Condition Monitoring by Vibration Analysis

Condition Monitoring by Vibration Analysis
Liu Yibing
School of Energy and Power Engineering
North China Electric Power University
November, 2008
This manuscript is exclusively for personal use of course participants.
School of Energy and Power Engineering

Liu Yibing
North China Electric Power University
Huilongguan, Changping, Beijing 102206, China

TEL: (++86) 010-80796536
FAX: (++86) 010-80798624
Abstract
The presented script of Condition Monitoring by Vibration Analysis was prepared for training of
engineers and students in the field of practical vibration measurements. It summarizes the use of
vibration analysis and diagnosis in the field of machine supervision and fault detection.
Near some basic information about data acquisition and processing mainly industrial applied
experiences are presented and the results of fault detection and predictive maintenance. Some
applications for quality control in production lines are included.
Special thanks have to be passed to the engineers and students who gave support in the field
vibration measurements, the data evaluation, the preparing of hardware and software for
processing, and specially for those who supported me preparing this script.
Contents
Contents
1. Vibration Analysis Basics, Terms, and Definitions
Condition Monitoring of Rotating Machines by Vibration Analysis ............................................ 7

Norms and Standards for Vibration Control ................................................................................. 13
Response of Mechanical Systems to Vibration and Shock .......................................................... 22
Instrumentation for Vibration Measurements ............................................................................... 31
2. Data Acquisition, Processing and Evaluation
Vibrations of Machine Arrangements ........................................................................................... 45

Definitions of Analogue and Digital Signals (AD-Conversion) .................................................. 56
Analysis of Vibration Signals........................................................................................................ 66
3. Excitation Sources of Vibration
Magnetical Excitation in Electrical Motor Drives........................................................................ 84

Detection of Rolling Element Bearing Damage ........................................................................... 89
Failure Detection in Gear Boxes by Vibration Analysis ............................................................ 115
Crack Detection at Centrifugal Pumps by Vibration Analysis................................................... 120
Thermohydraulic Analysis of Loops........................................................................................... 127
Determination of Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps .................................................................... 131
4. Case Studies of Condition Monitoring in Power Plants
Failure Diagnosis at Fresh Water Pumps (KWG) ...................................................................... 171

Condition Monitoring of Fans in Power Plants .......................................................................... 183
Detection of Loose Windings in Hydroelectric Generators ....................................................... 185
Failure Detection in Turbines ...................................................................................................... 188
Vibration Analysis at an 1.5 MW Test Turbine.......................................................................... 191
Vibration Analysis of an 100 MW Steam Turbine ..................................................................... 195
Vibration Analysis at a 350 MW Steam Turbine........................................................................ 201
Detection of Labyrinth Seals and Blades Touching in Turbines................................................ 207
Balancing of Rotating Machines ................................................................................................. 227
Vibrational Testing of Structures................................................................................................. 235
CONT_95.WPT
Condition Monitoring of Rotating Machines by Vibration Analysis
1．Condition Monitoring of Rotating Machines by Vibration Analysis
Maintenance is, of course, everyone's concern. With the huge investments that industrial
machinery nowadays entails, downtime for any length of time becomes a costly situation.
Consequently, a tremendous amount of effort and innovation is devoted to the maintenance process.
Rebuilding, parts procurement, overhand, upgrading, either in the shop or in the field, is a business
onto itself and one that demands attention and a great deal of care and precision. There it is
necessary to find signatures which describes the machine condition.
At a certain time, if no reconditioning is made, the machine breaks down. For machine
supervision it is now necessary to have the possibility to measure the distance between the normal
abrasion and abrasion which occurs in reality to get the point where the machine is working without
trouble and no malfunction occurs. At this point reconditioning has to begin. By this the abrasion
stock can be set to 100 % again. So if one has the possibility to determine the point of
reconditioning by the situation of the machine, and the rentability of the equipment increases.
On the other hand one has the saving of costs in reconditioning, with less time of disuse
especially when the machine is aligned in groups of other machines (for example in transfer streets
or in big machines for petrochemical industry or ore mining). Another advantage is that with the
early detection of a defect bearing in a gearbox and the possibility for a direct change it can be en-
sured that defects at the gear wheels can be avoided. A second example is the overheating and worn
out of a journal bearing of a steam turbine in a power plant were an early fault detection might
avoid touching of blades with the housing or in the labyrinth sealing which could destroy the
complete shaft assembly.
The second kind is the short periodical diagnostics carried out in short time delays for example
during every working process. This kind is used at tooling machines for supervision of the tool and
in tool grinding machines for the stones. The third kind is a long-periodical diagnostics which is
carried out at the beginning of work, at every new series or during machine test. Examples are the
vibration control of gearboxes or machines which are used in standby. Another kind of long
periodical diagnostics is made during inspection or during holiday, mostly carried out once a year.
The last type is the required diagnostics because of malfunction or manual requirement. But with
these last mentioned methods it is very difficult to look for the beginning of defects and what
caused them. So for very expensive machines and in security regions one will always find the two
first applications.
The kind of diagnostic which should be carried out has a big influence on the choice of the
diagnostic system, the signal processing unit and is directly related to the costs. The next two
figures should give a small introduction to the signal processing. In the first one an example for
analogical signal processing (fig.7) is shown, nowadays more and more changed by digital process
units. The heart of all measurement units is the detector with pre- and main amplifier followed by
the analogical process unit with analogical storage, display and output.
Vibration testing machines impart vibration to objects in order to test their resistance and
function in vibratory environments (fig.11). Now there is the problem, how to measure vibration,
and some examples are shown in fig.12. In the absence of instruments, vibration has been evaluated
by means of touching the machine, transfer of the vibration signal from the source to the head with
the aid of a rod, or by using a doctor's stethoscope. In each of these cases, the signal is evaluated by
experience without the aid of numerical values to aid comparison. Some more sophisticated
methods should be presented here.
INTVIB95.WPT 7
Figure 1 Relation between Abrasion and Maintenance

To make the necessity of machine supervision evident, fig.1 shows the interrelation between
abrasion stock, malfunction, defect and maintenance. Shown is the abrasion stock as a function of
time. It can be seen that when the machine is new the rated value of abrasion stock is 100 %.
During work the abrasion stock will decrease caused by erosion, corrosion and many other reasons.
Normally there are different operation conditions with deviation from the rated value: with and
without maintenance.
Therefore, it is necessary to find characteristic values, which describe the machine condition.
One possibility is to measure the vibration level in units of displacement, velocity or acceleration
and observe characteristic signatures which give information about the working conditions, and by
trend settings about the point, when maintenance had to be carried out (fig.2).
Figure 2 Increasing Vibration Levels due to Wear

Vibration control as a method of NDT is only to be permeated if one can show that the
rentability of the system increases, because the equipment for the detectors and the logistic of
amplifiers and computers for a complex diagnostic system are very expensive (fig.3).
INTVIB95.WPT 8
Figure 3 Calculation of Maintenance Costs

Some examples of defects which could be detected by condition monitoring are shown in the
following figures (fig.4). As defect rolling element bearings are less in costs, the shut down of a
paper mill due to some defect of these elements is quite cost intensive. Similar can be stated for
gear defects and if turbine machines are included, the costs increase extremely. In certain cases the
machines are destroyed completely, related to investigations of several millions of dollars.
Figure 4 defect of turbine

Fig.5 shows the consistency between abrasion, malfunction and the methods of machine
supervision. In the middle part the normal life of a machine is shown, beginning with the machine
abrasion and its extension up to the beginning of malfunction and the final breakdown. With the
malfunction the impairment of the machines functionally by sources of errors begins and the costs
increase.
INTVIB95.WPT 9
Figure 5 Machine Condition Monitoring

During the normal life of machine without malfunction the sensible range of application for
early failure detection is situated. With beginning of malfunction the machine supervision system
reaches the range of applications for break down and failure supervision, with failure detection and
diagnostics. The speed of abrasion and changes in machine condition have an important influence
to the specifications of a diagnostic and supervision system as seen in the next figure (fig.6). Shown
are five different kinds of diagnostic systems. The first part represents the continuous diagnostics
which are carried out during working while the machine is in process. This continuous diagnostic is
used for example in power plants for steam-turbines and for incore-instrumentation in nuclear
applications.
Figure 6 Time Schedule of Vibration Measurements
INTVIB95.WPT 10
Figure 7 Analog Signal Processing Unit

In modern applications digital processing units are used, where analogue output of the detector
is changed to digital by an analogue digital converter (fig.8). The signals come to a free program-
mable digital process unit with digital storage and digital-analogue-converter for alarm units. The
prices of these systems decreases more and more due to the implementation of personal computer
systems to vibration monitoring. At this stage it is necessary to give an introduction to vibration
with the help of a description of the most common mechanical parameters, their units and the meth-
ods for description in graphical form, to outline the basic concepts and terminology in the following
chapters.
Figure 8 Digital Signal Processing Unit

Vibration is mechanical oscillation about a reference position. Vibration is an everyday
phenomenon found in at homes, occurring during transport and at work (fig.9). Vibration is often a
destructive and annoying side effect of a useful process, but is sometimes generated intentionally to
perform a task.
INTVIB95.WPT 11
Figure 9 Vibration in General

Vibration of machines is a result of dynamic forces, due to moving parts and structures which
are connected to the machine. Different parts of the machine will vibrate with various frequencies
and amplitudes. Vibration causes wear and fatigue. It is often responsible for the ultimate break-
down of the machine (fig.10). Vibration is generated intentionally in component feeders, concrete
compactors, ultrasonic cleaning baths and pile drivers, for example. Vibration testing machines
impart vibration to objects in order to test their resistance and function in vibratory environments
(fig.11). Now there is the problem, how to measure vibration, and some examples are shown in fig.12.
In the absence of instruments, vibration has been evaluated by means of touching the machine, transfer
of the vibration signal from the source to the head with the aid of a rod, or by using a doctor's
stethoscope. In each of these cases, the signal is evaluated by experience without the aid of numerical
values to aid comparison. Some more sophisticated methods should be presented here.
Figure 10 Vibration of Machines
INTVIB95.WPT 12
Figure 11 Generation of Vibration
Figure 12 Measurement of Vibration
INTVIB95.WPT 13
Norms and Standards for Vibration Control
2. Norms and Standards for Vibration Control

Vibration measurements are not carried out since yesterday and therefore several norms and
standards related to vibration and shock measurements exist all over the world. Below some of
these standards with their units to vibration measurements are presented and their main information
is summarized.
DIN standards from the German Institute of Norming:
1) Basic concepts of vibration theory (DIN 1311) in particular cinematic concepts, simple
oscillators, vibrating systems with a limited number of degrees of freedom, oscillating continua and
waves. All terms and items for vibration measurements find their definition in this standard. Also
the fundamental definitions of spectrum analysis is pointed out.
2) The DIN 45635 gives some information about determination of airborne noise emitted from
machines by measurement of structure borne noise and the basic requirements. Acceleration is
defined here as sounds in the frequency range up to 20 kHz (hearable sound). The definitions of
special terms and items introduced with acceleration are given (accelerometers, their installation
and measurements purposes).
3) DIN 45664 gives information about the mounting of vibration pick ups for disturbing
influences.
4) DIN 45667 gives information of classification methods for evaluation of random vibrations.
5) DIN 45668 shows the standards fixtures of vibration pick-ups for machinery vibration
monitors.
6) DIN 45670 is a shaft vibration measuring device with requirements on the device for
monitoring relative shaft vibrations.
A closer explanation of these standards is of limited use. Similar or identical information is
included in the VDI - standards, published by the German Union of Engineers.
1) VDI 2056 accessment criteria for mechanical vibrations of machines, in particular guide
lines for the measurements and adjustment of the vibration severity are given. General limits are
shown for vibration limits in machines and their surrounding (foundation, connected components,
ground etc.) also physical limits for the load and stress to men.
The fig.1 summarizes examples for the classification of rotating machines to vibration levels
given by ISO (International Standard Organization) and VDI. Three groups are shown here from 6
groups which are defined as:
Fig. 1 Classification of Rotating Machines
Group K, some drive parts of engines or electrical motors up to 15 kW

Group M, electrical machines up to 75 kW, but also rotating machines up to 300 kW with
special foundation
Group G, big machinery more than 75kW
Group T, big machinery like turbomachines
Group D, big machinery with non balanced masses
Group S, machinery with elastical foundation, unbalanced like mills, vibration machinery used
in (proceed technique) industrial proceed engineering.
2) The VDI 2057 shows the effects of mechanical vibrations on human beings, gives funda-
mental classification and terms.
3) The mostly used VDI standard is the VDI 2059, which deals with the shaft vibrations of
turbosets, in particular principles of measurements and evaluation, shaft vibration of steam tur-
bosets for power plants, shaft vibrations of industrial turbosets, and shaft vibrations of gas turbosets,
shaft vibration of hydraulic machine sets.
The guideline intends to give an introduction to the mechanism of shaft vibrations, to explain
the measurement and to allow a uniform procedure in the measurements and in the evaluation of the
results. A further aim is to pass on experiences, to facilitate the interpretation of vibration
phenomena and of changes in vibration performance. Near the definition of measurement parameter,
the curve of the wave path is described and rules for the location as well as for fixing of displace-
ment pickups are presented (fig.2, fig.3).
Fig. 2 Definition of Orbits
Fig. 3 Positions for Displacement Pick Ups
An example for the pass of experiences should be given by fig.4. Normally, in operation with
turn drive, the measured value of maximum displacement is approximately constant. Irregularities
as shown in the next two figures occurring especially with hot rotors (fig.4, fig.5). If operation with
the turn drive is interrupted, the rotor can become banded due to temperature differences which
occur. Thus, a higher measured value appears temporarily when the turn-drive is switched on again
until a uniform temperature distribution is reached again.
Fig. 4 Interrupted Turn-Drive
Fig. 5 Touching during Turn-Drive

If touching of the rotor occurs during operation with the turn-drive as a result of eccentricity of
the stationary parts or thermal bending of the rotor, a change of the measured values can appear.
The shown period length is half an hour or longer (fig.5). Another special case is the self-excited
vibration. In steam turbines, under consideration here, self excited shaft vibrations are caused by
so-called gap excitation or through a bearing instability. Gap excitation appears above a certain
speed or a certain power. The frequency of the self-excited vibration corresponds to the one of a
critical speed, in most cases the lowest of the shaft. The self excited vibration is superimposed on
the rotational frequency vibration caused by unbalance. As result, a blurred trace generally appears
on the recording chart as shown in fig.6.
Fig. 6 Weak Self-Excited Vibration
Fig. 7 Self-Excited Vibration

If the system damping is sufficiently great, the maximum displacement of the self-excited
vibration remains small and non-dangerous. If the damping is too small, the measured value follows
displacement amplitudes shown in fig.7 which are dangerous for the operation security. Often the
machine has to be stopped.
During start-up and shut-down of the turbine, the shaft vibration shows more or less strongly
pronounced resonance areas on passing through the critical speeds, as shown, for example, in fig.8
and fig.9. If the initial conditions and the speed curve are the same, the curve of the maximum
displacements will be approximately identical.
Fig. 8 Start-Up
Fig. 9 Shut-Down
Fig. 10 Start-Up with Banded Shaft
If an unusually severe increase in maximum displacement is found during starting, the run-up
will be interrupted and the machine will be held at reduced speed for some time. A thermal bending
of the shaft, which may be the cause of it, should now gradually become smaller, and would result
in a corresponding decrease of maximum displacements (fig.10). On continuing the run-up,
approximately the usual maximum displacement curve should be obtained again, especially at the
several critical speeds. Otherwise another fault is present; further operation or an attempt to pass
through the critical speed is inadvisable.

The breakage of a rotor blade leads to a sudden change in the unbalance of the shaft. Through
this, as a rule, a step change occurs in the measured values. Often a brief overshoot of the measured
values can be seen at the moment when the blade breaks away. Such a process is shown in fig.11.
Whether the measured value rises, falls or shows any distinct change at all, is dependent on the
vectorial relationship between the change caused by damage and the original unbalance.
Fig. 11 Breakage of a Rotor Blade
The deviation from the normal variation of the measured values, shown in fig.12, may occur, if
heat is supplied to the shaft surface over only one part of the circumference, i.e. asymmetrically and
this partial area migrates slowly in the circumferential direction. Processes of this kind are also
known under the topic vector rotation. The duration of cycle in the figure is about half an hour up to
two hours.
Fig. 12 Asymmetrical Heat Transfer
A transverse crack will give a rise to the excitation of additional vibrations of the rotational
frequency and its double due to periodic change in the sag of the shaft, while the ratio of the
components depends on the shape and depth of the crack. Shaft vibration displacements which
increase progressively over several days with constant operating conditions can point to a
progressing crack (fig.13). Since the vibrations due to unbalance are superimposed, the maximum
displacement can also initially decrease in places. After a certain crack depth is reached, however,
the maximum displacement also increases progressively in this plane. In contrast to the other
examples this picture represents an interval of several days or weeks.
Fig. 13 Progressing Crack
During shut-down and start-up, greater maximum displacements occur at the critical speeds
than during a comparable operation without a crack in the shaft, as seen in fig.14.
Fig. 14 Shut Down
At about half the critical speed, an additional resonance occurs at which the shaft vibrates with
the second harmonic. This phenomenon, in particular, points to a cracked shaft, while it should be
noted that a vibration at the second harmonic can already be present, as such, due to the slots of the
generator rotor.
The vibration performance can change whenever the power is increased or decreased. Fig.15
shows case instances for vibration curves at reduced power.
Fig. 15 Power Variation
The change in the vibration is mainly caused by thermal bending of the rotor. The thermal
bending is caused by temperature differences in the shaft. It occurs not only in the turbine, but often
also in the generator, e.g. in case of a change in reactive power.
In the high-pressure section with nozzle group control the resultant radial steam force can
reach the order of magnitude of the weight of the rotor. Therefore, a change in the steam flow can
also have a visible effect on the shaft vibration.
Temperature variations have a similar effect. Fig.16 shows the shaft vibration with a rapid
temporary change in steam temperature, as it occurs, for example, in case of boiler trouble.
Fig. 16 Fast Temperature Changes

Some more typical examples for the interpretation of vibration data are given in the tables of
the VDI examplarily, summarized in fig.17.
a) Summarized Influences
Fig. 17 b) Summarized Influences
4) The VDI 2060 gives information about balancing, equipment and values, while
5) The VDI 2063 deals with the measurement and evaluation of mechanical vibrations of
reciprocating piston engines and piston compressors.
So the VDI 2063 includes instructions for the measurements to be taken and approximate
values for the range within which the characteristic quantity should be defined.
The guidelines generally applies to reciprocating piston engines compressors, mounted rigidly
and resiliently with a power output or input as from 100 kW and up to speeds of 3000 rpm, like
marine propulsion engines, engines operating in diesel generators, locomotive engines, etc. The
guideline does not apply engines installed in road vehicles. The consideration is limited to
mechanical vibrations in the frequency range of 2 up to 300 Hz, measurable on the surface, at
bearings or other fastening points.
In this field of norms and standards for vibration analysis also international standards have
been developed by ISO, as there are:
1) ISO 2372 which deals with mechanical vibrations of machines with operating speeds from
10 to 200 rev/s. Here the same classifications are made like in the mentioned DIN standards. Also
same schematic arrangements of machine soft suspension test mounting and possible measuring
points on small machines are given. In general it is corresponding to the DIN and VDI standards
and gives no new information.
2) ISO 2373 gives some general information about mechanical vibration of certain rotating
electrical machinery with shaft heights between 80 and 400 mm, about the measurement and
evaluation of the vibration severity.
3) Nearly the same information can be taken from ISO 2954 where mechanical vibration of
rotating and reciprocating machinery is described.
4) ISO 3945 states the mechanical vibration of large rotating machines with speed ranges from
10 to 200 r/s. The regarded frequency varies between 10 and 1000 Hz, is based on ISO 2372 and
defines rules for evaluating the vibration performance of large prime moves and other large
machines with rotating masses only, a power of more than 300 kW.
Electric motors, generators, steam and gas turbines, turbo compressors, turbo pumps and fans
are examples of these types of machinery. But only general information is given and not as detailed
as in the VDI standards seen before.
Here the measurement positions at a bearing case are shown for 3-dimensional measurements.
The difference between the ISO and the German standards are given in the guideline of these posi-
tions, which are in fig.18 always horizontal and vertical to the foundation while the VDI standards
only state an angle between two shaft movement sensors of 90　.
Fig. 18 Measurement Positions
5) The ISO 7919 deals with mechanical vibration of non-reciprocating machines, measure-
ments on rotating shafts and evaluation.
It is a general guideline for measuring and evaluating machinery vibration by means of
measurements made directly on rotating shafts for the purpose of determining shaft vibration
regarding:
changes in vibration behavior excessive kinetic load, and
monitoring of radial clearance.
It is applicable to measurements of absolute as well as relative radial shaft vibrations.
Differentiation is made between relative vibration measurements and absolute vibration
measurements.
Relative vibration measurements are generally carried out with non-contacting transducers
which sense the vibratory displacement between the shaft and a structural component of the
machine.
Fig. 19 Probe Arrangement

Absolute vibration measurements are carried out by one of the following methods:
by a shaft-riding probe, on which a seismic transducer (velocity type or accelerometer) is
mounted, in order to measure absolute shaft vibration,
by a non-contacting transducer in combination with a seismic transducer (velocity type or
accelerometer).
A detailed description of the different sensor types is given further on.
The last kind of standards, which should be mentioned, are the API (American Petroleum
Institute), as there are the API 613 and 670.
1) API 613 is in charge of high-speed, special purpose gears units for refinery services as
centrifugal compressors, axial compressors, blowers, turbines, etc.
2) The last fig.19 shows some information regarded by API 670 which describes the
construction of shaft movement sensors and the instrumentation in rotating machinery; also some
limited values are given.
Response of Mechanical Systems to Vibration and Shock
3．Response of Mechanical Systems to Vibration and Shock

