- use of accessories/attachments; coils, central conductor with black light for greater
sensitivity
Mechanized inspection equipment
Semi-automatic inspection equipment

- Single-purpose semi-automatic equipment; like inspection of small specific item (eg
automotive part – knuckle: Karl Deutsch NDT)
- Multi-purpose semi-automatic equipment; flexible re-tooling for different geometries

Black light equipment
Electro-magnetic wave spectrum and ultra-violet (black-light – “invisible”) wave


Black light and fluorescence

- fluorescence is ability of some chemical
compounds to emit visible light when exposed to
near ultraviolet radiation
- color of the emitted light depends upon the
material
- most frequently used dyes emit a yellow-green
light in the wavelength band of 510 to 560 nm
- chosen since the human eye has its highest
response to wavelengths in the 550 nm range
- relative response of a typical human eye
compared to various wavelengths of visible light
using two different lighting conditions are shown
the graph to the right.
Curve A at 100 lumens (100-foot-candles) is typical of a well-

lighted inspection bench
Curve B at 2 lumens (2-footcandles) is the maximum white
light level allowed in a fluorescent penetrant inspection booth
Under darkened condition, the sensitivity of the eye increases
about 30 times and shifts slightly to blue region
At light level of 2 lumens, it is possible for the eye to see some
light wavelengths below 400 nm and above 700 nm
Sources of UV (black) light

- Incandescent lamps.
- Metallic or carbon arcs.
- Integrally filtered tubular fluorescent lamps.
- Tubular fluorescent lamps
- Enclosed mercury vapor arc lamps
- Metal halide or halogen lamps..
Mercury vapor lamp

- high-pressure component is a quartz tube containing some mercury plus a small
amount of neon gas
- when lamp is first turned on, mercury condensed as a liquid and an arc between
electrodes cannot be generated, this is the reason for neon gas
- a small amount of current, limited by the resistor, causes a discharge from starting
electrode through neon gas
- this glow is sufficient to vaporize the mercury, which then allows arc to pass between
main electrodes
- this starting procedure requires from 5 to 15-minutes to fully vaporize the mercury and
produce full output of black light
Mercury vapor lamp - requirements in testing

- high pressure, mercury vapor, black light bulb requires a housing, filter, regulating ballast or
transformer, and connecting cables or wires
- housing, which may be metal or plastic, serves several functions:
- hold and protect the bulb.
- hold and support the filter.
- prevent leakage of unwanted visible light.
- permit directing the beam on the surface to be inspected.
- provide a means for handling the bulb
- filter is a special material that prevents passage of short wavelength ultraviolet (UV-B&-C) and
long wavelength visible light; transmits ultraviolet (peak at 340-380nm: Kopp 41 filter glass)
- clean filter regularly and do not use cracked or ill-fitting filter
- black light intensity varies almost linearly with line voltage and black light ballast or transformer
does not regulate line variations
- below 90-volts, lamps will not sustain the mercury arc and lamp will extinguish, and not restart
until it has cooled
- black light lamps should be connected to stable power sources; not available and line voltage
fluctuates, use a constant potential transformer
- aging, dust and dirt build up, can result in as much as a 50-percent decrease in ultraviolet
radiation output
- usage; a single start can equate to 2 or 3-hours of continuous use on operating life
Black Light Safety

- ultraviolet radiation below 320 nm can be hazardous and may cause permanent effects.
- the output of a black light bulb is principally at 365 nm and the amount of radiation at shorter
wavelengths rapidly falls off.
- the amount of radiation emitted at or below 320 nm is typically less than 1-percent; however,
this quantity is enough to require a filter
- germicidal, sun tanning, and mineral light bulbs that emit short and medium wavelength
ultraviolet light SHALL NOT be used for penetrant inspection
- ultraviolet light filtering safety eyewear and gloves shall be used to minimize potential
detrimental health effects.
- eyeball fluorescence under ultraviolet radiation
- the fluid in the eye will fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet radiation
- an operator may experience this phenomenon as a clouding of the vision when the
ultraviolet radiation is reflected into the operator’s eyeball or if ultraviolet radiation is reflected
from highly reflective surfaces
- can usually be corrected by positioning the lamp so the radiation is not directed or reflected
into the inspector’s eye
- use of eyewear designed to protect the eyes from UV-A and UV-B will reduce this effect
- inspector entering a darkened area SHALL allow at least 5-minutes for dark adaptation
before examining part.
Black Light – dark adaptation