The motion of a mechanical system subjected to external forces is commonly termed the
response of the system to the particular forces in question. Similarly, the external forces acting upon
the system are termed the exciting forces or the excitation.
Fig. 1 Mechanical System
To aid such a specification it is normally necessary to construct a simplified mechanical model

and, to formulate the equations of motion for the system on this base. This model then can be used
as a basis for a further analysis. The simplest model of a vibration system is shown in the first
figure, a model of a single degree-of-freedom system for free and forced vibration. It is called a
single degree-of-freedom-system because it consists of only one mass, moving along one axis
(fig.1). The above mentioned systems can be described as follows for free vibration
mx
&& + cx
& + kx = 0
for forced vibration
mx & + kx = f ( t )
&& + cx
where m is the mass, k the characteristic of the spring and c the characteristic of the damper.
x (t )
The solution of this equation gives directly the displacement response of the system,
produced by the external force. The velocity and acceleration can be found by the first and second
derivation of the displacement response:
v ( t ) = &x ( t ) = dx dt , a ( t ) = &&x ( t ) = d 2 x dt 2 = dv dt
Normally for technical applications the response of a mechanical system is given in frequency
domain. A complex frequency response function means a response which gives information on the
absolute value of the response quantity and the phase lag between the response and the excitation.
The general solution of a single-degree-of-freedom system is like
mx & + kx = F0 ⋅ e j2π ft
&& + cx
in time domain, and

X ( f ) = H ( f ) ⋅ F0 ⋅ e j 2π ft
MECHA_95 22
in frequency domain, with

⎛ f ⎞ 1
H ⎜ ⎟=
⎝ f0 ⎠ k ⎡1 − ( f f0 ) + j ⋅ 1 Q ⋅ f f0 ⎤
2
⎣ ⎦
where f0 is the resonant frequency of the system：
1 k
f0 =
2π m
And Q is the system damping：
1
Q= k ⋅m
c
also called quality factor or damping factor. For a complete undamped system Q = 4 while
for a critically damped system Q = 12 . An approximate measure of Q is obtained in practice by
measuring the width of the response curve, H ( f ) , at the half power points. The half power points
2 2
are the points on the curve where H ( f ) = H ( f ) 2 . Described by Δ f the factor Q is
defined as Q = f0 Δ f . The frequency difference between the half-power points is often referred to
as the bandwidth of the system (fig.2).
Fig. 2 Definition of the Half-Power-Point
For Q values larger than 5, the error inherent in the approximation is smaller than 3% (for
Q = 2 , the error is more or less 10%). Because of its direct relationships to the damping, the factor
Q has become a very important quantity in the description of linear single degree of freedom
systems.
MECHA_95 23
Fig. 3 Examples for Complex Frequency Response Functions
Fig.3 shows the complex frequency response as function of different system damping factors Q.
On the left the modulus is seen, the absolute value of the response, on the right the phase lag
between response and excitation is shown.
The phase lag between the response and the excitation is given by the following expression:
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
−1 ⎢ 1 ⎥
ρ = tan
⎢ ⎛ f f ⎥
⎞
⎢Q ⋅⎜ − 0 ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ f0 f ⎠ ⎥⎦
If the factor Q is unlimited, response and excitation are in phase below resonance, above
resonance they have a deviation of 180o. Because Q = 4 the change in phase takes place in form
of a discontinuous jump (in practice impossible). If damping is introduced in the system then the
change in phase between response and excitation tends to take place gradually, the larger the
damping the slower the phase changes. At resonance the phase lag between response and excitation
is always 90o.
Systems in which a single mass moves in more than one direction or systems which consist of
several, elastically interconnected masses, are named multi degree of freedom systems. A linear
multi degree of freedom system can be mathematically described by a set of coupled second order
linear differential equations. When the frequency response curve of the system is plotted it will
normally show one resonance peak for each degree of freedom as shown in the fig.4. So one will
get two peaks for a two degree system and three peaks for a three degree of freedom system.
Fig. 4 Examples of a Multi Degree of Freedom System
MECHA_95 24
For non-linear-systems the solution of the equation of motion cannot be made in general. For a
one-degree of freedom it looks like:
& + Fx = f ( t )
&& + βx
mx
where m is the system mass, βx & is the velocity term, dependent on the damping and Fx the
displacement dependent stiffness term while f ( t ) is in accordance to the linear equation the
forcing function. Because the differential equation is no longer linear, each particular non linear
vibration problem has to be solved on its own. However, certain general properties which are of
considerable practical interest may be discussed without actually solving the equation. One
simplification is given in the case where only the stiffness term is non linear. Then the equation of
motion is described by:
& + Fx = f ( t )
&& + cx
mx
Fig. 5 Characteristics of Different Spring Systems
Fig.5 shows some examples for different forms of F(x) in comparison to a linear system. In the
case of b, e and f the system is said to process a stiffening or hardening spring, while in the case of
c and d the system is said to process a softening spring. If the system has no excitation f(t) and no
damping term, the undamped free vibration is governed by the equation:
&& + Fx = 0
mx
The free oscillation is not sinusoidal unless F(x) is linear. In the linear case the period and the
shape of the oscillation are independent of the amplitude, but in the non-linear case both the period
and the form of the oscillation vary with the amplitude.
The relationship between amplitude and natural frequency for the six types of non linear
springs are shown in fig.6. It should be noted that the frequency of the stiffening system increases
with amplitude while for a softening system it decreases. When light damping and periodic excita-
tion are added to the system, the steady-state response is generally periodic, with the same period as
the excitation unless there is subharmonic resonance. The wave shape of the resonance oscillation is
MECHA_95 25
generally different from that one of the excitation and also different from the free vibration wave
shapes. Moreover, the response wave shape changes with the level of the excitation.
Fig. 6 Amplitude Spectra
For fixed excitation amplitude and light damping, the response curves are shown in the fig.7.
They are like the corresponding curves for linear systems but the backbones of the resonant peaks
are the nonlinear free vibration amplitude frequency relations shown in fig.6.
Fig. 7 Non Linear Spring Systems
For comparison in the middle part a linear resonant system is plotted. For the first case the
bone goes as the right to higher frequencies, on the second it goes to lower frequencies. An example
of hysteresis effect on the steady-state response can be seen in fig.8.
Fig. 8 Non-Linear System
The block between 2 and 3 is unstable. For the increase of the excitation frequency from zero,
the quasi stationary response amplitude follows the curve up to 1 then to 2 but then jumps with an
irregular transient to point 4. If the excitation frequency decreases again (slowly), there is a sudden
MECHA_95 26
jump in response from 3 to 1. So it can be concluded that the location of the peak response for a
slowly sweeping input frequency is not the same for an upward sweep as it is for a downward
sweep. In this case the damping parameter and the excitation amplitude was kept constant.
Fig. 9 Example for Torsional Vibration
Up to this point all mentioned mechanical systems are of translational type, the vibration mass-
es oscillated along one or more axis. Another type of motion occurs when a body is forced to
vibrate around one or more axes, as it is often the case in rotating machinery or unsymmetrically
loaded machine foundations. The simplest is torsional vibration of a shaft as seen in the fig.9. As-
suming that the inertia of the shaft is negligible compared with the inertia of the mass (the same for
the elastic behavior of the mass in comparison to the shaft), the equation of free unforced rotational
motion can be written:
d 2ϕ dϕ
I + c ′ + k ′ϕ = 0
dt 2 dt
and for forced torsional vibration
d 2ϕ dϕ
I 2
+ c′ + k ′ϕ = M ( t ) = F ( t ) ⋅ r
dt dt
I is the moment of inertia of the mass, 　 is the angle of motion, c' is the damping constant and
k' is the angular stiffness of the shaft. It can be seen that this equations looks nearly the same than
for the one-degree-of-freedom system. The only differences are that the mass m must be substituted
by the moment of inertia I, the displacement x by the angle 　, and the external forces f(t) by a
moment M(t). A second example of rotational motion is, as mentioned above, that of an
asymmetrically loaded foundation. This case is illustrated in fig.10 and plays an important role in
the vibration and shock isolation of machines and equipment.
MECHA_95 27
Fig. 10 Complex Mechanical System
The theoretical aspects of idealized systems follow practical illustration structural vibrations of
beams, shapes and plates. In practice all masses have a certain elasticity and all spring elements
have masses. For instance a beam or a plate is a continuous combination of masses and springs. In
these cases the infinite number of resonances resulting from the infinite number of degree of
freedom are in case of complex structures normally termed natural-modes or modes. As shown in
fig.11, not all points within a mass move in phase. It's an example for vibration of a beam clamped
at one end and acted upon by an oscillating force.
Fig. 11 Frequency Response of a Beam
When the frequency of this oscillating force becomes the same as the one of the beam`s modes,
a standing wave occurs. It is readily seen that the points within the beam (marked x1) move in
opposite phase with respect to the points at the place x2. Therefore, for the description of the
motion of the beam it is not enough to describe the instantaneous vibration amplitude, additionally
the function of space coordinates has to be known. For the differential equation this governs into a
partial one.
MECHA_95 28
Fig. 12 Mode Shapes of Plates
Similarly the equation of motion for a circular plate clamped at its edges is illustrated in fig.12.
It looks only a little bit more complicated. Compressional and torsional vibrations may be excited in
structures as shown in fig.13.
Fig. 13 Torsional Vibration of a Beam
Also, combinations of all three types of vibration may take place. Therefore, vibration in
structures may get exceedingly complex and only approximated solutions can be given. For some
simple structures and load configurations the typical modes are shown in the next figures.
The fig.14 shows some examples of boundary conditions and corresponding mode shapes for
the first four natural vibration modes of beams. There are much higher modes but in general only a
few of the lower modes, seem to be of great practical interest.
Beams of uniform section and uniform distributed load are described by the natural fre-
quencies f n = (A/2π) * sqr (EI/δSl 4) with
E = Young's modulus
I = area moment of inertia of beam cross section
l = length of the beam
δ = mass density of the beam material
S = area of cross-section
MECHA_95 29
A = coefficient from the table in fig.14
Fig. 14 Mode Shapes of Beams
In the case of free transverse vibration of plates (fig.15) the equation of motion is again a
fourth order differential one, still more complicated to solve than the one governing the vibration of
beams. The previous figures showed that the frequencies of the normal modes in structural mem-
bers are in general not harmonically related.
Figure 1 Mode Shapes of Plates
There are, however, other types of vibrations in structures which are at least to a first
approximation harmonically related. These are compressional (longitudinal) vibrations and in
MECHA_95 30
certain cases also torsional vibrations. The equations have the same form as the so called wave e-
quation which governs various kinds of wave phenomena in theoretical physics. Compressional vi-
brations are also often referred to as mechanical waves.
Summary
The main reason for the inclusion of this section on structural vibrations is to illustrate that the
actual vibrations measured on a complex construction may be widely different from point to point
even if the measuring points considered are situated a relatively short distance apart from each other.
Also, the direction in space of the vibrations may vary and for thorough investigations it is neces-
sary to measure the vibrations as a function of frequency and space. For measurement of accelera-
tion and shaft movement, it is therefore necessary to look for the best detector place by some
experiences.
MECHA_95 31
Instrumentation for Vibration Measurements
4．Instrumentation for Vibration Measurements

Measurement and analysis of vibration requires first that a vibration transducer is used to
convert the mechanical vibration signal into an electrical form. Various types of vibration
transducer exist. Proximity probes are used to sense displacement, velocity probes to sense velocity,
and accelerometer to sense acceleration. Displacement, velocity and acceleration are interrelated
parameters (fig.1). Displacement can be differentiated to produce velocity, and velocity can dif-
ferentiated to produce acceleration. Likewise, it is possible to integrate from acceleration to velocity
or displacement. The chosen measurement parameter should have the flattest spectrum response, to
maximize the use of dynamic range of the instrumentation.
Figure 1 Vibration Time Signals
The following figures present the operating principles of some vibration sensors. The simplest
measurement devices are mechanical levels like shown in fig.2a). The vibration transmitted and
amplified by mechanical levers and recorded on a moving trace. The trace can be enlarged optically
and the displacement and main frequency measured.
Figure 2 four types of displacement pick-up
INSTVI95.WPT 31
The principle of operation of capacitive displacement transducers is shown in fig.2c) . The

electrode is mounted parallel to and at a suitable distance from the test specimen. The air gap
capacitor thus formed is charged with a polarization voltage. When the plate distance changes due
to vibrations an alternating current proportional to the vibration will occur.
Another possibility to measure displacement is using reluctive transducer elements as
demonstrated in fig.2d). In this case the vibration is transmitted directly to the ferromagnetic core.
When it changes position the reluctive paths between primary and the two secondary coils is
changed to give a resulting output proportional with the displacement.
An example of optical measurement devices for displacement is presented if fig.2b), where the
transduction element is a servo phototube. The image of a vibrating object is projected onto a
special phototube. Here electrons are released and continue parallel to the axis of the tube to a posi-
tion detector. If the electrons arriving there are not on axis a signal is sent to the servo amplifier
feeding 2 defection electrodes. The voltage necessary to deflect the electrons back to the axis is a
function of the displacement and this is measured. Another optical unit is the laser velocity
transducers, where the interference of laser light is used to determine the surface velocity of the
vibrating structure.
Figure 3 Displacement and Velocity Pick-Up
Transformers (eddy current probes, electromagnetic interaction) as transducer element permits

the determination of displacement (fig.3a)). The high frequency oscillator feeds a primary winding
on a transducer core. As the magnetic fields changes with the position of the vibrating surface the
HF from the secondary coil is modulated by the vibration. The high frequency component (the
carrier) is then filtered out leaving the vibration signal. By suitable linearisation this becomes
proportional to the displacement. Eddy probes allow measurements up to frequency ranges of 20
kHz.
Moving elements (coil of magnet) can be used to measure velocity (fig.3b)). When the trans-
ducer is subjected to vibration above its resonance frequency the magnet will be practically at
stand-still while the whole housing and coil moves around it in the magnetic field.
INSTVI95.WPT 32
Figure 4 Accelerometer
The simplest way to measure acceleration is using potentiometer as transduction element

(fig.4a). When the accelerometer is subjected to vibration the mass will exert a variable force on the
suspension springs which will deflect to let the mass move relative to the housing, and proportional
to the vibration. This movement is transferred directly to a slider on a potentiometer. By using a sui-
table power supply a varying voltage is produced proportional to the deflection and thereby the
acceleration of the mass.
Cheap applications of accelerometers are using strain gauges as transduction element (fig.4b).
The force transmitted to the seismic mass is changed into a resistance change due to strain in the
arms of a whetstone bridge. By AC or DC excitation a voltage change is produced by this resistance
change. Another application is shown in fig.5a. The force necessary to accelerate the seismic mass
causes a deformation in a structural member which causes a change in resistance of a piezoelectric
element. The use of semiconductor strain gauges guarantee high sensititivity.
The principle of servo/capacitive accelerometers is presented in fig.4c. The position of the
seismic mass relative to the transducer housing is sensed by a detector. When the housing is
accelerated the detector controls a servo amplifier feeding a set of positioning electromagnets which
are used to keep the mass following the house so that no relative motion occurs between house and
mass. The current necessary to perform this work is measured.
Figure 5 Accelerometer
The mostly applied principle of acceleration measurements are using piezoelectric elements as
examplarily shown in fig.5b. When the accelerometer is subjected to vibration, the mass will exert a
variable force on the piezoelectric discs proportional to the acceleration. Due to the piezoelectric
effect a variable charge is developed across the discs proportional to the force and thereby the
INSTVI95.WPT 33
acceleration of the mass.

4.2 Measurement Equipment
The first step in all measurement lines are the transducers which have their own signatures and
specifications, chosen depending on the measurement task. Examplarily a general measurement line
is described here for piezoresistive accelerometers. The calibration chart specifies the charge sen-
sitivity for the accelerometer and this is independent of the length of the accelerometer cable, as
long as this is less than a couple of hundred meters. The voltage sensitivity (mV/ms-2), however,
will be reduced whenever the standard cable length is extended.
Fig. 1 Vibration Parameters
The new voltage sensitivity can easily be calculated. Dependent on the detector and the cable
length, different kinds of preamplifier have to be chosen, if no transducers are used with included
ones.
Preamplifier Setting
These preamplifiers often have several features for signal conditioning installed. Some
examples are analogue integrating circuits which transform the acceleration signal to velocity or
displacement for directly threshold comparisons with norms and standards. If the type of
measurement being carried out does not call for a particular parameter to be measured e.g. due to
some standards, the general rule is that the parameter giving the flattest response over the frequency
range of interest should be chosen (fig.13). This will give the biggest dynamic range of the whole
measurement set up. It is important to limit the signal to that part of the frequency range which has
any interest as early as possible in the measurement chain (fig.14). Thereby, the possibility of
getting overloads at frequencies outside the range of interest will be reduced to a minimum. It is
normal practice to limit the signal to frequencies below 1/3 of the accelerometer's resonance,
depending on monitoring conditions.
INSTVI95.WPT 34
Fig. 2 High and Low Pass Filter
The measuring instrument will display the vibration level on its meter, dependent on its adjust-
ment. Simple vibration meters normally allow the adjustment to different measurement values in
time domain for variable time delays. Normally on the control the value which interests can be
chosen: RMS, Peak, Peak to Peak or max. Hold are some of these values. The example here shows
the output level (and meter deflection) for a burst of a sinusoidal signal of constant amplitude
applied to the input (fig.15). The Averaging Time is assumed to be constant (10s).
Fig. 3 Features of Measuring Instruments
With the averaging time control one can choose the time constant for the detector circuit. With
a short time constant the detector will follow the level of a varying signal very closely, in some
cases making it difficult to read a result out of the indicating meter. If a longer time constant is used,
however, some information might be lost. This is especially true if the signal contains various im-
pulses, demonstrated in fig.16. Fig.17 shows a general purpose vibration measurement device with
integrated preamplifier for quick measurements. They are available from different companies. Here,
INSTVI95.WPT 35
one from B & K was chosen.
Fig. 4 Features of Measuring Instruments
Fig. 5 Instruments with Preamplifier
A filter can be connected to the vibration meter, thus making frequency analysis possible. A
filter is a device which will allow some things to pass while blocking the passage for others, e.g. a
tea filter with a 0.5 mm mask will allow water and tea dust to pass while tea leaves will be retained
in the filter. Electronic filters are used for frequency analysis. They allow those frequencies inside
the bandwidth "B" of the filter to pass, rejecting all other frequencies. It is not possible to construct
such an ideal filter, however. The edges of the filter will always have a certain slope.
INSTVI95.WPT 36
Fig. 6 Simple Frequency Analysis
By sending a signal through a filter, and at the same time sweeping the filter over the fre-
quency range of interest, it is possible to get a measure of the signal level at different frequencies
(fig.19). The narrower the bandwidth used, the more detailed is the information obtained. But for
more detailed (narrow band) analysis, however, a longer analysis time is required (fig.20).
Fig. 7 Filter Characteristics
INSTVI95.WPT 37
Fig. 8 Influence of Filter to Spectra
The measurement chain is completed when a recorder is added to the set up. The recorder plots
the results on precalibrated paper for easy evaluation, comparison, and storage for later use.
Dependent on the used records, recording paper is available with different types of calibration for
different applications. It usually includes provision for recording in formation concerning the
analysis and the measuring object (fig.21).
Fig. 9 Recording on Precalibrated Paper
A simple portable vibration measurement station will consist of an accelerometer, a vibration

meter, a filter, and a level recorder. The vibration meter and the filter should be mounted in a rugged
carrying case with room for storage and transport of the accelerometers (fig.22).
INSTVI95.WPT 38
Fig. 10 Portable Equipment
Instead of carrying out the analysis on the spot, one can record a sample of the vibration signal
to tape recorder and bring it back to the laboratory for analysis. An analogic tape recorder can
record from 2 to 32 signals simultaneously (in some cases 64 and if required even more) (fig.23).
Fig. 11 Recording of Vibration Signals
Analogue analysis of the vibration signals can very easily be carried out with sophisticated,
laboratory oriented instrumentation in the laboratory. The instrumentation shown here is only one of
a number of possible combinations (fig.24).
INSTVI95.WPT 39
Fig. 12 Laboratory Working Place
A real time analyzer enables the whole frequency spectrum to be studied continuously on a
video display screen. Data may be stored or processed digitally by auxiliary instrumentation, or
alternatively, hardcopy recordings can be made on a level or X-Y recorder. Nowadays more and
more equipment has been developed implementing all features on a processor board, mounted in
portable personal computer.
At least some examples of equipment for special applications are presented, as tracking filters
and bump recorders. A tracking filter simplifies vibration measurements on variable speed machines
where it is required to lock the filter tuned frequency to the frequency of a rotating part. As the
rotation speed changes, the filter frequency changes with it (fig.25). The tracking filter facilitates
order analysis, so that the contribution of harmonics and sub-harmonics of the rotational frequency
can be investigated. Being battery operated, the tracking filter is typically used together with the
portable vibration meter and level recorder.
INSTVI95.WPT 40
Fig. 13 Tracking Filter
The bump recorder is a special type of vibration meter, which monitors an object for
mechanical shocks which exceed a preset threshold level. It uses a triaxial accelerometer to detect
shocks in any direction and records their date, time, max. velocity and max. acceleration on a paper
strip. A typical application is monitoring delicate cargoes during transport.
Fig. 14 Threshold Recorders
Another special application of vibration measurement equipment is related to international

standards and recommendations specifying limits for the degree of human exposure to mechanical
vibration. As the criteria are level, time and frequency dependent, computation of exposure dose
needs to include all these factors. Measurements are simplified considerably using a dedicated
INSTVI95.WPT 41
human vibration meter which computes vibration dose for three categories of human vibration:
hand-arm, whole body, and motion sickness. A special triaxial seat accelerometer is convenient for
the use with seated subjects.
Fig. 15 Human Vibration Meter
Part II: Function and Design of Permanent Electronical Systems for