‐ ability of the human eye to see in
various stages of illumination
‐ perception of contrast and color are
at a maximum in bright light but are
rapidly lost in the dark
‐ ability to discern faint light sources
is at a minimum in bright light
(florescence) but at a maximum in
the dark
‐ this effect is of utmost importance
in black light testing
behavior of human eye vs illumination level
Light sensitive (measuring) instruments

- measure white light; use a white light meter (photometer)
- measure UV (black) light; use a UV (black light) meter (radiometer)
- use a dual sensor photometer/radiometer
white‐light meter
black‐light meter black & white‐light meter
* minimum UV-A output for a black light SHALL be 1000 μW/cm2 measured at a
distance of 15” from the outside face of the filter.
9. Type of discontinuities detected by MPT
Types of discontinuities
Inherent discontinuities/flaws
- usually formed when the metal is molten
- inherent wrought flaws are related to melting and solidification of original ingot
before forming into slabs, blooms an billets
- inherent casting flaws relates to melting, casting and solidification of a cast article;
caused by variable such as inadequate feeding, gating, excessive pouring
temperature or entrapped gases
Processing discontinuities/flaws
- related to various processes like machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding,
heat treating and plating
Services discontinuities/flaws
- relates to various in-service conditions like stress, corrosion, erosion and fatigue
General flaws types
Product form:-
- Bursts (Forgings)
- Cold Shuts (Castings)
- Cracks (All Product Forms)
- Hot Tear (Castings)
- Inclusions (All Product Forms)
- Lamination (Plate, Pipe)
- Laps (Forgings)
- Porosity (Castings)
- Seams(Bar, Pipe)
General flaws types
Welding:-
- Burn Through
- Cracks
- Excessive/Inadequate Reinforcement
- Inclusions (Slag/Tungsten)
- Incomplete Fusion
- Incomplete penetration
- Misalignment
- Overlap
- Porosity
- Root Concavity
- Undercut
General flaws types
Service induced discontinuities:-

- Wear (Localized)
- Corrosion-Assisted Fatigue Cracks
- Corrosion - general, pitting
- Creep (Primary)
- Erosion
- Fatigue Cracks
- Hot Cracking
- Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
- lntergranular Stress-Corrosion Cracks
- Stress-Corrosion Cracks (Transgranular)
10. Interpretation and evaluation of indications
Relevant, Non-relevant and False Indications
Relevant Indications
- are produced by leakage fields which are the result of discontinuities.
- require evaluation with regard to acceptance standard/criteria
Non-relevant indications
- can occur singly or in patterns as a result of leakage fields created by conditions
that require no evaluation such as changes in section (like keyways and drilled
holes), inherent material properties (like the edge of a bimetallic weld), magnetic
writing etc.
False Indications
- are not the result of magnetic forces
- examples are particles held mechanically or by gravity in shallow depressions or
particles held by rust or scale on the surface.
Indications - pictures
Cracks
Seams, stringers, laps

Flakes/scabs
Forging burst
Lamination
Cold shuts
Porosity
Shrinkage
Blowholes (pipes)
Inclusions
Hot tears
Corrosion
Wear/erosion
Wear/erosion
Service induced cracks

Weld – spatter, slag, undercut, misalignment, arc strike

Weld – misc. discontinuities

Boiler (and tube) discontinuities

Boiler and heat exchanger tube thinning

Evaluation techniques
Interpretation:-
- determination of a magnetic particle indication's source and relevancy (distinguish
between relevant and non-relevant indications)
Evaluation:-
- process of determining the magnitude and significance of a discontinuity causing
an indication after it has been interpreted as being relevant.
Standards and references