Machine Supervision
Vibration supervision systems are used in various kinds of applications, accommodated to the
special supervision task. To guaranty the reliability of the machine supervision an amount of
different functions are required. These construction parts of a supervision system should be
emphasized on. At product important and capital intensive machines, at remote-controlled and
vibration allergic machines a measurement of the vibration behavior with portable equipment is
normally not sufficient. In this case permanent measuring systems are needed to monitor and
supervise all abnormalities in the operating conditions, especially if sudden changes in the vibration
behavior occur. One point of these supervision systems is the health assurance for the machine, the
other the introduction of predictive maintenance also at critical machines.
The foundation of the functionality of this kind of maintenance is the knowledge of the
momentary operating conditions of the machine. That means: a lot of specific information should be
available, actions by the maintenance should only be started if regarded by the condition monitoring
system. The alarm must be given so early that early failure detection is possible and exceeded
damage can be avoided. At critical machines this is only possible by implementation of a permanent
monitoring system. The early given alarm enables a failure diagnosis and the planned stop of
machines and plants. At least supervision systems help to increase the availability of machines.
Due to the direct influence on the availability, also high specifications are asked to the
supervision system. One example is to stay passive in case of normal operation conditions, only in
INSTVI95.WPT 42
one case they should get active, in the case of machine malfunction. And this should be the aim of
every supervision - optimal security without false alarms. Vibration supervision systems consist out
of functional related components:
1）measurement value processing
2）supervision function
3）security control, security switching
And all these components must work together to get a working machine supervision system.
Measurement Value Processing
The measurement value processing unit forms out of the detector signals the characteristic
supervision value as demonstrated in fig.28.
In case of machine supervision normally the following values are used:
1）absolute bearing vibration
2）relative shaft vibration
3）axial shaft displacement
4）speed
5）absolute casing tension
6）relative shaft tension
7）eccentricity
8）temperature
9）acceleration signals
The connection of these measurement detectors normally is made by different amplifiers as
described before. The following processing type of the input signals depends on the special
supervision value. The following possibilities are available:
1）filtering of the signals for band limitation
2）integration for changing the physical values (acceleration - velocity- displacement)
3）vector addition to get a 3-dimensional vibration behavior
4）calculation of effective-values, peak-values, peak-to-peak values and RMS-value
5）calculation of measurement differences to show relative changes
6）spectra comparison
7）spectra division
Fig.28 shows the block diagram of a general signal processing unit. One can see the typical
separation between the signal amplification and the signal process unit with its several outputs for
further diagnostics and supervision reactions.
INSTVI95.WPT 43
Fig. 16 Block Diagram of a General Signal Processing Unit
A normal measurement equipment should not only show alarms if something changed in the
operation conditions, but it should also give some momentaneous output in form of significant
values which characterize the working condition of the machine or give the possibility to regard
these values if required.
So a normal supervision system has the possibilities to make a documentation by standardized
analogue output of 0-10V or 0/4-20 mA, or if modern equipment is used, by digital outputs like an
IEEE-bus or a RS 232.
Fig. 17 Signal Processing Unit for Supervision
INSTVI95.WPT 44
The following deals with different supervision functions. The most important function of a
supervision system is the alarm. For this one has to make a comparison between two selectable
thresholds. The first one normally is the prealarm and the second one regards the stop of the
machine. If the first limitation value is passed the threshold relais gives alarm. At the same time
normally also some optical or acoustical signals are given. Every measurement value is in the case
of threshold advice separated. Combined relais for many different signals are in the case of industry
applications not allowed due to the German standards. With this kind of equipment one had success
in mostly all applications. But what happens if the machine shows under normal operating
conditions short time increases at characteristic values? This kind of short time magnification
occurs for example crossing some resonances at remove or start process.
To avoid failures in the alarm system due to short time magnification there are two
possibilities:
1）alarm delay
2）threshold multiplication
Both systems are shown in fig.29 in the block diagram of the signal process unit with
supervision functions.
Alarm Delay
An alarm delay begins to count as soon as one threshold or limitation value is crossed, shown
in fig.30. But the alarm is only given, if the limitation value is crossed during the complete time.
The short time increasing of special values, (less than the fixed delay time), gives no alarm.
Fig. 18 Operating of Alarm Delay

Another principle is the limit or threshold multiplication as shown in fig.31. Here the time is
not important, in this case the main influence is the magnitude, the absolute value. The threshold
multiplication increases the limit value if regarded by a selectable value. By this it is possible to
drive machines through resonances, without release the alarm system or changing the limitation of
the thresholds. Due to the possibility of an individual choice of the threshold multiplication it is also
possible to make a supervision in case of transient signals. Irregular machine operating conditions
could be recognized directly and not only after reaching the nominal operating conditions. The
activation of the threshold limitation can be made manually or automatically, dependent on to the
machine operating system.
INSTVI95.WPT 45
Fig. 19 Operating of Limit Multiplication
If a supervision system is not connected to a diagnostic system, it is sometimes impossible to

recognize which supervised value caused the alarm and stopped the machine. If the machine is
stopped suddenly due to resonances, then it could occur that other limitations owe hurt (increase of
characteristic value). They cannot be separated from the original source of the shut down. A failure
diagnostic therefore could be more difficult.
One possibility to avoid this, is the first alarm display which shows which measured value
gives the first alarm. This message can be centralized or also be given by each channel.
A machine supervision can only be as sure as the supervision system itself. Therefore the
requirements to supervision systems are very high. Especially additional protective circuits are
necessary to provide false alarms and shut downs (fig.32).
Fig. 20 General Signal Processing with Protection
INSTVI95.WPT 46
The most sensitive part of a supervision system is the detector itself. In some cases it is
operating under extreme conditions (temperature, etc.), but it must detect little changes with high
reliability. Defect detectors or ones without function are sometimes not visible by the characteristic
values. Some supervision systems therefore have a substructure for permanent control of the
detector itself, signal transmission and amplifiers included. Short circuits, power disconnections or
for example the wrong distance of a detector in case of eddy current probes should be recognized
and shown by diodes.
The own control system gives no guarantee for false alarms, because only the disturbance of
the detector is shown, but the processing is not provided. Therefore, the threshold transfer blocking
is used. This equipment ensures that no alarm can be given if one detector has been recognized as
defect. This kind of threshold transfer blocking is normally only used in the supervision of vibration
(fig.32).
At the supervision of the axial shaft displacement, for example, no distinction of real
displacement and wrong adjusted sensors could be made. Therefore, there is the possibility to use
two detectors per measurement point connected by a logical and coupling. With this, false shut
down due to defect transducers can be provided.
Short shut downs of the supervision system's power supply could regard in electrical vibrations
which may show the same characteristic like detected failures. Therefore it must be ensured that no
machine shut down occurs due to a short disconnection of the power supply; for that reason, power
supply security systems (batteries) are often used for buffering.
The power on protective circuit makes a blockade of the alarm system of 15 sec. This is
necessary for operating starts. Fig.32 shows a general signal processing unit in a block diagram
with all elements mentioned before.
INSTVI95.WPT 47
Definitions of Analogue and Digital Signals
Definitions of Analogue and Digital Signals (AD-Conversion)

With the definition of German Standards and norms a signal is defined as a physical pre-
sentation of news or data. In general the signal parameter is an amplitude of a procedure that
depends on the time t. Functions, which describe such proceedings, are called time functions.
In equations or formulas the argument presents the independent variable time, for example
s(t), a(t).
Fig. 1 Different Wave Forms
Signals, which are continuous in amplitude and time behavior cause of nature, are named
analogue or value and time continuous signals (fig.1). But there are also signals, which do not
show either in value, in time domain or in both a continuous behavior. A discontinuous curve
of the amplitude values can be seen, if the signal is given by an amplitude quantisation. The
separation of the value range in a fixed number of discrete intervals, which are comprise all
values in this interval to one uniform value, is called amplitude quantisation. Then only a
limited number of intervals or steps of amplitudes are available and not an infinite number of
them.
A typical example is the recording level indicator of a magnet tape recorder with lu-
minous diodes. The signal- functions achieved by quantisation show value discrete and time
continuous character (fig.1). In opposite to the signals mentioned before, there is a non
continuous time behavior, if the continuous signal function is scanned by discrete points of
time. At the output of such a scan system (fig.1), which is always a component of equipment
for conversion analogue signals in digital data values, there is a value continuous and time
discrete signal. An analogue signal, which is as well quantified as temporal scanned is called
a value- and time discrete signal. Such signals are the result of an analogue-to-digital
conversion and can be treated by a digital microcomputer.
ADCON_95.WPT 56
Fig. 2 Diagram of an AD-Converter
The principle of analogue-to-digital conversion is shown in fig.2. In general the name of

this kind of generated signal is digital signal. Its structure is examplarily pointed out in fig.3,
consisting out of combinations of zeros and ones.
Fig. 3 Coding the Sampled Values
Classification and Description of Analogue Signals

In general the signals are separated in determined and not determined signals. A process
or a signal is called determined, if the course of the values or amplitudes can be calculated for
each time in past and in future. Such kind of signal can be described by a mathematical
equation. Signals, that did not have such attributes are called non-determined.
One class of determined signals are represented by the periodical signal, which are again
sepa-rated in harmonic oscillations (single frequent signals) and general periodic signals. In
ADCON_95.WPT 57
opposite of that, there are nonperiodic and transient signals (fig.4). A very interesting class of
signals are the not-determined signals, which are also called stochastic signals because of the
random course of the amplitude. They can divided into stationary and not stationary signals
(fig.5).
Fig. 4 Stationary and Non-Deterministical
Fig. 5 Stationary and Non-Deterministical
Structure of Digital Signals

For the processing of analogue signals with digital calculation it is necessary to convert
the value and time continuous events into value and time discret data. For this purpose they
are scanned, quantised and coded in datawords, which are understandable for digital
processing equipment. For the storage and the processing of such data, there are binary
storage elements available in a computer system.
ADCON_95.WPT 58
Fig. 6 Definition of "Byte"
with w: number of bits

The table in fig.7 shows the connection between word length and number of amount.
Wordlength Number of possible combinations

1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
7 128
8(=1byte) 256
9 512
10 1024(=1k)
Fig. 7 Structure of Information
Fig. 816-Bit Data Structure
A data word with a word length of 8 bits is called 1 byte. Usually the number 210 = 1024
has the abbreviation 1 kilo, so 2 kilobytes are 2*1024 = 2048 byte = 2048-8-bit-words. To
transfer values, that are defined in positive and negative range, one bit is used for the
description of the sign. So for a 16 bit wide data word the bit 15 is called the MSB- bit (most
significant bit) and the first bit 0 is called LSB- bit (least significant bit). Bit 15 is responsible
for the sign.
ADCON_95.WPT 59
Coding and Quantisation of Analogue Signals

The processing of analogue signals with digital computers makes it necessary to sample
time- and value continuous signals and convert them in binary coded value- and time discret
data. First of all the physical dimensions has to transfer in electrical voltages, for instance to
measure temperatures (dimension: Kelvin) it is useful to apply a thermocouple. The output of
the thermocouple has the dimension Volt and can be treated by electrical components.
Fig. 9 Quantisation of Analogue Signals
For the representation of value- and time continuous signals in binary coded datawords
Analogue-Digital-Converter are applied. They consist of one scanning element, one holding
element and a quantisation- and coder element as symbolic shown in fig.9. To discreet points
of time the scanning element finds out amplitude proportional voltage values, which are tem-
porary stored in the holding element until they are coded in binary datawords.
The Scanning Theorem of Shannon
As mentioned above, the computer controlled analysis of analogue signals assumes a
splitting of the signal in equidistant scanning points. The time distance between following
scanning points can not be chosen arbitrary. It depends on the analyzing frequency or exactly
from the highest frequency component, that exists in the signal.
The connection between the signal frequency and the minimum trigger frequency is
given by a theorem from Shannon : "The trigger frequency has to be more than double as the
highest frequency in the signal", to make sure that the scanning points of the signal describe
the complete information from the original signal. If this condition is accomplished, the
analogue signal is totally reconstructible. If calling the maximum frequency fmax, the trigger
frequency fa and the time between two scanning points Ät, then follows:
ADCON_95.WPT 60
Fig. 10 Aliasing due to Digitalization Error
With this equation the scanning interval must be less than the smallest half time of oscil-
lation. In some manuals the last formula is defined with a equal mark. This is not correct as
shown in fig.10 were a sampling frequency exactly twice the analysis frequency was chosen.
Aliasing Noise
One of the undesirable and sometimes only difficultly avoidable reasons of disturbances
is to offend against the Shannon theorem. If the signal is subscanned there is a effect, which is
called Aliasing in the literature. Spectral components are simulated, that did not exist in the
signal at all. For instance it is given in the optic field. The fig.11 shows an example: a sector
from a continuous harmonic oscillation with the frequency fp is presented. Scanning this
function with fa=0.8*fp the marked points are obtained.
Fig. 11 Demonstration of the Aliasing Effects
In the part b of the figure the values are shown again without the original function. By
the observation the visual human system connect these points to a closed curve, which cor-
respond to a considerably lower harmonic oscillation. Indeed a harmonic oscillation of this
Aliasing-Frequency scanning with fa would yield exactly the same values. But in the original
signal this frequency does not exist. In many practical applications the trigger frequency is
pretended by technical edge conditions and cannot vary arbitrary.
To avoid the undesirable aliasing effect, the signals with frequency portions higher than
ADCON_95.WPT 61
the half trigger frequency have to be prefiltered with a low pass filter. Corresponding to the
purpose, this filter is called a Antialising-Filter or also Presampling-Filter with regard to the
position in the digital processing line.
The transmission behavior of such a filter should be like an ideal low pass filter: a small
width of transition interval and a very good stop band attenuation above the upper cut off
frequency. A high amount of the steepness of the edge is important to be near by the
theoretical limit of the trigger frequency. That means the edge frequency of the filter is in the
domain less than fa/2 (fig.12).
Fig. 12 Signal Filtering
Noise of Quantisation
Due to the technical attributes the time discreet values of the signals are represented in
datawords with finite word length. Each value of magnitude can only be disintegrated with
finite precision, which correspond directly with the data word length. The amplitude range is
separated in a number of discreet intervals.
ADCON_95.WPT 62
Fig. 13 Determination of Quantisation Error
This is called amplitude quantisation. The fig.12 shows an example about the connection
between continuous time signal, scanning values and the quantisation in amplitude intervals.
Physically this process of amplitude quantisation means that some values deviate from the
real magnitudes. This maximum deviations amount to a half step of quantisation and effect a
superposed disturbance signal with random amplitude distribution. This kind of trouble is
called noise of quantisation.
The Analogue-Digital Conversion
The basic understanding of an analogue-digital converter (ADC) is required when deal-
ing with the problems of computer-aided signal processing. Analogue Digital Convertors
represent different technical possibilities to convert analogue data, which are continuous in
value and time, into digital values.
Fig. 14 ADC with the counting Method
ADCON_95.WPT 63
Basically, all conversion principles compare the analogue voltages with a discreet set of
reference voltages. These reference values are either generated by appropriate controllers or
they are already present in a discreet form.
The comparison of scanned values of the analogue signal obtained for discreet times
with a time-dependent voltage provided by a program is the significance of one group of
converters. The working principle of a converter can be easily explained with the counting
method. In general, a converter consists of a comparator, an impulse generator, a counter and
an analogue digital converter. A comparator has the ability to compare two different voltages.
At this time, it is sufficient to know that a digital-analogue converter (DAC) changes
binary-coded words into analogue voltages (fig.14).
The generator creates an impulsive in time equal step to drive a binary counter. When the
counter is reset, which implies a zero reference voltage at the output of the DAC, the conver-
sion is initiated. The counter position is increased by a least significant bit every time an
impulse reaches the counter input. This implies an increasing quantising step (one step) which
is actually specified by the word width of the counter or the DAC, respectively.
Fig. 15 Coding of an Unipolar Function (4bit)
The counter stops when the output voltage of the DAC has reached the analogue voltage
holding half of the quantising step voltage. At this moment, the binary-coded number in the
counter represents the digital number of the converted analogue input voltage. An easy
example of this conversion principle is shown in fig.15 in the case of a counter working in the
four-digit dual code. The binary coded voltages are transferred to a data buffer where they can
be loaded into a computer.
The maximum available conversion speed which is coupled to the conversion time is
given by the impulse frequency of the internal generator as well as by the highest amount of
ADCON_95.WPT 64
quantising steps. A binary word of width, w, makes the presentation of N=2w, different states,
and hence the quantisation in M=2w-1, amplitude ranges, possible. The theoretical time for
the conversion of the highest input voltage can be calculated from
TU = M/fT = (2w 1)/fT
Having no external trigger, this kind of ADC tracks the analogue input voltage within the
limits given by the internal time constants (Tracking-Converter).
Conversion by Direct Comparison of Voltage
The smartest and fastest way to convert analogue signals is the direct comparison,
weight a set of discreet voltages which differ by one quantising step with each other. Such a
converter is schematically shown in fig.16. Highly accurate comparators are required for the
conversion of digital data words with a width of w bit, which are followed by a coding device.
The consumption for high resolute converters gets unwieldy due to the big number of com-
parators.
Characteristics of ADC's (Analogue-Digital-Converter)
Fig. 16 ADC with Voltage Comparison
Dealing with the acquisition and conversion of analogue signals into digital arrays the
question for the accuracy of this process is justified. As mentioned before, there are a number
of sources of error associated with the scanning and amplitude quantisation of analogue
signals. The most important characteristics of ADC shall be briefly summarized.
ADCON_95.WPT 65
Resolution and Voltage Dynamic

The resolution is specified by the word width of the ADC, which is related to the
pretended number of different states. In general, the resolution is w bit for an ADC with a
word width w. On the other hand, the resolution can be defined by the reciprocal value in per
cent of the amount of possible states. The voltage dynamic is given by the quantising step
associated with the LSB (Least Significant Bit) and related to the maximum value of the input
signal. In general, it is given in a logarithmic dimension and can be coordinated with the
signal dynamic for unipolar input signals:
The resolution is less by one bit when working with bipolar signals (signals that have
positive and negative values). For the determination of the absolute quantising interval, one
has to take the present maximum input voltage into account. The voltage resolution can be
computed from:
D = 20 log10 (2W) dB
?U = Umax / 2w
with the maximum value for the analogue input voltage, Umax. Some values for specific
words widths, w, are listed in fig.17.
Fig. 17 ADC Resolution
Linearity
A digital value can be related with the analogue input voltage of an ADC by a transfer
characteristic (fig.18). This characteristic curve is of discreet nature having a gradual (stair
like) shape. A precise conversion requires the resolution of the input voltage range into
equidistant quantising intervals using a linear function. The edge points of the stairs are
grouped around an average characteristic straight line with a slope of 45E.
ADCON_95.WPT 66
Fig. 18 Coding of Analogue Signals
Offset Errors
The offset voltage is known from the area of operational amplifiers, leading to a code
displacement due to a false voltage. An external alignment of the offset voltage is possible for
most of the high quality ADC's. When the correct alignment of the offset and the monolineari-
ty are not ensured, the high expensive advantage can be lost. The problem can be circum-
vented with high-pass filters.
Quantisation Errors
The reason for discreet staggering of digital data is the limited word width of the ADC
due to expenses, restricted storage capacities, or conversion speed. The amplitude of the con-
tinuous signal is divided into discreet intervals meaning an amplitude quantisation. The
smallest possible resolution is given by the described voltage difference related to the LSB.
Multiple Channel Signal Conversion
When dealing with detection and conversion of multiple signal lines, there are different
ways for the signal acquisition and processing. The parallel set-up of some ADC's is one pos-
sibility. Another way is the time-sequenced acquisition with a one-channel converter and an
analogue multiplexer at the input stage (fig.19). This device scans the input channels in a
time-sequenced manner and converts the scanned values into digital data. The scanning rate
per channel decreases with the increasing number of channels because the ADC includes the
speed of the multiplexer. In additions, the channel switching time has to be taken into account.
When neglecting this time, which is appropriate in most cases, the real conversion time for
one channel is proportional to the number of channels.
tUmax = n * tU
n = number of input channels
ADCON_95.WPT 67
Fig. 19 AD-Converter & Sequ. Multiplexer
In a similar manner, the scanning rate for every channel is decreasing. Furthermore, the
time-shifted data has to be taken into account because of the arising problem in a cross-corre-
lation analysis where a simultaneous detection of different signals is required. A parallel
application of different one-channel ADC is preferred when working with real time pro-
cessing.
Fig. 20 Parallel Processing
An external impulse generator is responsible to trigger the ADC. The multiplexing

procedure is shifted towards the output stage. Now, the available digital data must be se-
quentially read out by a following processor. After all data had been saved the converters can
proceed with the access on the signal lines (fig.20).
ADCON_95.WPT 68
Analysis of Vibration Signals
Abstract
Newly developed measurement techniques in combination with advanced computerized data
processing and acquisition showed new ways in the field of machine surveillance. In the case of
vibration and acceleration measurements mainly four procedures should be mentioned:
1）time domain analysis using characteristic values to determine significant changes by trend
setting,
2）spectrum analysis to determine signal intensities and their trend by frequency, amplitude,
and phase relations,
3）correlation analysis to evaluate common signal information from different vibration signals
for source localization,
4）cepstrum analysis to summarize periodical components of spectra.
These analysis techniques in combination are the fundamental presumption for secured fault
detection and diagnosis by the vibration behavior of machines in process. The practical applicability
has been demonstrated. Case studies are presented of fault detection at turbines for power gene-
ration, bearings, gears and petrochemical pumps using a portable multichannel vibration measure-
ment system. The influences of different faulty operation conditions to the characteristical values in
time and frequency domain are described, and their determination using trend settings or compa-
rative measurements between similar machine arrangements.
Fig. 1 External Trigger Unit
Mathematical Basics
The analogue signals of the different transducers have to be transformed to digital ones for
computerized data evaluation. In a first step the vibration signals have to be filtered to obtain the
ANALY_95.WPT 66
required information. The measurement devices have to be optimized to obtain the maximum signal
to noise ration, e.g. to reduce the noise of friction in the case of determining speed related
periodical components. Here external trigger units are used, which are connected to the shaft of the
rotating component, marking the zero angle of each revolution. Additional pulses (e.g. up to 2048
each revolution) are available for synchronous control of the analog-digital-converters.
Fig. 2 Averaged Time Signal
Fig.1 shows an example of an incremental decoder used for synchronous digitalisation of

vibration signals. The influence of external triggering and time domain averaging becomes visible
in fig.2 at the example of acceleration signals from a piston compressor. The formula for the calcu-
lation algorithm is given in eq.1
N
1
x=
N
∑ xi
i =1
with n: number of averaged revolutions

i: counter of points per revolution
j: counter of averaged revolutions
After time averaging the signal amplitudes of acceleration are reduced significantly, all flow
induced stochastical signal components are no more visible, only speed related information is
obtained. For computerized signal analysis the signatures have to be calculated automatically to
perform trend settings. Therefore, characteristical time values are calculated to describe the
digitized time series. The simplest time value is the maximum value of a time signal, which
describes the absolute maximum value occurred during the calculated interval. In literature this
value is also named Peak value defined as:
ANALY_95.WPT 67
x p = x ( n ) max
Using the socalled Peak to Peak value the absolute distance between the maximum and
minimum is calculated as:
x pp = x ( n )max − x ( n )min
The use of these values is limited dependent on influences due to DC-offsets, different load
conditions of operation, etc.
The linear average integrates and averaged all time values during the measurement interval,
that means for a sinewave excitation the value 0 is obtained. It is used in vibration analysis to test if
the high pass filters are adjusted correctly to avoid problems with DC-offsets the calculation
algorithm is given in eq.4:
N
1
μ=
N
∑ x ( n)
n =1
with n amount of data points, T time interval of calculation and i as calculation counter.
The average is calculated as follows:
N
1
μ=
N
∑ x ( n)
n =1
with n amount of data points, T time interval of calculation and i as calculation counter. For
sine wave excitation the average and the maximum value are related as:
−−−
A quite common value for the characterization of the signal intensity is the RMS-Value (root
mean square value):
12
⎡1 N
⎤
D=⎢
⎣N
∑
n =1
x 2 ( n )⎥
⎦
The standard deviation summarizes similar to the RMS value signal intensities, but without
DC components, it includes only the dynamical components of time signals, and is calculated as
positive square root from the variance:
12
⎡1
( x ( n ) − μ ) ⎤⎥
N
∑
2
σ =⎢
⎣N n =1 ⎦
with the variance as:
1 N
∑ ( x (n) − μ )
2
σ2 =
N − 1 n =1
If time signals include shock pulse one descriptive value is the Crest factor calculated as
relation between maximum value and signal intensity:
C f = X max D
ANALY_95.WPT 68
Another factor developed especially for fault detection of rolling element bearings is the
Kurtosis calculated by the fourth moment of excitation and the probability function, an exponential
weightening of shock pulses against the signal energy in the complete observed interval:
N
1
∑ ( x ( n) − μ )
4
β=
N n =1
with x = signal level

x = linear average of x
p(x) = probability function
σ = standard deviation of x
n = number of data points
i = counter
Another important time value which describes the similarity of the complete time signal is the
correlation coefficient ρ calculated as follows:
All the above described values are integrating over a certain measurement interval, single
frequency components can only be obtain by complicated band pass filtering or by frequency
analysis using fast fourier transformation:
N −1 2π
−j nk
X (k ) = ∑ x (n) e N
, k = 0,1, L , N − 1
n =0
N −1 2π
1
∑ X (k )e
j nk
x ( n) = N
, n = 0,1, L , N − 1
N k =0
From the complex fourier transformation the APSD (auto power spectral density) and CPSD
(cross power spectral density) can be calculated:
⎡ 1 T 2
⎤ ⎡ X ( f )2⎤
Px ( f ) = lim E ⎢ ∫ x (t ) e
− j 2π ft
dt ⎥ = lim E ⎢ ⎥
T →∞
⎣ 2T −T
⎦ T →∞ ⎢⎣ 2T ⎥⎦
∞
Pxy ( f ) = ∫ rxy (τ ) e − j 2π f τ dτ
−∞
The APSD describes the signal intensity of a certain frequency component, while the CPSD
describes common intensities in two signals, analyzed time synchronously. The absolute similarity
of each frequency component is shown by the coherence which is 1 for correlated information
(same signal source) and 0 for uncorrelated ones:
Pxy ( f )
2
γ xy (τ ) =
Px ( f ) Py ( f )
To summarize periodical information of the APSD, e.g. speed related components with higher
harmonics, the cepstrum is calculated, as inverse fourier transformation of the APSD:
ANALY_95.WPT 69
2 ∞ 2
Cx (τ ) = F ⎡⎣log Gx ( f ) ⎤⎦ = ∫ log Gx ( f ) e − j 2π f τ df
−∞
The above described theoretical evaluation of vibration signals should now be illustrated by
some practical examples.
As measurement devices accelerometers, displacement pickups, and velocity transducers are
installed at the machines in process. The amount of measurement positions is determined by the
complexibility of the supervised machine. In some cases, like for rolling element bearing fault
detection at paper machines only one accelerometer at the bearing casing is sufficient, while for
pump arrangements in pipeline systems eight accelerometers are adapted to different measurement
positions, and for big steam turbines up to 30 measurement devices for acceleration and
displacement are installed. Fig.3 and fig.4 show two examples for different instrumentations.
Fig. 3 Instrumentation of Pipeline Oil Pumps
Dependent on the importance of the machine for the production process, the cost of outages,
and the problem of maintenance in combination with expensive spare part stocks, mainly two
different supervision philosophies are used for vibration monitoring.
The first one is the permanent monitoring with fixed instrumentation searching for failure
characteristic changes in time and frequency domain by trend settings and the comparison of
thresholds as used at gas turbines, steam turbines or any other machine components which are of
dominant importance for the production process and related to high costs in the case of unplanned
shut down.
ANALY_95.WPT 70
Fig. 4 Instrumentation of a 350 MW Steam Turbine
The second one is characterized by measurement of the vibrational behavior after certain time
periods using portable equipment like handhold meters, portable spectrum analyzers, or computer-
ized systems. Some examples of fault detection and determination are summarized in the following
section.
Time Domain Analysis
Fig.5 presents the time signal of acceleration at the casing of a 2-step gear for increasing local
pitting faults at the inlet gear wheel. For normal operation condition the 24 meshing teeth become
clearly visible as sinusoidal excitation of nearly constant amplitude over one revolution. With
increasing faulty operation conditions additional high frequency signal components are excited
dependent on the failure size.
ANALY_95.WPT 71
Fig. 5 Time Signal of Acceleration
That the faulty operation conditions are significantly visible is related to the use of external
trigger techniques which allow the averaging of the time signal as exemplarily demonstrated in
fig.6. Shown are acceleration signals from a piston compressor over one revolution, characterized
mainly by flowinduced vibration excitations during opening of the valves (shortly after the top dead
center TDC, and shortly before). That these excitations are stochastical flow induced proves the
lower part of fig.6 which shows the time averaged signal over 300 revolutions. The main ampli-
tudes are reduced to less than 10%, only information which is speed related becomes obvious.
ANALY_95.WPT 72
Fig. 6 Influence of Time Averaging
For automatical computerized data processing in industrial applications the visual inspection
of time signals is not very convenient. Therefore, characteristical time values are used like variance,
standard deviation which describe the signal energy, or Kurtosis, and Crest-factor which detect lo-
cally increased signal amplitudes.
Fig.7 shows as an example the statistical time values of the Kurtosis-factor and the standard
deviation for the above described acceleration signals at the casing of the two step gear with pitting
at four teeth. With the faulty operation condition the additional high frequent signal components be-
come visible at increased statistical time values. Fig.7 also demonstrates the necessity of time
averaging. In the left part the non-averaged statistical values show a high deviation in amplitude as
well for the normal as for faulty operation conditions.
ANALY_95.WPT 73
Fig. 7 Statistical Time Values for Fault Detection
For the averaged ones this deviation is neglectable. Additionally the distance between normal
and faulty operation condition is increased due to the reduction of stochastical signal components of
the friction and lubrication, increasing the sensitivity for the detection of small faults or the
incipient faulty operation conditions. Further by using synchronous triggering for time domain ave-
raging first hints are obtained if failure sources are periodical speed related (faulty gears, blades,
pistons, etc.), stochastical (loose parts, flow induced, cavitation, turbulences, etc.), or periodical
non-speed related (rolling element bearing frequencies, mechanical resonances, etc.). In the last two
cases, time averaging would not increase the failure sensitivity of the characteristic time values.
But in all cases problems of fault determination occur if reference measurements for normal
operation conditions are not available. In those cases the comparison of the vibration amplitudes
with available thresholds given by norms and standards could give first hints to the operational con-
ditions. As example the VDI 2056 and 2059 give thresholds of maximum velocity and displacement
amplitudes corresponding to the machine's speed and the machine's size (similar values are obtained
using the ISO standards 2372, 3945, 7919).
There the classification of the vibrational behavior is fixed to good (g), satisfactory (s),
unsatisfactory (us), and unacceptable (ua). In the case of acceleration signals the amplitudes have to
be integrated using digital processing units here. Fig.8 summarizes the standard deviations of the
integrated velocity signals at different measurement positions for oil pump arrangements as shown
in fig.1. The thresholds corresponding to machine class G (large prime movers with rotating masses
mounted on rigid and heavy foundation) are marked.
Fig. 8 Standard Deviation of Integrated Acceleration Signals
Visible are significant increased standard deviations of velocity at the electrical engines of
pump arrangement A and B while for pump C only at the motor side bearing in vertical direction the
threshold of unsatisfactory is crossed. All pumps in this station were installed at the same time but
ANALY_95.WPT 74
only 2 pumps are used for pumping the oil, while the third one is in standby. In this case pump C
has less working hours than the others, visible at less wear as determined observing and comparing
the vibration signals at the different positions.
At the main pump themselves no main alarm level of unacceptance is crossed, only for
particial load of 50 % at pump A a significant increase of the standard deviation become visible. At
the electrical engines an influence of the load conditions to the above described characteristical
values can not be stated as will be proved later by the frequency domain analysis.
Another way to characterize the vibration behavior is drawing the orbits using displacement
signals corresponding to VDI 2059 and VDI 2056. The point on the orbit where the maximum
displacement occurs does not necessary coincide with points where two under 90　 fixed probe
signals are at their maximum value. Due to the under 90　 fixed accelerometers at the journal
bearings and the use of a computerized system for data processing, it becomes possible to determine
the displacement by double integration of the acceleration signal. Exemplarily fig.9 presents the
orbits at different main and booster pumps. Corresponding to the standard deviation of velocity the
thresholds for unsatisfactory (us) and unacceptable operation conditions are marked. In all cases as
main source of excitation the unbalance becomes visible as one circle per revolution. By determin-
ing the orbits, additionally the direction of the main vibration amplitudes can be detected. So for
motor A at ESTAP the threshold of unacceptance is crossed under 45　 presenting higher absolute
values as could be determined before by using the standard deviation of the single detector signals.
For the booster A at TORGUA the orbits show so called double loops per one revolution due to oil
instabilities, or like in this case the superposition with a low frequent mechanical system resonance
as proved by frequency analysis.
Fig. 9 Orbits at the Electrical Engines
Another example of using orbits for fault detection is shown in fig.10 at the example of dis-
placement signals for a 60 kW centrifugal pump with increasing transversal crack (shaft diameter
50 mm). Significantly the orbits change from the normal operation condition drawn on the top of
ANALY_95.WPT 75
fig.10, characterized by the unbalance excitation with superposed signal components of the inter-
acting blades. With increasing crack depth the characteristic flower of the orbit changes to an
increasing double loop. As mentioned before additionally to these comparative measurements
between different machines, it is absolute necessary for failure determination of high probability to
know the vibrational history of the machine. Therefore, reference measurements are required for
trend settings.
Fig. 10 Orbits for Increasing Transversal Crack
A typical example can be seen in fig.11 at the changes of the variance for measured accelera-
tion at the casing of a rolling element bearing type 6216. In this case the pre-alarm and main alarm
level are fixed by the reference vibration signal level itself. They can be adapted to the machine
specific conditions, and the failure becomes clearly visible using trend setting routines for the vibra-
tion signal. As shown above, time domain analysis characterizes all the frequency components as an
integral signal. To distinguish the different signal components for source localization spectrum
analysis is required to determine the intensities by amplitude and frequency.
ANALY_95.WPT 76
Fig. 11 Trend Setting of Variance
Frequency Analysis
Fig.10 shows exemplarily the APSD (auto-power-spectral-density) of acceleration at different
measurement positions for different frequency ranges and load conditions at one oil pump.
As seen for the transducers at the pump the main excitation up to 6 kHz is speed related,
characterized by narrow banded peaks corresponding to the blade rotation sound (number of blades
times the speed) and harmonics. Above 6 kHz some additionally broad banded peaks are detectable
related to mechanical resonances. The excitation source of the high frequent signal components at
the pump are mainly related to friction in the system, between the flow-medium and the pipes, the
impeller, as well as dependent on surfaces conditions and wear in the journal bearings. These high
frequent signal intensities are load dependent due to the flow conditions. The integrated values of
the high frequent spectra can therefore be used for process optimalisation, to find out the optimal
operating conditions for each pump with less high frequent excitation, less friction, corresponding
to less electrical consumption and reduced wear. For the electrical engine in the high frequency
range (fig.12, left) mainly system resonances are obtained while the low frequent spectra up to 500
Hz (fig.12, right) show significant information at the harmonics of the speed related components.
Here one example is given for electrical misalignment characterized by an increased second har-
monic of rotation at the motor bearing, not visible in the corresponding accelerometer signal at the
pump casing.
ANALY_95.WPT 77
Fig. 12 Spectra of Acceleration for an Oil Pump
As demonstrated above, rotating machines generate significant information at harmonics of the

rotating speed due to unbalance excitation or misalignment. Additionally higher harmonics are
excited by interaction between the rotating mechanical components as there are the teeth-mesh
frequencies in gears (number of teeth times the rotating speed), the ball pass frequencies in rolling
element bearings (dependent on the design parameter of the bearing), or the blade rotation sound
(numbers of blades times the rotating speed) in the case of pumps and turbines due to the inter-
action between the mechanical components and the flow. For normal operation conditions these
frequency components often show the highest signal amplitudes in the spectra of acceleration,
displacement, and pressure fluctuations dependent on the sinusoidal excitation source.
ANALY_95.WPT 78
Fig. 13 Fault Detection (1.5 MW Turbine)
If local or distributed failures occur this excitation is disturbed, additional amplitude and
frequency modulations occur visible at decreasing of the characteristical center frequencies and
additional sidebands in the distance of the machine's speed with harmonics. Fig.13 shows as an
example the spectra of acceleration at a 4 stage 1.5 MW turbine as harmonics of the rotating
frequency.
For normal operation conditions as main information at 30 times the rotating frequency the
blade rotating sound (BRS) is obtained corresponding to the number of blades. If 3 blades are
missing a significant increase of the amplitudes at higher harmonics of the BRS can be stated, the
amplitude of the BRS decreases while sidebands in the distance of the machine's speed with
harmonics increase.
Correlation Analysis
In contrary to spectral analysis, where each signal is observed separately, the correlation
analysis gives the unique opportunity to extract common frequency information in two different
ANALY_95.WPT 79
signals for source localization and to improve the result's reliability.

If the regarded information is related to the same signal source the coherence reaches the
values 1. for totally independent signal components the value gets 0. At the example of the 1,5 MW
turbine it can be proved that the information obtained in the spectra of acceleration and displa-
cement is related to the interaction between the flow and the blades by calculating the coherence of
pressure fluctuation and acceleration as well as for pressure fluctuation and shaftmovement. The
results drawn in fig.14.
Fig. 14 Correlation Analysis at the 1.5MW Turbine
As mentioned above, the interaction of blades induces pressure pulses (BRS), which act as
periodic forces upon the blades, the shaft and the casing, causing smallest oscillations of these
masses. If the pressure-, displacement-, and accelerometer signals contain common information
about the rotating sound frequencies and their harmonics, a coherence between the different signals
has to be present as visible in the upper part of fig.14 for the reference operation conditions. As
main information the BRS at 30 times the rotational speed with harmonics is obtained as common
signal information. Additionally, the unbalance excitation as common signal source with its
harmonics is visible.
In the case of faulty operation condition significant changes occur presenting increasing side-
bands near the BRS with the distance of the speed and harmonics. The fact that this information is
included in the signal of the pressure transducer as well as in the signal of the accelerometer or
displacement pickup prove the blades as failure source. A further application is demonstrated in
fig.15 at the example of a 300 MW stream turbine, where the spectra of displacement and accele-
ANALY_95.WPT 80
ration at the bearing between the high pressure part and the low pressure part mainly show the
unbalance excitation and its harmonics as main signal information, with additional low frequents
components at about 0.3 x speed related to oil instabilities. Comparing only the amplitudes of the
spectra before and after revision no significant changes are obtained. That there are significant
changes prove the coherence function between the two signals. Near the characteristic speed related
excitations, additionally, after revision a broad banded peak is obtained at about 130 Hz related to a
resonance excitation. Due to changes of blade profiles the flow conditions induce resonance
excitations of structure elements, clearly determined by the coherence between the two
displacement pickups, while for the spectra comparison only subdominant increased signal
intensities become obvious.
Fig. 15 Correlation Analysis at a 350MW Turbine
ANALY_95.WPT 81
Cepstrum Analysis
For automatical supervision procedures the information of increasing periodical components in
spectra of different transducer signals have to be summarized by calculation the cepstrum, where all
periodically components become visible in one peak. Fig.16 shows cepstra of acceleration at the
cylinder head of a piston compressor for reference and faulty conditions.
Fig. 16 Cepstrum Analysis at Piston Compressors
In the case of a defect journal bearing additional speed related components are excited due to
instable lubrication conditions in the bearing, in the spectra visible at increasing higher harmonics
of the rotational speed.
To summarize the intensities of all these speed related information the cepstrum analysis is
used, where as main periodical information in the spectrum the speed (n) with its subharmonics (n/2,
n/3) is obtained. If now speed related faults occur, the amplitude of these components in the spectra
changes significantly. In the case of damaged seals (stochastical excitations) the speed related com-
ponents in the acceleration signals are damped by the flow induced forces, the amplitudes at n, n/2,
n/3 decrease.
Therefore cepstra analysis give also hints to the source of faulty operation. Additionally to sum
up of periodical related information another advantage is that cepstra are quite independent on
the transducer position due to the fact that system resonances are neglected.
ANALY_95.WPT 82
In some cases cepstrum analysis can be used for source localization to separate rotational relat-
ed information in multi shaft arrangements like gears with several speeds dependent on the trans-
mission.
By this analyzing technique the separation of rolling element bearing faults from gear or blade
faults in complex machine arrangements by comparing the amplitudes at the bearing specific
frequencies become possible. An example presents fig.17 for pitting failures in the inner race of a
ball bearing. With increasing pitting the periodical related components of the BPFI
(ball-pass-frequency-inner race) in the acceleration signal at the casing increase visible in the
cepstra at the corresponding quefrency component.
Fig. 17 Cepstrum Analysis for Ball Bearings
Vector Analysis
Based on vibration analysis of rotating machines a computerized system for pattern
recognition of vibration signatures for failures diagnostics could be designed, based on vector
analysis as shown below.
The monitoring and diagnosis system differs from other simple measurement systems by the
fact that the signal delivered from the measuring sensor will be realized through a measuring
processor. It has the destination of getting characteristic signatures and giving automatically a
differentiated statement of the position to be diagnosed. Fig.18 shows a structure diagram of the
system for diagnosis. It is generally presented in three steps, the measurement values in the acquisi-
tion step, the reduction and signature structure phase, and finally the classification step where a
measuring vector, to detect failure specifics, will be connected to a prototype vector in order to
detect the correspondent failure and to coordinate the components. All the hardware components of
the system can be controlled by a PC.
ANALY_95.WPT 83
Fig. 18 Design of Diagnosis System
The choice and the quantity of the calculated characteristic values depend on the failure
specific information which determines the choice for the failure with the best descriptive values.
The characteristic signatures in the frequency domain are dependent on the inspected machine and
are registered in a machine file. This file has information about specific speed related frequencies,
like teeth mesh frequency, ball pass frequencies and their harmonics. The standard amplitude values
are considered and compared with the average spectrum of the amplitude values, which are
independent of load. With this procedure the extern scanning also enables the direct comparison of
different speed domains.
In the classification step, beside the statement about the type of a failure, a time point must be
defined which indicates when the failure appears. For this reason, signatures of a trend setting
which are dependent of time will be realized and described with an appropriated function. This
function should be extrapolated beyond the late point measured for being able to estimate the
probable entering of a failure like the limiting values.
According to the type of defect, the vectors from the time and frequency domain are composed
of different components. These components produce the largest correlation for failure and grade of
damage. In order to compare different measurements at a defined signature room, the values are
standardized. As soon as a specific failure or damage is found the class will be determined and the
measurement will be coordinated. For a clear explanation of the class structure the explanation will
be done by a 2-dimensional vector. If a signature room with 6 signature vectors which represent 3
damage classes is considered, the result is shown in fig.19. It describes a characteristic quantity of
each signature vector at the axis. From the vectors which belong to the same class the vector end
point and the class strong point will be brought up for further processing.
ANALY_95.WPT 84
Fig. 19 Groups of Classes
After the learning process which the system has absolved, it should be possible to investigate a
test vector which is derived from a measurement. The Euclidean distance and the angle between the
vectors present an easy classification and consider the correlation between the measuring vector and
the prototype vector.
Fig. 20 Values of Classification
A classification is reached through a minimal analysis of the distance, magnitude and angle.
By testing it can happen that a rejection and its correspondent advice appear to inform if the
measuring vector is in a determined class area or not (fig.20).
ANALY_95.WPT 85
Fig. 21 Vector Components
In order to detect all mentioned failure mechanism and their effects to the characteristic values
in a further step a vector can be calculated which includes the characteristics in time domain (like
RMS, variance, Kurtosis, etc.) frequency domain (1st, 2nd, 3rd harmonic of rotation, blade rotation
sound, ball pass frequencies, teethmesh frequency, etc.) and the corresponding cepstrum compo-
nents like shown in fig.18. According to the type of defect, the vectors produce the largest correla-
tion for failure and grade of damage. The distance and the angle between the vectors present an
easy classification and consider the correlation between the measuring vector and the prototype or
reference vector. The classification is reached by the minimal analysis of the distance, magnitude
and angel between each of them. Then by comparison of the measurement vector with the reference
one, failure classes become obvious as exemplarily demonstrated in fig.20 at the example of dif-
ferent failures in a two step gear.
ANALY_95.WPT 86
Fig. 22 Vector Field
Conclusions
For implementation of vibration supervision and monitoring as tool for predictive maintenance,
the vibrational behavior of the machinery has to be investigated in order to get reference for further
trend settings. Another possibility is obtained by comparing several machine arrangements of
similar design. Hints to the instantaneously operation conditions are given by the comparison of
time values with norms and standards. The knowledge of characteristical machine signatures and
their time dependent changes are the base of efficient condition monitoring of rotating machines
using vibration analysis. The performance of reference measurements, especially after machine
overhaul, are of importance for fault detection during operation by trend setting. The comparison
with thresholds given by norms and standards is only a small section of available possibilities.
Therefore, for each machinery own thresholds should be determined using statistical time values,
spectra comparison, cepstrum analysis and correlation analysis for source localization correspond-
ing to the machine specific operation conditions.
ANALY_95.WPT 87
Vibration of Machine Arrangements
Vibrations of Machine Arrangements

The vibration in complex machinery is related to different parameters of the excitation sources.
Corresponding to fig.1 a classification is obtained by different mechanism of excitation, as free, self
excited, parameter excited, and forced vibrations. Free vibration occurs in the case of single shock
excitation where the mechanical system is left to vibrate free and no more external forces are intro-
duced. In the case of self excited vibrations no external forces are required. The vibrating system is
excited with its resonance frequency by its own stored internal energy. Due to missing damping
influences, in certain cases the vibration amplitudes increase until the structure is destroyed. Parameter
related vibrations are characterized by time dependent and often periodical components. In practical
application the vibrational behavior of complex machinery is mainly related to external or internal
forces which determine the significant frequency and amplitude behavior.
Fig. 1 Excitation of Machine Vibration
Forced Vibrations at Machines in Operation