- In order to proper carry out an inspection and evaluate any indications found we
need some guidance; hence the need for standards, specifications, acceptance
standards.
Comparison techniques
- In addition to standards; comparative pictures maybe used for evaluation (eg.
ASTM E125 : Standard Reference Photographs for Magnetic Particle Indications
on Ferrous Castings)
- In some instances actual reference standards (known defective part) may be used
at the start of a run to check the system
Evaluation techniques
Specifications
- Specifications usually details what is to be performed (eg. scope, calibrations,
types of shots, coverage, test parameters, personnel certification etc.)
- Most end user will have specification outline their NDE requirements and will
usually reference standards and codes (eg Dow Chemicals specifications for
pressure vessels references ASME codes; AugustaWestland references BS/EN
standards)
Certifications
- company certification may be required to ensure that the facility or shop is capable
of performing the required inspection to the end user requirements (eg ASME
certification or CWB 178)
- personnel certification is required to attest to the technician’s qualification
(capability) to performed the inspection and evaluate the indications found – which
maybe in-house (SNT-TC-1A), end user specific (AugustaWestland), or nationally
accredited (eg. CGSB)
Defect Appraisal
History of part
- Weld on pressure vessel
Manufacturing process
- SMAW, ground smooth
Possible causes of defect

- cracks (too high heat)
Use of part
- Waste water/chemicals
Acceptance and rejection criteria

- ASME VIII Div 1 Appendix 6
Use of tolerances
- No linear indication > 1/16”
Defect Appraisal
History of part
- Casting (new)
Manufacturing process
- Sand cast, sand blasted surface
Possible causes of defect

- cracks (due uneven cooling)
Use of part
- Fitting for a hub
Acceptance and rejection criteria

- MSS SP-53
Use of tolerances
- max acceptable 0.3” ( 8 mm) long for
materials up to 0.5” (13 mm) thick”
11. Standards,, specifications,
p , codes and reports
p
Standard CAN/CGSB 48.9712
- “Non
Non-destructive
destructive testing
testing- Qualification and certification of NDT personnel
personnel”
- 2014 edition; published by CSA
- Scope:-
This International Standard specifies requirements for principles for the
qualification and certification of personnel who perform industrial non
non-
destructive testing (NDT)
- Methods:
a) acoustic emission testing;
b) eddy current testing;
c) infrared thermographic testing;
d) leak testing (hydraulic pressure tests excluded);
e) magnetic testing;
f) penetrant testing;
g) radiographic testing;
h) strain gauge testing;
i) ultrasonic testing;
j) visual testing (direct unaided visual tests and visual tests carried out during the
application of another NDT method are excluded)
* Go thru some of the standard relating to MT certification
p
Standards, specifications and codes
Codes
- generally the top-tier documents, providing a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable
level of safety for manufactured, fabricated or constructed objects
- may incorporate regulatory requirements and will often refer out to standards or specifications
for specific details on additional requirements not specified in the Code itself
- examples: ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (B&PVC) and AWS D1.1 Structural
Welding Code – Steel
Standards
- documents
d t th
thatt establish
t bli h engineering
i i or ttechnical
h i l requirements
i t for
f products,
d t practices,
ti
methods or operations
- example those that provide requirements for performing NDT (eg ASTM E709 : Standard
Guide for Magnetic Particle Testing, and ASTM E 1444, Standard Practice for Magnetic
Particle Testing)
g)
Specifications
- provide specific requirements for materials, components or services
- often generated by private companies (owners/end-users) to address additional requirements
applicable
li bl to a specific
ifi product
d or application
li i
- often listed in procurement agreements or contract documents as additional requirements
above and beyond code or standard requirements
p
NDT Procedures
- written by companies to describe how an NDT method is carried out in the facility and/or a
specific project or contract
- reference codes, standards and/or specifications that may be required for the NDT work to be
p
performed
Written/work instructions
- step by step instructions on how a specific NDT task is to be performed
Technique sheets
- detailed steps and/or sequences of operations for a specific NDT task
- will include specific inspection parameters for the NDT task
Reports
- written testimony of the NDT work performed and the outcome (eg. accept/reject)
- include inspection parameters including acceptance criteria
- may include sketches or pictures showing area tested or for disposition (eg repair/scrap)
- i l d ttechnician’s
include h i i ’ name and d certification
tifi ti
p
Defining
f the scope off the examination
- The scope of the examination has to be defined from the start – ie. what is to be
performed (eg RT or UT), the area(s) or part/component to be inspected, what
standard/specification/code to use, acceptance standard/criteria to evaluate the
i di i
indications to, personnell certification
ifi i etc.
Acceptance criteria (NDT)

- Specified indicators or measures used to assessing any indications found during
th inspection
the i ti ((eg. no cracks;
k no linear
li i di ti > 1/16”)
indication
Establishing specifications
- Owner/end-user (engineer) will put forward a specification that will be deployed in
conjunction
j ti with
ith the
th contractual
t t l NDT workk tto b
be performed
f d
Technical evaluation of given specifications

- Prior to the start of a job or contract, the specification will be reviewed to ensure all
th requirements
the i t are mett (eg.
( equipment,
i t certification
tifi ti etc.)
t )
- Usually carried out by an NDT technically competent person
p
Reports
Establishing reports
- A written testimony of the inspection is usually required in any inspection to
document the inspection work performed
Technical
T h i l requirements
i off reports
- A report will include the parameter used in the inspection (eg. project, part #,
code/specification used, procedure used, equipment, environment, inspection
settings, personnel name and certification etc.)
Technical evaluation of reports

- The results will usually reference a code/specification (acceptance criteria); and
maybe a sketch/picture of area(s) tested or for disposition.
- Corrective actions
- An acceptable part is usually put into use or work to proceed; while and
unacceptable one will be disposition by the owner/end-user (eg. re-work, repair,
scrap, use as is
i etc.)
t )
p
Reports
What was
inspected
What were the

inspection
parameters
Whatt was
Wh
found
What was
the result &
Who performed disposition
the inspection
p
Review of Specification/Standard/Code
Review one or more of the following:-

- ASME V Article 7
- ASME VIII Div 1 Appendix 6
- CSA W59 (MT only)
- ASTM E709
- ASTM E125
Samples on how to do evaluation

12. Quality
y control of equipment
q p and processes
p
Proper functioning of equipment and accessories
- In order to get the right results; all the equipment and accessories used must be
functioning properly
- Either it has to be calibrated or attested that it complies with the specification,
standard and/or code that is specified for the NDT work
- C lib i ffrequency iis usually
Calibration ll specified
ifi d iin the
h codes,
d standards
d d and/or
d/
specifications
ASTM E709
12. Quality
q p and processes
p
Proper functioning of equipment and accessories
- Aircraft
f related checks
Helicopter
specification
12. Quality
q p and processes
p
Proper magnetic particles and bath suspension
Checking the particle concentration in a bath (wet florescent)

‐ use a 100 ml pear shaped centrifuge tube, or equivalent,
graduated to 1 ml in 0.05 ml increments,
- agitate the suspension a minimum of 30 minutes.
- fill the pear
pear-shaped
shaped centrifuge tube to the 100 ml mark
mark,
- demagnetise and allow the suspension to settle for at least
60 minutes,
- read the volume of settled particles and examine with a
black light
light, for contamination
Particle concentration shall be:-

- 01 to 0 0.4ml/100ml
4ml/100ml
12. Quality
q p and processes
p
Process control
Technique sheets
- detailed steps and/or sequences of
operations for a specific NDT task
- ensure everyone does the work the
same way
- ensure quality of the work
performed as technique sheets
have to approve prior to use
- consistent
i t t outcome
t or results
lt
12. Quality
q p and processes
p
Process control
Control of wet method p
particle concentration
- Brilliance and contamination
- in-use ink (bath) shall be checked under UV-A against the reference sample stored ; any of
the following conditions are unacceptable and shall require replacement of the in-use ink
- a noticeable reduction in the fluorescent brightness of the in-use ink relative to the
reference
f sample,
l
- clouding of the in-use ink (bath) carrier fluid to the extent that the markings on the flask
between 5ml and 25ml cannot be seen through the carrier fluid,
- milky white or bluish white fluorescence of the carrier fluid (due to oil or grease
contamination).)
- Verifying illumination - visible (white) / UV (backlight)