Forced vibrations in complex machinery at operation are related to periodical exciting forces
which in the case of rotating components are speed related. Additionally, for general cases impulse
functions (shock pulse excitations), jump functions (related to machine start-up or shut down), or
stochastical functions (friction) are acting as excitation sources.
Speed Related Periodical Excitations
Unbalance Excitation
Unbalance excitations are a general characteristic of all rotating machines. They are related to
material inhomogeneities, the tooling process of the rotating component, wear due to operation, and the
operation conditions themself (thermal influences, e.g. thermal unbalance of turbine shafts. By
ISO-Standard 1940 a classification of unbalance is given to
 static (or force) unbalance,
 moment (or couple) unbalance
EXITA_95.WPT 45
and
 dynamic unbalance.
The simplest case of unbalance occurs in uniform thin discs with a mass M, which are rotationally
symmetrical about their axis of rotation. If a small mass m is fixed to the disc at a distance of r from that
axis, the disc becomes unbalanced as demonstrated in fig.2. For this reason it is often called static (or
single plane) unbalance. In the case of cylinder it becomes possible to get two equal masses symme-
trically placed around the center of gravity, positioned at 180Ε from each other.
Fig. 2 Static Unbalance
The rotor is in static balance, i.e. there is no eccentricity of the center of gravity. However, when
the rotor turns, the two masses will cause a shift in the inertia axis, so that it is no longer aligned with
the rotation axis. For this reason it is often called moment (or two plane) unbalance. A visual impression
of the different vibration signatures is given by fig.3. Usually the unbalance on a rotor is a combination
of static and moment unbalance, i.e. dynamic unbalance. To correct dynamic unbalance it is necessary
to perform vibration measurements in several planes while the rotor is turning.
Fig. 3 Unbalanced Vibration Signatures
Further information about rotor classification and the general procedure of balancing is given in
ISO 1940. A typical time signal of acceleration with main source of unbalance excitation is given in
fig.4, where the time signal over two shaft revolutions is drawn for the example of a gear box
test-bench.
EXITA_95.WPT 46
Fig. 4 Time Signal of Unbalance Excitation
The unbalance forces excite harmonically related acceleration components with the frequency fU
which corresponds to the rotational speed nM of the motor drive, the socalled rotating frequency:
f = n0
Gear-Mesh Excitations
The gear-mesh (also called teethmesh) frequency is the frequency which is excited by the meshing
teeth of tooth gears. It is calculated by the rotating frequency of the gear wheel n and the amount of
meshing teeth z:
f g = zn0
A typical time signal of acceleration in the case of rotating tooth gears is obtained in fig.5 where
the meshing teeth excite a periodical, sinusoidal acceleration at the casing. The higher frequent
superimposed components are related to mechanical friction and excitation sources due to interference
with bearing excitation sources.
Fig. 5 Meshing Frequency
Similar excitation characteristics are obtained in the case of gear couplings and centrifugal pumps
EXITA_95.WPT 47
with z numbers of blades. The corresponding excited frequency is named pump rotation sound fp:
At turbine blade arrangements, where for each stage the signature of the blade rotation sound fB is
calculated by the number of blades z and the rotating frequency n:
Misalignment related Excitations
The driving machine and the process unit are usually connected by two free shaft ends, where
misalignment could occur exciting additional forces due to
 radial misalignment,
 angle misalignment, and
 transversal misalignment.
For radial misalignment occurs an radial deviation
of the two center axis which are aligned parallel. The
obtained misalignment distance is marked with e in
fig.6. For angle misalignment the two axis cross each
other by an angle α. The point of intersection is fixed
on one of the machine axis, as shown in fig.7. If both
types of misalignment are superimposed, the socalled
transversal alignment problems occur, e.g. the both Figure 6: Radial Misalignment
central axis have no more point of intersection.
Figure 7: Angle Misalignment Figure 8: Transversal Misalignment
An example of transversal misalignment is

shown in fig.8. Analyzing the vibrational signature
of misalignment problems at operating machines the
main characteristic is obtained at the second har-
monic of rotation with additional higher harmonics.
Rolling Element Bearing related Excitations
Main sources of vibrational excitation in rolling
element bearings are related to design criteria,
fabrication and operation conditions. The use of a
variable number of rolling elements to transmit load
give periodical excitation forces, which are superim- Figure 9: Bearing Dimensions
posed by the tolerances of fabrication. Further
EXITA_95.WPT 48
influences occur due to the assembly, temperature problems, friction, worst operational conditions, and
wear as mentioned before. Dependent on the bearing dimensions, the interaction of the main com-
ponents as rolling elements, raceways, cage and the load direction certain bearing specific frequencies
can be calculated corresponding to the following equations and fig.9:
znr ⎛ d ⎞
f BPFO = ⎜1− cos ϕ ⎟
2 ⎝ Dw ⎠
znr ⎛ d ⎞
f BPFI = ⎜1+ cos ϕ ⎟
2 ⎝ Dw ⎠
znr Dw ⎛ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎞
2
f BSF = ⎜1− ⎜ cos ϕ ⎟ ⎟
d ⎜ ⎝ Dw ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝
nr ⎛ d ⎞
f FTF = ⎜1− cos ϕ ⎟
2⎝ Dw ⎠
fBPFO = Ball Pass Frequency of Outer Race
fBPFI = Ball Pass Frequency of the Inner Race
fBSF = Ball Spin Frequency
fFTF = Fundamental Train Frequency
z = Number of Rolling Elements
nrel = Rotation Speed
d = Diameter of the Rolls or Barrels
DW = Pitch Diameter
φ = Load Angle
Several examples of rolling element bearing excitations will be shown further on. The typical
acceleration signal at an electrical engine of a gearbox test bench is shown in fig.10.
The drawn acceleration signal was obtained directly after restart of the test bench with one year out
of order. Clearly periodically related components become visible in the time signal which are related to
the signatures of the BPFO and BPFI of the bearing. These signatures are excited by local faults on the
Figure 11: Simplified Induction Machine

Figure 10: Time Signal at an Electrical
Engine
EXITA_95.WPT 49
raceways due to standstill corrosion.

Excitation related to Electrical Motors
As first component in driven process units the electrical drive has to be mentioned as source of
vibrational excitations. Here near the line frequency with harmonics, the rotation frequency additional
sources are obtained at twice the slip frequency due to the magnetic and inductive forces.
A simplified induction machine is shown in fig.11. Current is produced in the rotor conductors,
which is proportional to the difference in speed between the rotating field, produced by the current in
the three-phase stator windings, and the rotor itself.
This current produces a rotor field which interacts with the stator to generate forces on the rotor.
The field in the rotor rotates in synchronism with the rotating field in the stator; both advance 2-pole
pitches relative to the stator, for each cycle of line frequency, i.e. at synchronous speed, but instead slips
backwards through the rotating field. The rate of slip is the difference between synchronous speed and
rotor speed.
Since synchronous speed depends on the line frequency fN and the number of poles in the machine,
it is convenient to use the per-unit slip as defined in the following equation. The slip frequency applies
to all motors regardless of the number of poles. The slip frequency is the actual frequency of the current
in the rotor conductors, and the rotating fields advance relative to the rotor by 2-pole pitches for each
cycle of slip frequency.
per unit slip frequency:
s = ( f N − fn ) f N
slip frequency:
s = ( f N − fn ) f N
Related to the magnetic flux in the case of rotor or stator faults the vibration has a constant part
and a 2 x slip frequency alternating part /11/. Transforming this to a stationary reference frame requires
a frequency multiplication of 1 x RPM. A stationary transducer, positioned for instance on the rotor
shaft bearing housing, will therefore measure a vibration with components of 1 x RPM and 2 x slip
frequency sidebands about a center frequency of 1 x RPM. By similar reasoning, if the current
discontinuity is due to the fault in the stator windings, e.g. shorted stator turns, then the resulting force
unbalance does not rotate, and the vibration has a constant component at 2 x line frequency.
Additionally, any eccentricity in the air-gap results in a variation of the magnetic reluctance, which
depends on the radial air-gap length. This effect is particularly apparent in induction motors or direct
current machines. Therefore small defects can result in relatively larger reluctance variations in
induction motors. Static eccentricity refers to an eccentricity which does not travel (e.g. due to bearing
wear), this will produce a vibration force with components at d.c. and 2 x line frequency. Dynamic
eccentricity travels with the rotor (e.g. due to the rotor bow), this will produce a vibration force at 1 x
RPM and 2 x slip frequency bands.
The slots carrying the conductors in the induction motor, also generate a vibration force as they
create unbalanced magnetic forces of attraction, resulting from an effective variation of reluctance in
EXITA_95.WPT 50
the magnetic circuit as the function of the rate of stator and rotor slot passing.
The components will be present in a healthy motor of course, since the slots are part of the design.
These will always tend to concentrate the magnetic field in the slot teeth rather than the slot channel,
due to higher magnetic permeability in the material in the teeth than in the conductors in the channels.
The vibrations occur at the frequencies given by:
Install Equation Editor and double-
click here to view equation.
K1 = zero or even
Rs = nΕ of rotor slots
p = nΕ of pole pairs
s = per unit slip
n = revolutions
This equation represents the principle harmonic content of the resulting force function. In practical
applications the magnetic excitations often are superimposed by mechanical resonances and mechanical
speed sources.
All speed related vibrational components become visible in the spectra of acceleration, velocity,
and displacement as narrow banded peaks at frequency components corresponding to the formulas
described above.
Periodical Excitations (not Speed related)
System Resonances
Dependent on the multiple vibration excitations
in industrial machinery the structure components
and machine foundations are excited with their
resonance frequency. In those case broad banded
peaks occur representing the different structural
components. The resonances of different machines
components can be calculated with reduced masses,
spring and damping characteristics or are obtained
by socalled resonance measurements. To perform
resonance measurements the structure has to be
excited with defined frequencies and amplitudes Figure 12: Acceleration Time Signal at
(by shakers) or by shock pulse excitation Bearing Block
(dirac-hammer).
Fig.12 presents an acceleration time signal at the bearing block of the bearing test bench for shock
pulse excitation by a metal hammer. Directly after introducing the excitation force high frequent com-
ponents in the system's response become obvious, modulated by lower frequency ones. After about 1.5
ms the high frequent excitation is damped, while now the low frequent components become clearly
visible.
EXITA_95.WPT 51
Figure 13: Several System Resonances
To describe the several components of the spectra of acceleration for different directions of
excitation resonance tests have to be performed as demonstrated in fig.13. Dependent on the frequency
range, the localization of excitation and the sensor position the different resonances of the complex
structure become visible, e.g. the first row at the lower part of fig.13 shows the signature of frequency
response up to 12.5 kHz for an axial transducer and horizontal excitation at the casing.
The broad banded peaks of increased intensity of acceleration at 1500, 3500, 6200, and 8800 Hz
mark the main resonances. Simple bump tests as described above are often used to prove different
broad banded frequency components as system related resonances.
Fluid Resonances
In the case of centrifugal pumps, turbines,
pipeline systems, and petrochemical machine
arrangements another kind of excitation source is of
importance, the fluid resonances as standing
pressure waves in tubes and chamber resonances
occurring between connected reservoirs.
Their amplitudes are time and position depen-
dent. Corresponding to fig.14 at tube end sides, tube
bendings, valves, and pump inlets or outlets pressure
waves are reflected dependent on the tube length and Figure 14: Standing Pressure Waves
the velocity of acoustic transmission a of the
medium.
This becomes visible in the vibration spectra at broad banded peaks corresponding to the border
conditions of hard or soft reflection (e.g. a tube bending is a soft reflection, while a nearly closed valve
EXITA_95.WPT 52
is a hard reflection). The fluid resonance for the reflection condition soft-soft or hard-hard is given by:
a
fλ 2 =
2l
while for conditions of soft-hard or hard-soft the relation is given to:
a
fλ 4 =
4l
with fλ/2= fluid resonance
fλ/4= fluid resonance
a= acoustic velocity
l= tube length
Further more, pressure resonances

result from pressure fluctuations bet-
ween resonator chambers which are
connected by pipe systems as drawn in
fig.15. The calculation of the hollow
space resonance frequency fH become
possible by conversion of the acoustical
resonant circuit to an electrical one.
These resonances superimposed with
speed related excitations could lead
specially in pipeline systems to
increased vibration amplitudes for
certain operation conditions. Figure 15: Resonator Chamber Fluid Resonances
Stochastical Excitation Sources
Friction (mechanical and fluid induced friction)

Stochastical excitation sources are obtained in all cases of contacting surfaces with relative
movement to each other. This is the case for the kinematic elements in gears as well as in rolling
element bearings where due to friction wear occurs. In the signal of acceleration a general increase of
the overall vibration level becomes visible. Similar characteristics are obtained in the case of fluid
related friction in journal bearings, pumps, and turbines.
Cavitation
In certain applications at pipeline and pump arrangements cavitation could become the main
source of vibration excitations. It occurs in cases where the local pressure of a fluid is less than the
vapor pressure, dependent on temperatures and flow conditions. Reduced pressure conditions occur at
pipe systems (at valves, bendings, nozzles, etc.) for circular flow at structural components, turbulences
EXITA_95.WPT 53
at blade assemblies, vapor bubbles increase which collapse close to the metal surface leading to erosion
damage. In the signal of acceleration a general increase of the overall vibration level become obvious,
coincide with decreased amplitudes of the periodical speed related components.
EXITA_95.WPT 54
Magnetical Excitation in Electrical Motor Drives
In the case of induction motors, which is the most widely employed industrial electric drive, the
vibration problems have an added complexity due to the rotating magnetic fields in the machine. The
vibration problems relating to the induction motors are a combination of two groups, which can be
called mechanical and magnetical, according to how they arise.
Often interferences between mechanical and magnetical problems of vibration becomes obvious,
because mechanical excitations like unbalance, misalignment and looseness can effect the induction
motor magnetic circuit by vibration in the air gap. Additional influences are due to adapted components
like bearings, gears, pumps which transmit information by the foundation or coupling.
Slip Frequency
A simplified induction machine is shown in fig.1.

Current is produced in the rotor conductors, which
is proportional to the difference in speed between
the rotating field, produced by the current in the
three-phase stator windings, and the rotor itself.
This current produces a rotor field which interacts
with the stator to generate forces on the rotor.
The field in the rotor rotates in synchronism with

the rotating field in the stator; both advance 2-pole Figure 1: Induction Motor Stator
pitches relative to the stator, for each cycle of line
frequency, i.e. at synchronous speed, but instead slips backwards through the rotating field. The rate of
slip is the difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed.
Since synchronous speed depends on the line frequency and the number of poles in the machine, it is
convenient to use the per-unit slip as defined in fig.1 and define slip frequency as per-unit slip x line
frequency. This definition of slip frequency applies to all motors regardless of the number of poles. The
slip frequency is the actual frequency of the current
in the rotor conductors, and the rotating fields
advance relative to the rotor by 2-pole pitches for
each cycle of slip frequency.
Current Variations due to Rotor or Stator

Faults
Fig.2 shows the forces on a current carrying coil

moving in a magnetic field. The force on the coil in
any arbitrary direction x is directly proportional to
the current in the coil and the rate of change of the
magnetic flux in the direction of the force (and not
of the flux itself). The term NI is called the
magnetomotive force (MMF) and the rotating field Figure 2: Force on a Current Carrying Coil
MOTOR_95.WPT 84
in the induction motor can be defined as an MMF wave in the conductors, giving rise to a flux wave in
the air gap. By likening conductors on either side of the rotor to the two sides of the coil, a number of
broken bars can be considered as introducing an unbalance of MMF and thus force between the two
sides of the rotor. The equation given in fig.2 however, reveals that the force unbalance is obtained
from a multiplication of the MMF unbalance and the rate of change of magnetic flux in the direction of
the force. If the problem can be simplified by neglecting other than fundamental components of the
MMF wave, then the unbalance force can be described by the product of two alternating terms of
fundamental frequency, but which are not necessarily in phase, of the form:

(1)
or,
(2)
where
ω = the line frequency
s = the per-unit split
k = an amplitude value
φ = a phase angle
i.e. the vibration has a constant part and a 2 x slip frequency alternating part. Transforming this to a
stationary reference frame requires a frequency multiplication of 1 x RPM. A stationary transducer,
positioned for instance on the rotor shaft bearing housing, will therefore measure a vibration with
components of 1 x RPM and 2 x slip frequency sidebands about a center frequency of 1 x RPM. By
similar reasoning, if the current discontinuity is due to the fault in the stator windings, e.g. shorted stator
turns, then the resulting force unbalance does not rotate, and is of the form:
(3)
i.e. the vibration has a constant component at 2 x line frequency.
Air Gap Variations Due to Eccentricity
Now consider the relationship given in fig.2 with regard to air-gap variations. The flux in the air-gap is
generated by the total MMF of the magnetic circuit, such that the flux
(4)
where
Fm = the total MMF
Rm = the total magnetic reluctance in the circuit
MOTOR_95.WPT 85
Any eccentricity in the air-gap results in a variation of the magnetic reluctance, which depends on the
radial air-gap length. This effect is particularly apparent in induction motors or direct current machines.
Therefore small defects can result in relatively larger reluctance variations in induction motors.
If the air-gap narrows for instance, then the reluctance decreases and the same MMF will result in
greater flux. The travelling sinusoidal flux wave will thus experience a greater rate of change as it
enters this region of the air-gap. The effects of a varying air-gap may thus be similar to the effects of
current variations. The same relationship for the unbalance force results, where only fundamental
frequency components of MMF are considered. Static eccentricity refers to an eccentricity which does
not travel (e.g. due to bearing wear or misshapen stator), this will produce a vibration force with
components at d.c. and 2 x line frequency. Dynamic eccentricity travels with the rotor (e.g. due to the
rotor bow), this will produce a vibration force at 1 x RPM and 2 x slip frequency bands.
Slot Frequencies
The slots carrying the conductors in the induction

motor, also generate a vibration force as they
create unbalanced magnetic forces of attraction,
resulting from an effective variation of reluctance
in the magnetic circuit as the function of the rate
of stator and rotor slot passing. The components
will be present in a healthy motor of course, since
the slots are part of the design, and these will
always tend to concentrate the magnetic field in
the slot teeth rather than the slot channel, due to
higher magnetic permeability in the material in the
teeth than in the conductors in the channels. The
vibrations occur at the frequencies given by the
Figure 3: Illustration of Slot Frequencies
equation in fig.3, which represents the principle
harmonic content of the resulting force function.
In practical applications the magnetic
excitation often are superlated by
mechanical resonances and mechanical
speed sources.
Example
A typical example for the excitation of

the slip frequency shows the electrical
engines of the fresh water pumps in the
nuclear power plant Grohnde (KWG),
Germany. Six centrifugal pumps with
2.2 MW each are in the charge of the
water supply for the secondary part. A Figure 4: Fresh Water Pump
schematical drawing of one pump con-
MOTOR_95.WPT 86
sisting of driving part, gear box and 1 stage pump is presented in fig.4. Some of the electric engines
showed increased wear in the rolling element bearing. Acceleration measurements at the machine on
different measurement positions should prove the motor or pump as source of the increased wear.
Figure 5: Power Spectra of Acceleration
First investigations showed high amount of sidebands with the distance of twice the motor slip
frequency at the harmonics of the rotational component in the spectra of acceleration at the motor
bearing (fig.5). Observing the trend of these signatures no stationary results were obtained, in some
cases the sidebands occur in other not. Misalignment between electrical engine and the gear coupling
due to temperature gradients in the 38m long foundation could be investigated as source. Depending on
the direction of wind, climate conditions and the fresh water temperature the foundations are influenced
by the convection. The middle and lower foundation showed always nearly homogenous temperature
profiles, while the motor foundation shows significant changes in the gradient corresponding to relative
expansion as misalignment source which excite the slip frequencies.
MOTOR_95.WPT 87
Fault Detection at Rolling Element Bearings
Bearings are generally required to carry, to locate, to support, or to guide moving components at
machines, especially in cases of rotating shafts and axis. They can be classified by
characteristic of motion: journal bearings, where a relative slide movement between
bearing and moving machine occurs, rolling element bearings, where rolling
elements transmit the relative movement between the bearing and moving
component (fig.1),
load direction: radial or axial bearing,
design criteria: pedestal bearing, hanger bearing, flanged bearing, pivot bearing, etc.,
material in case of journal bearing: bronze bearing, carbide bearing, etc., and
kind of lubrication: grease, oil, forced lubrication, etc.
The use of journal or rolling element

bearings in general is determined by the
operation condition of the machine, the
speed and load conditions of the
moving components. Therefore, journal
bearings are mainly used at high speed
machinery with high load conditions in
combination with long life times, as
water turbines, steam turbines, electrical
generators, pumps, propelling shafts, etc. Fig.1: Design of Journal and Rolling Element Bearings
Dependent on the working principle of
fluid friction their estimated life-time
depends mainly on the number of start-ups or shut-downs where solid body friction occurs. They are
also applied to agricultural machinery, household appliance wherever simple design and low cost
solutions are required. One disadvantage is the lower efficiency compared with rolling element
bearings and the higher friction in the case of start-up. Additionally, they need a complex lubrication
supply system.
Rolling element bearings are implemented to all industrial machinery

where maintenance-free and reliable operation conditions are of main
importance, as in gears, electrical engines, fan-arrangements,
conveying systems, tooling machines, etc. Rolling element bearings
are also applied to machine with low speed and high precision motion
were less friction is required at high loads as crane hooks, rotary
tables, stem guides, etc.
Design of Rolling Element Bearing
Fig.2 shows the general design of rolling element bearings consisting

of an outer raceway, an inner raceway with contacting rolling
Fig.2: Rolling Element
elements which allow by their rotation the transmission of relative Bearing
movement between inner and outer raceway. For the normal applied
BEAR_95.WPT 89
bearings the rolling elements are fixed in cages to