- black light filters shall be verified for cleanliness and integrity; contaminated filters shall be
cleaned and damaged filters shall be replaced.
- black light intensity shall be checked using a calibrated radiometer (UV meter) at a distance
of 15" (38cm) from the filter of the lamp; the minimum acceptable radiance shall be 1,000
µW/cm2
- the inspection area (florescent inspection) shall be verified for background white light; the
maximum intensity shall be 2 foot-candles
foot candles (20 lx),
- the white light intensity of the visible inspection, used to verify fluorescent indications shall
be checked, the minimum intensity shall be 100 foot-candles (1,000 lx).
12. Quality
q p and processes
p
Process control
Calibration
C off current output using shunts
- accuracy of the equipment ammeter shall be verified with a calibrated ammeter shunt
connected to the head and tail stock contacts
- comparative readings shall be taken at least at three levels of output current encompassing the
usable range of the equipment
- The equipment meter reading shall not deviate from the current level indicated by the shunt by
more than ±50 A or ±10% of the actual ammeter output of the magnetising equipment,
whichever is the greater
Verifying the magnetic field

- a tangential field strength meter based on the Hall effect and capable of measuring the
specified values,
- a set of magnetic flux indicators (flexible laminated strips) compliant with ASTM E 1444,
- a set of reference notched shims compliant with SAE AS5371
AS5371,
12. Quality
q p and processes
p
Process control
Quick
Q break test
- use a quick-break tester or a suitable oscilloscope
13. Instruction writing
g
Written Instructions
Ability to prepare a detailed NDT instruction providing written step by step information
f
on the testing of a sample and to provide the instruction by application
- Step-by-step review of how to write a sample written instruction
- Shall include:
a. A description
d i i off the
h test specimen.
i
b. A list of equipment, reference standards and accessories used.
c. A description of the calibration procedures specific for the test specimen.
d. A description of the inspection procedures specific for the test specimen.
e. The
Th iinstrument
t t settings
tti att the
th time
ti off inspection.
i ti
f. A report of the results.

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Magnetic Particle

Materials that can be magnetized have submicroscopic regions called magnetic

If a material is not magnetized, the magnetic domains are randomly orientated.

When the material is subjected to an indirectly induced magnetic external field

Lodestone is a naturally magnetized piece of the

Electro-magnet are induced by passing current thru the

Magnetic field around magnetised material is

But the field can be “visualise” with iron filing as

Magnetic lines of force Opposite poles Similar poles repelling

- Magnetic lines of force present in a magnetic field are

- Surface flux strength; flux can flow on the surface and in

Magnetic poles : bar and horseshoe magnet

Bar magnet with Ring magnet with

- Material influenced by magnetic field (ferro/para/dia-magnetic).

Phenomenon action at discontinuity

Heat effects on magnetism

Material Curie temp. (F) Curie temp .(C)

Material hardness and magnetic retention

Terminology associated with magnetic particle testing

- Magnetic flux : maxwell

Bar magnet and ring magnet

Single phase 3-phase

Surface strength characteristics

Half-wave (Pulsating) Direct Current

Direct Current (FWDC)

Direct Current (FWDC : 3-phase)

Relative sensitivity of different methods

- AC magnetization is most effective for surface defects.

Surface and sub-surface discontinuities

When we find something during an inspection, we call it an indication. Then if we can

Surface and sub-surface discontinuities

Surface and sub-surface discontinuities

Relationship to load-carrying ability

Georges A. Charpy (1 September 1865 – 25 November 1945) French scientist

Circular and Longitudinal Field

The two basic magnetic fields are:

Faraday’s right hand rule

If electron flow is used then left hand

Field around a straight conductor

Field in parts with current flowing - long, solid regular parts

Field in parts with current flowing - tubular parts

Field in parts with current flowing - irregularly shaped parts (holes/slots)

Methods of inducing field - contact plates (direct)

Methods of inducing field- prods (direct)

- Methods of inducing field - central conductors (indirect)

- Methods of inducing field - through cables (indirect)

Methods of inducing field - leeches and clamps (direct)

Discontinuities commonly found by circular fields

Discontinuities commonly found by circular fields - examples

Direct Current Field Distribution

- Magnetic field strength varies from

Direct Current Field Distribution

- Magnetic field strength increase

Direct Current Field Distribution

- Magnetic field strength increase

Direct Current Field Distribution

- Magnetic field strength increase

Direct Current Field Distribution

- Magnetic field strength is strongest

DC Field Distribution vs AC Field Distribution

Advantages of circular field

Disadvantages of circular field

- Field produced by current flowing in a coil