guaranty a constant distance and load conditions. As
rolling elements balls, cylindrical rollers, conical rollers,
barrels and needles are available (fig.3).
Dependent on the rolling elements, the load conditions Fig.3: Rolling Elements
and the design criteria of the machine the rolling
element bearings can be classified in general by:
 ball bearings,
 cylindrical roller bearings,
 conical roller bearings,
 barrel bearings, and
 needle bearings.
Based on this fundamental separation several modifications and combinations of the different bearing
types are available which are standardized by several DIN and ISO standards. Some example bearing
designs with marked load positions are summarized in fig.4.
Fig.4: Several Design Criteria of Rolling Element Bearings
The general advantages of rolling element bearings can be characterized by their simple design, high
operation performance, reduced maintenance, high efficiency, small designs, and a great field of
standardization. The increase of speed and specific load conditions at complex machinery and
production lines increase the danger of bearing faults which could lead to shut downs of the complete
production, as in case of paper machines.
BEAR_95.WPT 90
Therefore, an early secured fault diagnostic is of fundamental presumption to increase the machine
availability and to apply predictive maintenance at production lines.
Faults of rolling element bearings occur in cases of increased forces related to
 normal or sharing stress at or below the surfaces of the different bearing elements due to
hertzian compression,
 residual stress by the heat treatment, due to increased local temperatures by increased friction
of the moving/rotating components, or wrong applied operation conditions.
The increased loads are related to fatigue of material and cracks which are influenced by fabrication
errors of the bearings, normal wear, scoring, scuffing, friction and corrosion. In combination with
maintenance related faults the nominal life time of rolling element bearings could be reduced
essentially.
Fracture of Components Local Faults of Components
increase of noise, increase of vibration, overheating, a further increase

mostly related to total breakdown
related a breakdown
pitting  shrinking pitting
 wear pitting
forced rupture  secondary pitting
flank-paring
wear  normal wear
 increased wear
 grinding wear
fatigue fracture  waveform wear
seizing (cold-, hot-seizing)  scrape out of lump
 scoring
 galling
plastical deformation  cold impact
 hot impact
cracks  hardening cracks
 grinding cracks
 material cracks
BEAR_95.WPT 91
 overloaded cracks
annealing
corrosion  stand-still-corrosion
 frictional-corrosion
 chemical-corrosion
cavitation
flow of current
occurs often
Table 1: Overview of Rolling Element Bearing Faults
The normal wear of bearings is desired for the

moment of run-in-time to reduce the coefficient of
roughness due to the tooling process. However, even
if a bearing is perfectly made and assembled, it will
eventually fail due to fatigue of the bearing material.
Most modes of fatigue for rolling element bearings
involve the growth of discontinuities on the bearing's
raceway or the rotating element. With time, the
discontinuities spread and, if the bearing survives
long enough, may eventually be worn smoother.
Fig.5 demonstrates schematically the normal life
time of rolling element bearings where the upper part
shows the normal operation condition with elastical
deformation of the raceways and hertzian
compression. During operation the repetitive loading
initiates microscopic subsurface cracks often at
inclusions present in all steel types. Continued
cyclical loading causes minute cracks to propagate
towards the surface. The subsurface fissures grow
until a small area of the bearing surface is dislodged.
The small spall thus formed grows until the bearing
Fig.5: Steel Fatigue Failure Sequence
fails.
Examples of Rolling Element Bearing Faults
Material faults are due to slag occlusion, segregations or inclusions of foreign materials. In those cases
paring of surface at the raceways or rotating elements occur as example shown in the fig.6 and fig.7.
They can be avoided by optimized fabrication procedures like the use of vacuum degassing steel.
BEAR_95.WPT 92
Fig.6: Ball with Slag Fig.7: Barrel with Slag Fig.8: Cracks Fig.9: Exfoliations
Fabrication faults occur due to worse heat treatment which become visible at hardening or grinding
cracks and exfoliations. They are quite easily detectable by visual inspection before mounting (fig.8,
fig.9). By optimized process control systems they can be avoided.
Installation faults occur in cases of loose fixation of the raceways to the shaft or casing, due to friction
by missing lubrication and overheating, deformations related to mounting tools, wrong alignment, and
pollution. To avoid these faults maintenance should only be performed if required, only recommended
mounting tools should be used, and in all cases efficient lubrication should be available. Some typical
faults due to wrong installation are shown in the fig.10 and fig.11.
Fig.10: Local Overheating due to Wrong

Tolerances Fig.11: Raceway-Defect
The normal life-time of rolling

element bearings as theoretically
described above is demonstrated in
the fig.12 and fig.13 where from the
development of small spalls by
increased pitting the complete
bearing shows wear at all com-
ponents at the rest life time. During
normal operation with eleastical
deformation of the raceways and
hertzian compression the repetitive
loading initiates microscopic sub- Fig.12: Pitting Fig.13: Increased Wear
surface cracks often at inclusions
BEAR_95.WPT 93
present in all steel types. Continued cyclical loading causes minute

cracks to propagate towards the surface. The subsurface fissures grow
until a small area of the bearing surface is dislodged. The small spall
thus formed grows until the bearing fails as demonstrated in fig.13.
Fig.14 shows an extreme example of overheating where the rolling

elements were totally deformed from cylindrical rollers to balls.
Overheating in general is related to lubrication and cooling problems.
Also due to wrong tolerances of the shaft or casing additional load to
the rolling elements is passed increasing the operation temperatures.
The bearing could burn out and in some cases the welding of
components occurs.
Fig.14: Deformation of
Damages of rolling element bearings due to flow of current often occur Rolling Elements due to
at electrical engines, at machine components with different electrical Overheating
potentials, or at machinery where due to the relative movement of
several machine parts different electrical potentials are generated. In
those cases the leakage of utilization and disturbance current might
pass by the rolling elements and the raceways. Welding points are
created as shown in fig.15 which initiate the areas of increased bearing
faults.
Corrosion occurs at the components of rolling element bearings related

to missing or wrong lubrication, at operation conditions in corrosive
atmosphere like chemical machinery or high humidity. Increased
vibration excitation of machines at shut down, long outage times or Fig.15: Flow of Current
transportation problems could lead to local overloads or local
corrosion. At the contact areas of the rolling elements with the
raceways local deformation occur, which reduce the life time evidently.
One typical example is pointed out in fig.16 at the example of
deformation at the inner raceway of an electrical engine for long
outage times. After restarting the unit abnormal acoustical noise
become hearable.
Bearing Fault Detection Fig.16: Standstill Damage
Temperature Supervision of Bearing Components

For supervision of the operation conditions of rolling element bearings several standard measurement
techniques are available. The eldest and most applied measurement technique is the temperature
supervision with thermocouple on or near the bearing raceways, at the bearing casing, or of the
lubricating oil. In most cases of rolling element bearings the outer raceway is fixed in a casing. Some
few applications are working with fixed inner raceways. In both cases only the fixed raceway has a
temperature supervision due to measurement reasons. Dependent on design criteria a temperature
supervision system can only be installed on the casing (fig.17).
This supervision e.g. is used also nowadays as standard instrumentation as shut down criteria of big
BEAR_95.WPT 94
blower fans in power plants and wind converter systems. As general guide line the limit of pre alarm
might be set to 70ΕC as shut down criteria to 90ΕC.
Dependent on the operation conditions of rolling element

bearings normally the temperature of the bearing
increases significantly only before a complete break down.
That means after an alarm is given, a machine shut down
has to be performed directly to avoid further defects at
related machine components. The production has to be
stopped in this moment, predictive maintenance is not
possible.
If a direct measurement on the bearing raceways or the

housing is not possible the temperature of the lubrication Fig.17: Temperature Supervision
System
might be supervised before entering or leaving the bearing.
General experiences fix the pre alarm level in those case about 10ΕC higher than for the direct
measurements. Dependent on the low increase of temperature related to bearing faults this method is
even worse than the directly measurement for early fault detection.
Spectral Oil Analysis
The spectrographic oil analysis shows increased wear at additional structure specific metal piece
includes in the lubrication oil. When the amount of a certain metal rises above a predetermined limit,
this is interpreted as a signal to inspection particular parts which is composed of this metal. This
method is quite expensive, complicated and especially for complex machinery the several metal
components have to be known. At expensive machinery, e.g. mine cars, or in case of certain security
reasons like for helicopters spectrographic oil analysis are performed.
Displacement supervision of Rolling Element Bearings
The supervision of the curve of wavepath or the

relative displacement between housing and rotating
component is only applied to axial rolling element
bearings. Dependent on the characteristical
vibration excitation of bearing faults the amplitude
changes are here quite less, e.g. for certain
application at machines for power generation the pre
alarm level is set to 0.05 mm while a shut down is
initiated at levels of 0.1 mm due to the small
tolerances of clearance. Displacement
measurements are performed using contacting
probes, or non contacting measurement devices by
inductive or eddy current displacement pick-ups.
Fig.18: Vibration Excitation by Local Faults
BEAR_95.WPT 95
RMS-Meter (Root-Mean-Square-Value of Acceleration)
The vibration produced by a healthy, new bearing is low in level and looks like random noise. As a
fault begins to develop, the vibration characteristics change significantly. When the rolling elements
path local raceway faults shock pulses are excitated (fig.18).
In cases of increased faults the additional friction increases the general vibration level significantly.
Therefore, the simplest way of fault detection at rolling element bearings is to determine the overall
vibration level at the bearing housing by using RMS-meters. General purpose accelerometers with
frequency ranges up to 20 kHz are applied mounted by magnet or as handhold probes.
By plotting the measurement results over time the trend of vibration can be followed and extrapolated
to give a prediction of when the bearing needs replacement. However, because a rolling-element bea-
rings's overall vibration level often increases only in the final stage of failure, this method gives late
warnings of failure similarly as the temperature supervision. In complex machinery the general increase
of the vibration level is not automatically related to bearing faults, whereas wrong alarms could occur.
Better results are obtained using the

CREST-factor-meter which give as result the PEAK
to RMS-ratio. Especially, if local bearing faults
occur the shock pulses of the vibration signal are
measured by the peak detector in the vibration meter.
An example of these handmeters is given in fig.19.
Shock Pulse Meter (SPM)

Fig.19: B&K RMS-/Crest-Meter
The SPM method is based on the characteristic of
high frequent vibration excitations of defected
bearings, referred to as shock pulses. Handmeters are used with accelerometers operating at detector
resonance frequencies of 30 - 50 kHz, complemented by electronical filters near the resonance
frequency. The measurement devices were developed since the early 70's by SPM Instrument AB in
Sweden. Advantages are the low investment in instrumentation, while as
disadvantage the result of the handhold probes are related to the
measurement position. Increased faults are often difficult to determine and
superlated influences of vibrating structures can not be determined
separately.
Acoustic Incipient Failure Detection
Similar to the SPM method the acoustic incipient failure detection or the SEE
(Spectral-Emitted-Energy by SKF) method use sensors operating at their
resonance frequency. Here frequency ranges above 100 kHz up to 1 MHz are
used to reduce the influences of structural vibrations to the measurement
results. Similarly, problems occur to separate defected components, Fig.20: SEE (SKF)
especially, in compact machinery like high speed gears. One example of
these measurement devices is shown in fig.20.
BEAR_95.WPT 96
Near the above measured techniques for bearing failure detection several hand-held instrumentation is
available to determine bearing faults by special analysis routines of the vibration signal in time domain,
e.g. analysis using the Kurtosis factor. All this systems could be applied easily to simple mechanical
systems like the bearing supervision of electrical engines. For permanent monitoring, as well as for
source localization at complex machine structures, limitations are given. Therefore, additional
frequency analysis of the vibration signals had to be implemented as done in case of this project. Using
computerized data acquisition and processing units, trends of the operation conditions are obtained
directly and on-line condition monitoring become possible. By using additional multi channel systems
and correlation analysis also secured source location of different vibration signatures is obtained.
Description of the Test Facilities
To determine the signatures of different rolling element bearings under certain operation conditions
different test benches were used at the laboratory of CAB in Argentine and at the IKPH in Germany.
Additional tests were performed using a gear-box test bench to show the applicability to complex
machinery and test the developed analysis software. Trend measurements of the vibration behavior at
two fresh air fan arrangements in a 800 MW power plant and at bearings of a paper machine prove the
industrial use for secured fault
detection of rolling element bearing
faults using the developed multi
channel vibration monitoring system.
Bearing Test Bench at the CAB
First investigations are carried out at

the bearing set-up in the vibration
laboratory of the Instituto Balseiro
(CAB) in Bariloche, Argentine. The
figure 21 and the figure 22 show the
test bench with its instrumentation and Fig.21: Bearing Test Bench at CAB (Argentine)
the measurement units. The design
allows to implement different ball/roller bearings
with different internal diameters (35 to 80 mm) and
width (up to 26 mm) mounted in the test casing
which is equiped with electrical heating and water
cooling systems. Load is introduced by lever arms
with different masses.
A frequency modulated 380 V electrical engine

with 10 kW allows the variable speed between 150
and 3000 rpm. A central oil lubrication system
performs regulated supply of lubrication to the
tested bearings. The test rig is instrumented with Fig.22: Photo of the Test Casing
several accelerometers at different measurement
positions and two eddy probes to determine the relative movement between rotating shaft and test
BEAR_95.WPT 97
casing. On the motor end side of the main bearing block of the test bench a slotted aluminum disc is
mounted, with 256 circumferential slots to allow synchronous digitalization of the vibration signals
with the angular position of the shaft.
Bearing Test Bench at the IKPH
To develop computerized routines for automatical

bearing fault detection the results obtained in
Argentine are proved at bearing set-ups at the IKPH.
Accelerometers are fixed at different measurement
positions on the bearing casing (fig.23 ). Using
external trigger units (incremental and infra-red
systems) at the speed regulated electrical drive syn-
chronous sampling of the sensor signals is appli-
cable. The voltage supply is 220 V AC. The
maximum speed is limited to 8000 rpm, radial load
can be induced by a spring system. The test bench Fig.23: Bearing Test Bench at the IKPH
is portable with integrated preamplifiers to be used
as setup demonstrating the efficiency of vibration measurements as tool of predictive maintenance.
Fig.24a: Front View of the Port. Test Bench Fig.24b: Side View of the Port. Test Bench
Additionally, to bearing fault simulation with artificial implemented bearing faults on the different bea-
ring components long time trend measurements are performed at several bearing and gear box setups.
The applicability of the developed software in cases of on-line condition monitoring by trend setting
and early failure determination should be proved.
BEAR_95.WPT 98
The schematically drawing of one used

bearing set-up for these long time trend
measurements is shown in with its
instrumentation. Several accelerometers
are fixed at different measurement posit-
ions of the bearing casing, eddy probes
measure the relative displacement of the
rotating shaft. Rolling element bearings
with internal diameters of 30 mm up to
80 mm and external dimensions of 240
mm can be implemented to the test box.
The maximum hydraulic forces in radial
direction are 16000 N, the axial ones
4500 N. The maximum speed is limited
to 6000 rpm. To apply the measurement
and analysis techniques to industrial
machinery in a first step measurements Fig.25: Bearing Test Bench for Long-Time-Trends
at a gear box set-up were performed.
Furthermore, trend measurements of the vibrational behavior at the drive units of two mill-fans for the
coal mill and two fresh air fans for the main boiler of a 800 MW coal power plant were performed (as
described later on).
Analysis and Diagnosis of Measurement Results
The following chapter describes the results of the investigations and the efficiency of the analyzing
techniques to define signatures of bearing faults in the vibrational behavior. They are determined in the
signals of displacement and acceleration by:
　 statistical values in time domain with trend setting,

　 spectral values by comparative measurements,
　 correlation analysis for source localization, and
　 cepstrum analysis to specify periodical failure specific information.
All signatures were determined with varied load conditions at the several bearing set ups to investigate
the influences of different operation conditions to the secured fault detection. Artificial failures were
implemented to the raceways of different bearing types and their rolling elements in several steps to
distinguish between local and distributed faults.
The regarded results are the basics for the developed software for supervision of rolling element
bearings using vibration analysis.
Time Domain Analysis
BEAR_95.WPT 99
For primary tests spalls in the outer race of a ball

bearing type 6216 with internal diameter of 80 mm
were introduced. The same bearing type was used
for further investigations for simulation of local and
distributed pitting faults on the inner and outer
raceways. Those measurements were performed in
the laboratory of the CAB in Argentine
implementing the on-line PC-computer system,
compared and controlled by measurements using a
spectrum analyzer as described before.
Whenever one rolling element passes the defected

area of the raceway shock pulses are generated,
exciting structure resonances dependent on the
bearing material and the geometric conditions
(>1000 kHz). These signatures become visible in
the acceleration signals at the vertical position on
the bearing test casing for the example of local
faults. A new healthy bearing produces vibration
excitations of broad banded characteristic with low
amplitudes as shown in the upper part of fig.26.
Fig.26: Acceleration in Case of Spalls
In case of a spall in the outer race for one shaft
revolution 8 balls pass the spall exciting high
frequent vibrations. The spall had a width of 0.2
mm, the measurements were performed with radial
loads of 3000 N and 1000 N axial, and sampling
frequencies of about 25 kHz. The number of shock
pulses represents the additional low frequent vibra-
tion excitation due to the faulty operation con-
ditions, the BPFO of the bearing. Clearly seen in
the lower part of the figure is also the high frequent
information during the attenuation of the shock
pulses dependent on the structural behavior. All the
shock pulses have similar amplitudes due to the fact,
that the outer raceway is fixed. In cases of spalls in
the inner raceway per revolution 6 shock pulses
become visible in the acceleration signal.
Differently to the defected outer raceway the signal
show modulations in amplitudes, due to load
changes in the interaction of the rolling elements
and the raceway by the rotation.
The vibration signatures for increasing pitting faults

are described by fig.27. The pitting is simulated by
Fig.27: Acceleration in Case of Pitting
BEAR_95.WPT 100
electrical roughening in certain steps of 2.5% on the circumferential area at the raceway, 30%, 50%,
and 100%. The acceleration signal on the casting of the bearing box shows increased high frequent
signal components, coincide to the results described above.
Also 6 excitation pulses become visible in the middle part of

figure 27 for the local pitting faults. The absolute amplitudes
are less than in case of the spall excitation due to the fault
geometry. For increased pitting in the lower part of the figure a
general increase of the overall vibration level is stated. The
single excitation pulses are modulated dependent on the 30%
of faulty raceway where always more than one rolling element
is in contact with the defected area.
Fig.28 shows the corresponding signals of displacement in

form of an orbit for reference and faulty operation conditions
with pitting. As mentioned in chapter 5 the displacement
pickups measure the relative displacement between the test
casing and the rotating shaft. For normal operation conditions
the curve of wavepath shows circular behavior with some Fig.28: Curve of Wave Path
small loops due to changed load cycles dependent on the
rotation of the rolling elements. With pitting on the
inner raceway the rolling conditions of the rolling
elements are disturbed corresponding to high fre-
quent excitation of the shaft. The curve of wavepath
show additional buried behavior. The absolute
amplitudes are decreasing, the amount of loops and
double loops increase over one shaft revolution. All
primary investigations at the bearing setup at CAB
in Argentine prove the signals of accelerometers as
most convenient for fault detection of rolling
element bearings. The use of displacement pickups
can assist the evaluation of the acceleration signals,
but their significance is less. Dependent on the easy
installation of accelerometers to the several
measurement devices for the further applications
mainly accelerometers were used.
Statistical Values
For automatical fault detection and diagnosis the

visual impression of the vibration signals has to be
fixed in discrete values. One possibility is the
calculation of time values as described before. As
visible in the time signals bearing faults excite for Fig.29: Statistical Values for Faulty
local failure sizes high frequent shock pulse Operation
excitations, and for distributed failure sizes a broad
BEAR_95.WPT 101
banded increase. Therefore, for data evaluation statistical values should be chosen which are able to
characterize these phenomena.
Fig.29 represents the results of regarded time values for the failure simulation at the bearing set ups for
different faulty operation conditions. In the trend of Kurtosis factor and standard deviation the
signatures of increasing pitting faults from local to distributed can be stated. For small pitting faults of
defected 2,5% of the inner raceway from a ball bearing type 6216 the Kurtosis factor reaches values of
about 5, indicating the excitation of high frequent signal components. This value for reference operation
condition is settled between 1.5 (pure harmonic sinusoidal vibration) and 3 (broad banded excitation),
independent on changes of load conditions due to its normalization. Calculating the standard deviation
for increased local pitting faults only in the case of infected areas above 30% significant amplitude
changes occur. Summarized can be stated that Kurtosis factor and standard deviation in combination
with trend supervision permit the possibility to characterize the life time of rolling element bearings.
Disadvantage is the integral consideration of all included frequency components.
Therefore, faulty teeth in gear arran-

gements might have similar signatures in
the statistical values as obtained for
faulty bearings in operation. Additional
frequency analysis has to be performed
for secured fault localization. In simple
arrangements like electrical engines, the
rotating shaft in the dryer section of
paper machines, or at ventilation fans
often the supervision of the statistical
values of acceleration give first hints to Fig.30: The Use of Statistical Values
abnormal or faulty operation conditions.
The applicability of different time cha-
racteristic values for determination of bearing faults is summarized in fig.30 for bearing fault simulation
at the portable test bench at the IKPH. All failures are determined by changes in the amplitudes of
variance, RMS-value, average, or Kurtosis factor with significant increased values of several 100%. It
should be mentioned that the dimension of the investigated faults in all cases allow the machine opera-
tion without problems.
Fig.31: Variance of Acceleration Fig.32: Kurtosis Factor of Acceleration
BEAR_95.WPT 102
The long time trend measurements prove the applicability of the developed software and analyzing
routines. The following figures present the results of those trends obtained testing bearings for paper
machinery application. The classical behavior of acceleration excitations for rolling element bearings
during their normal life time is presented in fig.31. Marked are the fixed thresholds of pre alarm, alarm
and shutdown level. Due to the experiences obtained during the experimental investigations also alarm
levels have to be adjusted. After about 200 hours in operation with loads of 3500 N and speeds of 75
Hz the vibration level of the ball bearing type 3009 shows a slight increase of variance amplitude with
exponential gradient. The main shut down level is crossed at about 280 hours of operation. In this case
the test bench was stopped after 320 hours of operation to prove the alarm levels as low enough to
avoid completely machine fault. Then the bearing was changed.
The corresponding Kurtosis factor as function of the bearing's life time is presented in fig.32. For the
implemented new bearing some high frequent shock pulse excitations are obtained, as visible in the
Kurtosis factor up to about 100 hours of operation. This is related to signatures of the run in time, the
smoothing of structure roughness due to the fabrication process. Then up to the shut down no
significant amplitude changes become visible, determining the occurring fault as distributed.
Due to the regarded results the first impression might lead to the opinion that time domain analysis by
trend setting of statistical values could determine bearing faults successfully. Near problems with
source localization in complex machinery, also signatures might occur as presented in the following
figures.
Fig.33: Trend of Variance Fig.34: Trend of Kurtosis Factor
Fig.33 shows the trend of variance values for the same bearing type implemented with slight different
casing design and the same alarm thresholds. Up to about 150 hours of operation the run in
characteristics become visible with increased values up to the alarm level. After 150 hours of operation
the vibration level of variance stay stable until after 1000 hours of operation a sudden break down
occurs.
Also the trend of Kurtosis shows no hints to faulty operation condition (fig.34). Only later performed
frequency analysis gives hints to the defected bearing. The reason for the missing pre alarm signatures
of the time values is related to a low frequent system resonance with highest amplitudes of vibration.
Therefore, the additional high frequent excitation due to the faulty rolling element bearing has
BEAR_95.WPT 103
subdominant influences to the vibrational behavior. Characteristic signatures are only obtained
performing frequency domain analysis.
The time domain analysis using statistical values in combination with trend settings shows that by using
acceleration signals at the bearing housing hints to faulty operation condition are given. In cases of
complex machinery a secured failure localization is difficult dependent on certain exciting source with
similar characteristics. One possibility is the use of an external trigger in combination with time domain
averaging as demonstrated in fig.35 and 36. In fig.35 the non averaged and averaged signal of
acceleration at one bearing housing for distributed bearing faults are shown. After averaging of about
100 revolutions only the low frequent excitation of unbalance is obtained, the high frequent excitation
sources are related to not harmonically speed related friction. Similarly results show the averaging of
local bearing faults in the fig.36. The periodical components of shock pulse excitations due to the local
bearing fault is suppressed completely after averaging. By comparing the statistical values of averaged
and non averaged time signals of acceleration a source localization of excitation becomes possible.
Fig.35: Time Averaging, Distributed Faults Fig.36: Time Averaging, Local Faults
Unfavorable operation conditions or the superposition of system resonances could make the
BEAR_95.WPT 104
determination of faulty operation condition thus impossible as demonstrated exemplary above.

Therefore, for secured fault detection and localization additional frequency analysis has to be
performed.
Frequency Domain Analysis
For time domain analysis all components of

acceleration are integrated for the fixed time interval.
The set of time signals are reduced to certain
comparable values to quantify the visual impression
for use of computerized automatically trend setting.
To classify the certain vibration sources to the
mechanical components in complex machine arran-
gements, frequency selective analysis must be
performed
 in time domain by band pass filtering of the

analog time signals and calculation of
standard deviation, or
 in frequency domain by calculating the
FFT (fast fourier transformation) as
explained above
The first possibility is only used in certain ap-

plications for permanent on-line monitoring where
the vibration source at discrete frequency ranges are
supervised, e.g. the first harmonic of rotation at fan
arrangements to determine dust sedimentation. By
calculation of the spectral densities and the phase
relation at several measurement positions source
localization of complex vibration excitations Fig.37: Influence of Sampling
becomes possible, frequency shifts due to component
faults included.
The influence of external and internal sampling to

the shape of obtained spectra for similar maximum
analyzing frequencies is demonstrated in fig.37 at the
example of acceleration on the bearing box at the
gear setup. The high frequent spectra up to about 10
kHz show for both types of sampling the same broad
banded excitations of system resonances. The
general shape is identical. For external sampling the
harmonically speed related components are visible as
narrow banded peaks. The reason of the visually
Fig.38: Low Frequent Spectra for Spalls
increased resolution of this spectrum in the top of
figure 37 is related to the elimination of speed
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variations, torsional vibration components, and frequency shifts by using an external trigger unit. The
time set of the FFT-routine is always harmonically related to multiples of the rotational speed.
Fig.38 shows one example of APSD (auto-power-spectral-density) of acceleration up to the 16th

harmonic of rotation for acceleration signals obtained at the bearing test bench at CAB. In coincide to
the time signals the same bearing type 6216 and the same load conditions are chosen. Comparing the
reference and faulty conditions with spall in the outer race, the BPFO with harmonics and sidebands of
speed are excited with increased intensities. The additional excitations are speed related, but not har-
monically to the rotation of the test bench, as proved by the marks of the BPFO. Using the external
trigger the absolute position of the excitated components could be fixed as not integer harmonics of the
rotation. Probably, the rolling element bearing is fixed as excitation source.
The corresponding high frequent spectra up to about 12.5 kHz in fig.39 are characterized by increased
signal ground levels proportional to the failure size. For spall sizes of 0.2 mm first high frequent signal
intensities above 1.5 kHz are excited additionally with modulations of the BPFO in the range 2 up to 5
kHz. The spall sizes of 0.5 mm excite all frequency components, changing the complete shape of
spectrum. Up to 10 kHz the additional excited harmonics of the BPFO become visible. The bearing
failure can be located without doubt to the vibration source.
Fig.40: High Frequent Spectra for Pitting

Fig.39: High Frequent Spectra for Spalls
BEAR_95.WPT 106
In the case of increasing pitting faults on the inner raceway similar vibration signatures are obtained
(fig.40). For small failures of 2.5% defected circumferential raceway the amplitudes above 4 kHz are
characterized by increased signal intensities. The highest signal intensity is still at one frequency
component below 500 Hz. For increased failures of 30% defected inner raceway the high frequent
signal intensities show maximum values. The general shape of the spectrum is still similar, but
additional modulations by the BPFI of the faulty bearing components occur. All system resonances are
still included in the signal ground level.
Fig.41: High Frequent APSD after 200 h Fig.42: High Frequent APSD after 31
The signatures for the paper machinery bearings

type 6009 with increased faults are presented in
the fig.41 and 42. After 200 hours of operation
mainly high frequent components between 15 and
25 kHz show increased signal intensities. Here
signatures of fault development are given quite
before significant changes in the statistical values
of acceleration occur. For further operation the
signal ground level shows amplitude changes of
more than one decade in the logarithmic scale of
APSD. Certain frequency components are not Fig.43: Old and New Reference Condition
excited.
The results of the frequency domain analysis are corresponded to the alarm criteria of the time domain
analysis, but earlier warning to faulty operation condition is given due to the excitation of the high
frequent spectra components.
After changing the defected bearing with distributed faults at all components of the rolling element
bearing a new reference spectrum was taken as presented in fig.43. Dependent on changes of structural
resonances due to changes of internal mechanical stresses of the casing and adapted components by the
mounting and dismounting, sight differences in the general shape in the spectrum of acceleration occur.
The new reference measurement shows higher intensities of excitation at low frequency components of
about 2 kHz, while a broad banded system resonance in the range of 6 to 10 kHz is damped. Also the
signal ground level is characterized by certain amplitude changes related to different friction conditions
due to the tooling dependent roughnesses of the surfaces.
BEAR_95.WPT 107
In both cases the load and speed conditions were set constant. Therefore, at each time reconditioning is
performed to a production line for secured fault detection, it is suggested to carry out new reference
measurements.
While observing the trend setting of standard

deviation and Kurtosis of acceleration in the case of
equipment 5 no failure specific signatures could be
stated. The reason becomes visible in the spectral
densities at different operation hours in the figure
44 to 46. In all cases the APSD's up to 3500 Hz
show as main excitation source frequency
components below 100 Hz, related to a low
frequent system resonance.
After 200 hours of operation a general increase of Fig.44: APSD for 200 h of Operation
the signal ground level above 500 Hz can be
recognized, but with significant lower amplitudes
than the main component of vibration (fig.44). After
500 hours of operation bearing specific frequencies
are excited determining additional exciting sources
to local bearing faults (fig.45). After a relative short
time of additional 30 hours in operation the signal
ground level increases again. This signature
characterizes the growing of the local defects to
distributed ones (fig.46). But even here the absolute
values are situated quite below the main low
frequent excitation source. The bearing fault
specific amplitudes of acceleration do not show any Fig.45: APSD for 500 h Operation
significant increased values higher than the main

excitation source up to the life end at about 1000
hours of operation. Therefore, in this case the
general operation condition and the structural
excitation of a certain resonance allows a secured
bearing fault detection only by frequency domain
analysis.
Frequency analysis of the acceleration signals at the

different test facilities prove the frequency analysis
as useful tool for secured fault detection of rolling
element bearings in operation. While for the Fig.46: APSD for 530 h Operation
statistical values not in all cases significant changes
due to faulty operating condition are obtained, the frequency analysis performs early warning of
increasing faults by trend setting. Comparing the different spectra of reference operation and faulty
condition in all cases significant broad banded changes in the signal intensities occur, mostly combined
BEAR_95.WPT 108
with increased signal intensities at the bearing specific frequency components. As criteria for the
dimension of the bearing fault the area of increased signal intensity between reference and fault spectra
is suggested.
Cepstra analysis is performed to summarize the

periodical bearing specific information of the
spectra in few points. In the case of rolling element
bearing faults additional periodical related
excitations are obtained at the rotating frequency of
the machine and the characteristic bearing
frequencies. Fig.47 presents the cepstra of accelera-
tion for different spall sizes in the outer race of a ball
bearing 6216. Significantly, the bearing specific rah-
monics in the cepstra at 5.19 ms and 10.4 ms are in-
creased which coincide to the characteristic fre-
quencies of spectra with subharmonics of the BPFO
at 192.8 Hz and its subharmonic at 94.4 Hz. As
shown in the figure the signature of increased cepstra
intensities become not only visible directly on the
bearing casing, also the measurements at the
electrical engine show the transmission of
acceleration. One advantage of cepstra analysis is
that load changes and different detector positions are Fig.47: Cepstra for Spall Excitation
of subdominant influence to the measurement result.
The corresponding cepstra of acceleration for

increasing inner race pitting are presented in fig.48
with main signatures at the rahmonics of the BPFI at
3.6 ms (in accordance to 278 Hz) and 7.24 ms (in
accordance to 139 Hz). With the growing of defected
area at the inner raceway the periodical excitation of
the BPFI increases. If the complete inner raceway is
infected by pitting the vibrational behavior becomes Fig.48: Cepstra of Pitting Excitations
stochastical again as visible in the decreased
amplitudes of the cepstra signatures.
By using the trend of cepstra analysis to summarize

the periodical information of the spectra of
acceleration all bearing specific related changes
could be supervised automatically knowing the exact
machine's speed. It is of fundamental importance for
the automatically operation supervision system to
find the exact point corresponding to BPFI, BPFO,
and BSF in the cepstra for amplitude comparison.
Using the external trigger technique the sampling of Fig.49: Coherence Analysis
BEAR_95.WPT 109
the sensor signals is always related to the rotating speed.
Further information is regarded by using correlation analysis between two detector signals at different
measurement positions, as demonstrated in fig.49, for the acceleration in vertical and horizontal me-
asurement direction at the test bench in the lab of CAB. Due to the faulty operation conditions of the
spall in the outer race of a bearing type 6216 structure and system resonances are excited and shifted.
These signatures are visible as additional broad banded peaks at 600 Hz, 1600 Hz, and 2800 Hz. The
increasing broad banded information with its maximum at about 4700 Hz is significant and as proved
by resonance measurements related to the resonance of the outer raceway of this bearing under
mounted conditions. Due to the complexibility of the interpretation of coherence, they were not
implemented to the automatical operating diagnosis system for bearing fault detection.
Based on the results of the pre investigations of vibration measurements at the different test facilities,
the regarded results of time domain analysis based on trend setting using statistical values, the
frequency analysis with comparative measurements, and the cepstra analysis to determine periodical
related information of the spectra an automatical operating diagnosis system for bearing fault detection
was concepted and realized.
BEAR_95.WPT 110
Failure Detection in Gear Boxes by Vibration Analysis
The vibration generated by gears can be modeled in various ways, some based on a fundamental
analysis of the gear mechanism and dynamics, others on an empirical measurement of the meshing
error, either static or dynamic.
In cases where it is desired to infer something about

internal stresses from a single measurement of
vibration, e.g., in machine development, such a
fundamental approach may be necessary, but there
is a whole class of problems where a simpler
approach is possible. This is the case, for example,
in the monitoring of continuously operating ma-
chinery, where it is assumed that the initial condi-
tion is satisfactory, and it is only desired to detect
deterioration and diagnose the likely source of the
problems.
The following chapter outlines measurement and
analysis procedures for interpretations of changes
in the vibrational behavior of operating gearboxes.
Signatures in time as well as frequency domain for
increased defects are pointed out and the advantage
of synchronous time signal averaging in combi-
nation with cepstrum analysis for fault localization.
Figure 1: Gear Box Test Bench
One important element of gearbox vibrations is the
periodic signal at the tooth meshing rate which is
due to deviations from the ideal tooth profile. There
are mainly two sources of such deviations which
are the tooth deflection under load, and the
geometrical errors in the profile itself, resulting
from initial machining and the process of wear.
Taking first the tooth deflection under load, these
trends give a signal wave form of a stepped nature.
This tooth deflection is of course very load
dependent, although it is possible to compensate it
in the profile. Therefore, it is normal to find
vibration components at the tooth-meshing fre-
quency and it's harmonics, representing those
deflection effects which are the same for each
tooth-mesh. Superlated are all these excitations by Figure 2: Gear Box
influences of friction and lubrication.
A gear-box test set bench was build to investigate and describe the excitation sources due to normal and
faulty operation conditions (fig.1). It consists out of a two step gear box with adapted asynchronous
motor and a small break to simulate load charges. An incremental external trigger unit is fixed to the
GEAR_95.WPT 115
shaft of the electrical engine which allows the synchronous digitalization of the time signals to the
shaft's angle to allow time averaging. This time averaging over several revolution is required to separate
the speed related periodically components of the meshing teeth from the stochastical components due to
friction and lubrication.
At the casing of the gear-box several accelerometers are fixed in axial, vertical and horizontal direction.
By a modular pre- and main amplifier system the acceleration signals are sent to a portable personal
computer with the data acquisition and processing software.
Fig.2 shows the schematical design of the 2 step gear

with characteristic speeds and corresponding teeth-
mesh frequencies (number of teeth times the speed).
Fig.3 shows the time signal of acceleration for one
revolution without and with increasing Pitting at the
teeth of the inlet gear wheel. Without failure the
external triggered and averaged time signal shows
mainly periodically components excited by teeth
deflections and moving pitch points. With the occur-
rence of teeth Pitting (2 teeth defected) additionally
high frequent signal components are excited, the
characteristically periodical signal shape is disturbed.
With increased defected area more high frequent ex-
citations can be observed.
Fig.4 demonstrates the necessity of time averaging

to regard sophisticated measurement results. The
upper part shows the non-averaged time signals over
one revolution with high amount of stochastical Figure 3: Acceleration Time Signals
signal components due to friction and lubrication,
while for the averaged signal in the lower part of the
figure the periodical components as well as the
additionally high frequent excitation due to Pitting at
two teeth can be clearly observed.
To summarize the above mentioned information

statistical values are used characterizing the increas-
ing faulty operation condition. Fig.5 shows the Figure 4: Influence of Time Averaging
results of Kurtosis, Crest, Peak-to-Peak and
Standard Deviation for increasing Pitting from normal operation conditions up to 24 teeth with Pitting.
For small defects (less amount of manipulated teeth) the Kurtosis and Crest factor show a significant
increase in amplitude due to their weightening of local high frequent excitations. For increased defects
the values are reseated to the one of the normal operation conditions, while the standard deviation
which characterizes the signal intensities increases significantly.
Similar statements are obtained observing rolling element defects, which states that in general the Crest
and Kurtosis factor are useful for determining local failures while the standard deviation is useful for
GEAR_95.WPT 116
Figure 5: Statistical Time Values Figure
Figure6:7:Influence
Spectra of
ofAcceleration
Time Averaging
distributed ones. In all cases it is necessary to have reference measurements to determine faulty
operation conditions by comparison and trend settings. As shown before the use of external triggering
has a fundamental influence to the time signal shape.
Fig.6 demonstrates this effect at the example of the standard deviation and the Kurtosis factor. The non
averaged statistical values show quite high deviation in amplitude as well as for the normal and faulty
operation conditions. For the averaged ones not only this deviation is neglectable, additionally, the
distance between normal and faulty operation conditions is increased due to the reduction of the
influences by friction and lubrication. Statistical time values describe a time signal completely, but
without distingshion of the different frequency components. Therefore, for failure localization and
determining of the defect machine component spectra and correlation analysis is required. Fig.7
summarizes exemplary the regarded results in frequency domain from the time signals described before.
The increase of high frequent signal components with faulty operation conditions becomes visible at
increased signal ground levels above 2 kHz in the upper part of fig.7. The broad banded characteristics
of the system resonances are still visible but of higher amplitude. In the low frequent spectra up to 800
Hz significant information is obtained at the teethmesh frequency (about 600 Hz). For normal operating
conditions these frequency component show the highest signal amplitude dependent on the sinusoidal
excitation sources of the meshing teeth. If Pitting occurs this excitation is disturbed, additional
amplitude and frequency modulations occur visible at decreased teethmesh frequency and additional
sidebands in the distance of the machine's speed.
Fig. 8: Determination of Ghost Components Figure 9: Ghost Components with Wear
The influence of load changes to the different signal components is exemplary shown in fig.8. With
increased load normally the gear related signatures of the teeth mesh frequencies and their harmonics
increase. But there are some signatures which show different behavior. Considering next the profile
errors due to machining process, a part may be identical on each tooth and will show up at the
tooth-mesh frequency and it's harmonics. Those are not identical for each tooth and would either fall
into the category of ghost components or random vibrations. The tendency for such components is to
become smaller with time and wear. The term ghost component is applied to those periodic faults
introduced into a gear by the machining process and which correspond to a different number of teeth to
those actually being cut. They normally correspond to the number of teeth on the index wheel driving
the table on which the workpiece is mounted and are due to errors in these teeth. An example becomes
visible here at 941 Hz. The following properties of ghost components will often give a strong
indication:
GEAR_95.WPT 117
 They will usually correspond to the number of teeth on the index wheel and must therefore
appear at the harmonic of the particular gear speed.
 Being the result of a fixed geometrical error, they should not be very much load dependent.
 There is a tendency for ghost components to get smaller as a result of wear as seen in fig.9.
Fig.9 summarizes measurement results for increased distributed Pitting at all teeth for the component of
the teethmesh frequency. As mentioned before with increased wear the amplitude of the teethmesh
frequency decreases while due to amplitude modulations the higher harmonics increase. Additionally,
the tendency of the ghost component which shows decreased amplitudes with increased wear becomes
visible proving the statement from above.
To determine the absolute amount of periodically

frequency components in the spectra which are
directly related to the failure size, cepstrum analysis
is carried out and the results presented in fig.10. As
mentioned before the additional sidebands with the
distance of the machine's speed are significant
indications of faulty operation conditions in the
spectra. These modulations are summarized in the
cepstrum at 0.04s corresponding to the machine's
speed of 25 Hz and rahmonics, as demonstrated at
the increase of these components in the lower part
of fig.10.
Conclusion
It can be stated that using the statistical values of

vibration signals as alarm criteria with low frequent
and high frequent spectra comparison in
combination with cepstrum analysis, the failures of
gears could be determined and separated from other
exciting sources.
Figure 10: Cepstrum Analysis
GEAR_95.WPT 118
Failure Detection in Turbines
This chapter should give a general overview over the type of vibration measurements at turbines, the
introduction of synchronized triggering for data evaluation and the application of correlation analysis
for diagnostic methods. Experiments are described using a 1.5 MW test turbine for investigations of
characteristic signatures for blade failures. The diagnostic methods were applied to two power plant
turbines for feasibility studies and trend analysis of signatures.
Introduction
In power plant technology the trend to larger block sizes is based on the necessity of reducing con-
struction and operation expenses in order to keep electricity generation costs at an economical level.
Larger block sizes led to larger units particularly for steam turbines so that costs for planned or
unplanned outages are of increased economical importance. According to failure statistics in power
plants, approximately one third of outages is due to failures in turbo generators.
Figure 1: Condition Monitoring of Turbines

Therefore, condition monitoring is an important tool and has received attention since a long time. The
state of the type of monitoring in many turbomachines is the measurement of shaft vibration. For this a
number of specifications have been formulated by different organizations which recommend standard
procedures. Although shaft-vibration analysis is a powerful tool for failure detection and diagnostics,
there is more useful information available.
The steam entering with high pressure to the turbine inlet section is conducted by the fixed guide blades
TURBO_95.WPT 188
to the rotating blades where the flow energy is partly converted into mechanical rotating energy. The
interaction of the guide and rotating blades plays an important role in this process. This results in steam
pressure fluctuations inside the turbine with excitation of periodic forces in guide and rotating blades,
which are transferred to the case and shaft, respectively, and causing thus acceleration.
Due to the characteristic of exciting forces and their interaction, the following signals can be used for
diagnostic purposes as characteristic signatures:
 Shaft vibrations as discussed before

 Pressure fluctuations within the turbine
 Accelerations or periodic forces at the casing.
Defects of blades or failures in other components of the machine will change the signals and can
therefore be evaluated for diagnostic purposes. These considerations created the basis of a research
program where acoustic sensors were used to detect changes in turbine behavior. The method was very
simple. Detectors were placed at the casing and RMS-values were measured as the characteristic
signatures of the turbine. The results were not at all encouraging and therefore this method is still
suspect to utility people.
The reason, why this type of monitoring was not successful is very evident. The accelerometer signals
measured at the casing are composed on the one hand of a stochastic part due to the turbulent steam
flow. On the other hand they are formed by a periodic part due to the interaction of guide and rotating
blades during one revolution. If the stochastic signal contribution is larger than or of the same order as
the periodic contribution, then there is no chance to get characteristic signatures of the machine, which
are repeatable.
Synchronized Trigger Technique
The next important step to improve the method was the introduction of a synchronous trigger, fixed at
the free shaft end on the generator side, made up of a slotted disk and optical sensors. This trigger
allows an exact synchronization of the signals with the angular position of the shaft during one
revolution. By averaging the signal over a number of revolutions the stochastic contribution to the
signal can be reduced considerably.
Correlation Techniques
A further improvement to reduce unwanted background noise in the signals is the application of
correlation techniques. The successful use of correlation analysis was demonstrated using a test-turbine
as well as power plant turbines. The correlation analysis can be used in two ways:
(1) To analyze signals of different origin regarding common information is obtained in the signals,
(2) To correlate signals of the same detector type at different positions for the localization of defect
areas.
For both types examples will be given. As measurement devices in the early beginning a
Hewlett-Packard Computer (HP 1000-System) with a 16 channel analog digital converter (ADC) unit
TURBO_95.WPT 189
was used. The vibration signals were stored on a 14 channel magnetic tape recorder and later processed
off-line. The modern measurement devices consists of IBM compatible personal computers with
implemented 16 channel ADC-Cards, amplifier and filter moduls for on-line data acquisition and
processing.
Aims of Failure Diagnosis
Diagnostic methods in rotating machineries are developed in order to detect misbehavior primarily in
the following components:
shaft: abnormal vibration, misalignment, cracks.

blades: rupture, corrosion, torsion, loosening, contact with casing (touch).
bearings: contact between shaft and labyrinth seal (touch), defects in contact areas (oil whirl,
oil whip).
These are the main goals to be included in a failure diagnosis system. Some of the goals could be
reached already, some need further investigation, primarily with basic experiments and after that also
by monitoring operation power plant turbines. In order to get more basic information about blade
failure diagnostics further experiments have been performed using a 1.5 MW test turbines.
TURBO_95.WPT 190
Vibration Analysis of an 100 MW Steam Turbine

The instrumentation of the 100 MW steam turbine of the power plant HKWH in Hannover,
Germany is shown in fig.1. The high- (HP), medium- (MP) and the low pressure (LP) part is
installed with additional five accelerometers each, in radial and axial direction and at the stuffing
boxes.
Fig. 1 Instrumentation of the HKWH Turbine
Pressure transducers have been installed in the diffusors of the medium- and low pressure part.
The shaft displacement is measured at each bearing block using two displacement sensors with an
angular position of a 90　 difference. Furthermore one accelerometer is fixed at each bearing box.
An external trigger unit is mounted between the low pressure part and the generator (alu-
minium disc with 128 slots).
Fig.2 presents some acceleration signals at different turbine components. The non-averaged
time signals at the high-pressure as well as for the low pressure part show visually mainly
stochastical information, with 10 times increased amplitudes for the HP-part.
HKWH_95.WPT 195
Fig. 2 Time Signals of Acceleration
After performing time averaging first periodical components become obvious, showing higher
frequent information in the HP-part while for the LP-part mainly speed related components (sine
wave) occur superlated with high frequent components of low amplitude. To determine the high
frequent speed related signal information of the rotating blades, time averaging is the first step to
increase the signal to noise ratio. Frequency analysis has to be performed afterwards to separate the
different excitation sources.
If the dynamic components for different measurement positions and operation conditions
should be investigated statistical values like the standard deviation can be calculated as shown for
the displacement pick ups and some accelerometer signals in fig.3 and fig.4. By this trend settings
are obtained and unnormal operation conditions with faults can be detected. For the displacement
pickups during start up and shut down the critical speeds become visible, while during
nominal/particial load more or less constant vibration signatures for all bearings are obtained. The
accelerometer signals prove the high- and middle pressure part of the turbine as source of highest
amount of HF-excitations.
HKWH_95.WPT 196
Figure 3: Statistical Values of Displacement
HKWH_95.WPT 197
Figure 4: Statistical Values of Acceleration
Another way to display the time signals of displacement is by drawing the orbits as presented
in fig.5 at the example of start-up and power operation condition. Each bearing has its characteristic
shape of orbit.
The classical form of more or less pure unbalance excitation, visible in elliptical magnification,
is only obtained for the HP-MP-bearing. The maximum amplitudes occur in horizontal turbine
direction. Another characteristic which is also described in the VDI-standards is obtained for the
LP-bearing which shows edges in the curve of wave path due to forced circulation dependent on the
alignment of other machines. Similar results were obtained at other machines because one bearing
in general is dephased some 1/10 of millimeters to guaranty this forced circulation avoiding oil
instabilities in the journal bearings.
Fig. 3 Curve of Wave Path for different Operation Conditions
This effect becomes also visible at the MP-LP-bearing. All the above mentioned orbits are
more or less independent to the operation of electrical power generation. Only the HP bearing is
influenced significantly by load changes, due to the connected oil pump and its small diameter.
Corresponding to the time signals of fig.2 the APSD's up to 12kHz are shown in fig.6. The
main information obtained in the high frequent area are the blade rotation sound frequencies
(number of blades multiplied by rotation frequency), which are marked by the numbers.
HKWH_95.WPT 198
Fig. 4 APSD of Acceleration
The results of a series of pressure- fluctuation- measurements in the diffusors are shown in
fig.7. The APSD of the pressure- sensors 34 and 35 is shown up to 10 kHz. The rotation sound of
the last two stages, having 55 and 63 blades, can be clearly recognized at 2250 Hz and 3150 Hz
respectively. Rotation sound frequencies of the preceding stages are not clearly detectable. Due to
the interaction between the last two stages modulation frequencies are generated.
Fig. 5 APSD of Pressure Signal
HKWH_95.WPT 199
Fig. 6 LF APSD of Pressure Signals
They can be calculated by addition and subtraction of the blades in the two stages and by
subsequent multiplication with the shaft rotary frequency. The resulting modulation frequencies of
400 and 5900 Hz are visible as peaks in the APSD. The low frequency part of the pressure-signals
up to 400 Hz has been analyzed in more details. The results are shown in fig.8. Whereas the
pressure sensors showed more or less the same results in the high frequency part, remarkable
differences exist in the low frequency part. Pressure transducer 35, placed towards the generator,
shows a very large APSD-peak at the shaft rotation frequency 50 Hz and a very small one at the
second harmonic 100 Hz, whereas pressure transducer 34, placed towards the medium pressure part,
shows the opposite behavior, having with a peak at 100 Hz. Also the pressure transducer 33 in the
medium pressure part shows a similar behavior at 100 Hz. The reason for this is a misalignment of
the shaft as it could be proved analyzing the other detector signals.
Further results of accelerometer signals are shown in fig.9. These measurements were carried
out without the synchronizing trigger, which was not available at that time. Its mounting has to be
postponed until the next turbine revision. The upper part of the figure shows the APSD of accel-
erometer 24, placed at the upper casing of the HP. The lower part of the figure shows the APSD of
accelerometer 2, placed on the bearing box between HP-MP.
HKWH_95.WPT 200
Fig. 7 APSD of Acceleration
The APSD at the rotation sound frequencies of the high pressure rotating blades as well as of
the LP-part are clearly visible with both accelerometers. Due to the lack of the trigger, resolution
and reproducibility are not optimal in this series of measurements. However, the characteristic
blade signatures can be identified in a satisfactory manner. The peaks of the APSD in the range
from 2000 to 3000 Hz can be allocated to modulation frequencies of different stages as discussed
before.
A characteristic result of low frequent analysis are the strong peaks of APSD at the second
(100Hz) and higher harmonics of the shaft rotating frequency, which was also found in pressure
signals in or close to the MP-part, and is a signature for unbalance.
In this case the unbalance was due to temperature problems. This turbine is not only used to
generate electrical power, also civil heating systems are connected, which is the reason for often
load changes in combination with high temperature gradients. As a result thermical unbalance for
special operation conditions occurs.
HKWH_95.WPT 201
Fig. 8 LF APSD of Acceleration at the HP-Bearing
Besides the supervision of the rotation related periodical parts of rotation sounds and modu-
lations, also resonances need to be looked at. Two examples are pointed out in fig.10 and fig.11. In
the low frequency spectrum of the acceleration signal at the HP- bearing box near the narrow band
signature of the oilpump's rotation sound, two broad banded peaks at 160 Hz and 280 Hz become
visible in fig.10. Measurements carried out at the bearing during still stand, showed these
frequencies as resonances. So the supervision of these signatures allows to look for trend settings
related to changes in the bearing fixation which could force the damage.
Fig. 9 APSD of Acceleration in the HP-Part
A second example of broad banded system resonances for HP-part is shown in fig.11. Two
loads dependent on broad banded peaks occur in the region of 450 and 750 Hz. With increasing
loads their maxima are shifted to higher frequencies. Increasing loads are directly related with
higher casing temperatures. Therefore structure resonance normally had to be shifted to lower
frequencies (changes of stiffness due to temperature). This case shows the exact opposite, only
being declared by prestressing forces at the casing. Conclusively for efficient vibration supervision
of big machinery, there are not only the periodical parts related to rotation which had to be looked
HKWH_95.WPT 202
at, but also information of structure elements.

For source localization the coherence could be proved again as shown in fig.12, where the
common information of different sensor signals show significantly the rotating sound frequencies.
Fig. 10 Coherences
Summary
By vibration measurements using accelerometers, pressure transducers, and displacement
pick-ups the signatures of complicated machinery like turbines become visible. Each frequency
component excited by the interacting blades, the turbine shaft, the generator, the flow as well as the
mechanical structure could be determined. By trend setting routines changes due to faulty operating
conditions are obtained.
HKWH_95.WPT 203
Vibration Analysis at an 1.5 MW Test Turbine
The instrumentation of an 1.5

MW-test-turbine is shown in fig.1. It is an air
turbine whose design permits the use of dif-
ferent blade numbers, profiles and rows per
stage. For the performed tests there were
installed: 4 rows with 29 fixed guide blades
and 4 rows with 30 rotating blades.
Pressure fluctuations can be measured behind

each stage (sensors D8, D7, D9, D11) and in
the diffusor (sensor D12). In total 6 accelero-
meters are fixed at the turbine: Three at the
casing to measure the radial accelerations in
the region of the blades (BK15, BK27,
Figure 1: Instrumentation of the 1.5 MW Turbine
BK28), one at a claw of the casing (B11) to
measure axial accelerations, one at the
bearing (B10), and one close to the gear box
(B12). The relative shaft-movement is
measured by a sensor (W1) mounted on the
bearing.
Typical results of the experiments are shown

in fig.2. Autospectral densities (APSD) are
plotted versus the multiple (harmonics) of the
shaft rotating frequency for a pressure
fluctuation signal, acceleration and the shaft
movement signal. The tests were made for
three different air inlet temperatures. Base on
these results the following conclusions can
be drawn:
 The APSD of pressure fluctuations

clearly shows peaks at the
characteristic frequency (and their
harmonics) of the rotating blades
(here 30). This characteristic Figure 2: Reference Spectra
frequency is called Rotation Sound
and is calculated by Rotation Sound
Frequency = Shaft Rotating Frequency * Number of Blades. The advantage of using
multiples of shaft rotating frequency instead of absolute frequency values are obvious, because
the number of rotating blades can be immediately identified from the results.
 In the APSD of the shaft movement the rotation sound frequency is not visible.
IFS_95.WPT 191
 The rotation sound of the 30 rotating blades and its harmonics can be clearly seen in the APSD,
best for BK15 (casing) and B10 (bearing). This means that the same information, which can be
found from the pressure fluctuations, is also included in the accelerometer-signals.
This is a very important fact, because accelerometers can be fixed fairly easy at the outside at the
turbine and do not need perforations of the casing like pressure transducers do.
 Variation of air inlet temperature does not affect the results.
Besides the peaks of the rotation sound further peaks are found at the harmonic numbers of 22, 44, and
66. These peaks are due to excitation by a teethed gearing between turbine and generator, where a
defect teeth was found after dismounting.
Failure simulation were carried out to look for characteristic signatures. Fig.3 and fig.4 show some
typical pressure signals.
Figure 3: Pressure Signals after the 1st Stage Figure 4: Pressure Signal after the 4th Stage
Illustrated is the reference pressure signal in comparison to a pressure signal under faulty conditions. So
for 3 missing runner blades at the 4th stage a characteristic increase of the pressure signal behind the
defect stage is visible. Also 2 m far in the diffusor of the turbine this can be detected. In frequency
domain this regards to the excitation of higher harmonics of the rotating frequency and to sidebands
near the rotation sound frequency (fig.5 and fig.6).
Due to the fact that 3 blades are missing, signatures at 3, 6, 9, times of the rotating frequency are
excited and the distance of the sidebands shows also the factor 3 times the rotating frequency. The
IFS_95.WPT 192
frequency modulation of the defects shows a decrease at the rotation sound and its harmonics in
combination with increasing sidebands.
Figure 5: Spectra for Failure Simulation Figure 6: Spectra for Failure Simulation
That these signatures are also detectable with

accelerometers at the casing, is demonstrated in
fig.7. Corresponding to the pressure signal in the
figures before, the excitation of sidebands near the
rotation sound and its harmonics gets visible, as
well as the decrease of the amplitude at the
rotation sound itself. The last figure (fig.8) shows
the coherence between pressure and shaft
movement on one side and pressure and
acceleration on the other. It can be stated that all
detectors include information about the blades.
Information about the meshing teeth of the
reduction gear is only obtained within the
displacement and accelerometer signals. So again
here the coherence prove the ability to determine
the sources of vibrational excitations. To use cor-
relation analysis the probability of secured fault
detection increase. Corresponding to the sections
above cepstra analysis could be used for data
reduction, pointing to speed related harmonical
Figure 7: Spectra at the Turbine Casing
components in spectra and coherences.
IFS_95.WPT 193
Figure 8: Coherences between different Detector Types
IFS_95.WPT 194
Detection of Labyrinth Seals and Blades Touching in Turbines
Touch-Simulator
The efficiency of turbines can be increased by reduction of gap width between the fixed and rotating
structure. Under adverse thermal expansion due to sudden load changes this can lead to mechanical
contact between blades and casing or labyrinth seals and shaft. In order to develop diagnostic tools for
the determination of characteristic signatures, fundamental investigations are carried out at a socalled
touch-simulator. The shaft runs on two bearings and is driven by a three phase asynchronous motor of
adjustable speed.
Two rows of 8 blades are fixed to the shaft. The
casing is adjustable in height. The labyrinth seals are
firmly connected to the casing. By variation of the
vertical position touching is realized. The simulator is
instrumented as follows: Three accelerometers at the
casing (AC4, AC5, AC6), one at the bearing block
(AC7) and three displacement transducers (SV1-3)
which measure the displacement shaft-casing and
shaft-bearing blick, respectively. Also a Figure 1: Instrumentation of the Simulator
synchronizing trigger unit is installed (see fig.1).
Results of experiments performed with the simulator are shown in fig.2. The upper part displays ave-
raged signals in the time domain for the normal case and touching of blades to the casing, whereas the
lower part shows the same for the labyrinth seals. The following results can be seen from the accelero-
meter signals:
 Blade-touching generates a shockwise high
Figure 2: Acceleration Signals (3000 rpm)
frequency signal with exponential decay. Figure 3: APSD of Acceleration
TOUCH_95.WPT 207
 Shaft-seal-touching generates a broad banded

high frequency signal.
The corresponding APSD is shown in fig.3. Touching
of blades to the casing is detectable above 1000 Hz in
the accelerometer signals. A spectral analysis only up
to 800 Hz shows that the APSD of the
simulator-eigen- frequencies remain constant but back
ground noise increases. Beside the peak of the shaft
rotating frequency, 50 Hz, and its harmonics narrow
banded peaks at 75 Hz and 175 Hz show up, which
can be seen best in the ratio of signals with and
without touching. From these peaks it can be
concluded that the number of touching blades varies
per revolution. The touching of labyrinth-seals is also
shown in fig.3 (lower part). A remarkable increase in
APSD can be seen.
Correlation analysis between two displacement Figure 4: Touching of Seals (750 rpm)
transducers demonstrates further characteristic
features for touching shaft seal. Touching changes the fixing conditions of the shaft and by this the
eigen-frequencies move to higher values. Fig.4 demonstrates this effect in the CPSD as well as in the
coherence with a frequency shift from 100 to 150 Hz and 200 to 300 Hz, respectively.
Due to the strong coupling of shaft and casing, this effect can also be found in the signals of the
accelerometers mounted to the casing. In fig.4 CPSD as well as coherence show the frequency shift
caused by touching. In conclusion it can be stated from the results obtained with the simulator, that
touching of blades / casing and shaft / seals has a good chance to be detected using correlation and
spectral analysis techniques. The second part of this chapter is dedicated to condition monitoring
experiments of a 100 MW steam turbine running in a power plant. The aim of these experiments can be
summarized as follows:
Figure 1 Figure 5: Instrumentation of the 100-MW Turbine
TOUCH_95.WPT 208
Figure 6: Acceleration Signals

Figure 7: Standard Deviation
Figure 8: Spectrum of Acceleration (HP-part)
Figure 9: Time Signals
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Figure 11: Spectra of Acceleration
Figure 10: RMS-Values
Figure 13: Time Signals

Figure 12: Quotient of APSD
TOUCH_95.WPT 210
 Feasibility study of method for more complex turbines under operating conditions
 Trend-analysis of characteristic turbine
signatures during operation.
The instrumentation is shown in fig.5 and some

regarded results in the next pictures. The high- (HP),
medium- (MP) and the low pressure (LP) part is
instrumentated with five accelerometers each.
Pressure transducer have been installed in the
diffusers of the medium- and low pressure part. The
shaft displacement is measured at each bearing block
using two displacements sensors with an angular
position of a 90Ε difference. Furthermore one
accelerometer is fixed at each bearing block.
Fig.6 shows 4 accelerometer time signals from the

stuffing boxes of different turbine parts.
Characteristic is an increasing amplitude of
acceleration for the MP-transducer, neither visible in
the HP-part nor in the LP-part. It could be stated
that - if compared with the signatures of
labyrinth-seal touching from the simulator
(fig.2) - an event of touching between shaft and seals
for more or less 0,05s was detected. Figure 14: RMS-Value
Fig.7 shows similar signatures but for the HP-part, and the time of occasion is 10 sec. Displayed are the
RMS-values of different accelerometers at the HP- and MP-part. At the first impression it seems to be
touching in the HP- part. But if one looks for the spectrum of the accelerometer inside the HP-part, for
the moment of touching a broad-banded peak at 8800 Hz becomes visible. An increasing ground level
can not be detected, as it was characteristical for the touching between seals and shaft at the simulator.
Comparisons with measurements carried out at another turbine show that the broad banded increase of
information in frequency ranges between 7000 Hz and 10000 Hz are due to the switching of the main
valves (flow induced turbulences).
Fig.9, 10 and 11 show the characteristic signatures for the occasion of touching in the HP-part at the
example of time signals, RMS-values and spectra. At 0.156 sec. a jump in the acceleration signal at the
HP- stuffing box, up-side occurs, some milli-seconds later the acceleration at the other stuffing box and
the inner casing follows. So the source of this event is situated at the stuffing box on the middle
pressure side, also shown by the RMS-values in fig.10. In the HP-part these characteristic signatures are
not detectable. The signatures in the frequency domain are shown in fig.11, where during touching the
vibration ground level increases for high frequency components bigger than 8000 Hz (corresponding to
the pre-investigations with the simulator).
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If looking at the quotient (fig.12) between the spectral

components for normal operation conditions and
touching, the increasing high frequency components
are clearly seen. So the first step for the identification
of touching between shaft and seals is to look in time
domain (increasing of amplitude and RMS- value)
and to verify the thesis of touching by spectral
analysis, to ensure that the signal source is not related
to switching valves.
Fig.13, 14 and 15 show the signatures for touching in

the middle pressure part. Additionally here the time
and spectral components of the accelerometer on the
bearing box between MP-and LP-part are displayed.
The time signals and RMS prove the stuffing box at
the LP side as source of event. Also the acceleration
signal at the bearing box includes significant infor-
mation, which had to go from place of touching Figure 15: Spectra of Acceleration
trough the shaft, the oil film of the bearing, the
bearing itself to the casing.
Summary
The application note shows that it is possible to detect the touching between shaft and seals, even for
very short time intervals. Normally this happens only during turn on and off drive due to different heat
dissipation and resonances. So critical operation conditions can be found out and the turn can be
optimized by avoiding touching between shaft and seals, to increase the efficiency and to reduce main-
tenance costs, increasing the machine's life time.
TOUCH_95.WPT 212

Condition Monitoring by Vibration Analysis

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Condition Monitoring by Vibration Analysis

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Condition Monitoring by Vibration Analysis

School of Energy and Power Engineering

North China Electric Power University

School of Energy and Power Engineering

North China Electric Power University

Huilongguan, Changping, Beijing 102206, China

1. Vibration Analysis Basics, Terms, and Definitions

Condition Monitoring of Rotating Machines by Vibration Analysis ............................................ 7

2. Data Acquisition, Processing and Evaluation

Vibrations of Machine Arrangements ........................................................................................... 45

3. Excitation Sources of Vibration

Magnetical Excitation in Electrical Motor Drives........................................................................ 84

4. Case Studies of Condition Monitoring in Power Plants

Failure Diagnosis at Fresh Water Pumps (KWG) ...................................................................... 171

1．Condition Monitoring of Rotating Machines by Vibration Analysis

Figure 1 Relation between Abrasion and Maintenance

Figure 2 Increasing Vibration Levels due to Wear

Figure 3 Calculation of Maintenance Costs

Figure 4 defect of turbine

Figure 5 Machine Condition Monitoring

Figure 6 Time Schedule of Vibration Measurements

Figure 7 Analog Signal Processing Unit

Figure 8 Digital Signal Processing Unit

Figure 9 Vibration in General

Figure 10 Vibration of Machines

Figure 11 Generation of Vibration

Figure 12 Measurement of Vibration

2. Norms and Standards for Vibration Control

Fig. 1 Classification of Rotating Machines

Group K, some drive parts of engines or electrical motors up to 15 kW

Fig. 2 Definition of Orbits

Fig. 3 Positions for Displacement Pick Ups

Fig. 4 Interrupted Turn-Drive

Fig. 5 Touching during Turn-Drive

Fig. 6 Weak Self-Excited Vibration

Fig. 7 Self-Excited Vibration

Fig. 10 Start-Up with Banded Shaft

through the critical speed is inadvisable.

Fig. 11 Breakage of a Rotor Blade

Fig. 12 Asymmetrical Heat Transfer

Fig. 13 Progressing Crack

Fig. 14 Shut Down

Fig. 15 Power Variation

Fig. 16 Fast Temperature Changes

Fig. 17 b) Summarized Influences

Fig. 18 Measurement Positions

Fig. 19 Probe Arrangement

3．Response of Mechanical Systems to Vibration and Shock

Fig. 1 Mechanical System

To aid such a specification it is normally necessary to construct a simplified mechanical model

in time domain, and

in frequency domain, with

Fig. 2 Definition of the Half-Power-Point

Fig. 3 Examples for Complex Frequency Response Functions

Fig. 4 Examples of a Multi Degree of Freedom System

Fig. 5 Characteristics of Different Spring Systems

Fig. 6 Amplitude Spectra

Fig. 7 Non Linear Spring Systems

Fig. 8 Non-Linear System

Fig. 9 Example for Torsional Vibration

Fig. 10 Complex Mechanical System

Fig. 11 Frequency Response of a Beam

Fig. 12 Mode Shapes of Plates

Fig. 13 Torsional Vibration of a Beam