Rev.

 1 
 10/30/2011

Need for Unconventional Processes
y New materials having high strength and hardness, such as
nimonic alloys and alloys with alloying elements such as

NTMM tungsten, molybdenum, and columbium are difficult to

machine by the traditional methods.
methods
y By conventional machining the MRR reduces with an
increase in the work material hardness.
y Need for development of non‐traditional machining
processes which utilize other methods such as
By  S K Mondal electrochemical processes for the material removal.

Need for Unconventional Processes In Unconventional Machining
y Complex shapes. y Different forms of energy directly applied to the
workpiece to have shape transformation or material
y A very high accuracy is desired besides the complexity of removal from work surface.
the surface to be machined. y No chips, No lay pattern on work surface, no direct
physical contact between the tool and the workpiece .
y The tool material does not have to be harder than the
work material.
y Tool forces do not increase as the work material gets
harder.
y Economic metal removal rate does not decrease as the
work material gets harder.

Classification of NTMM 1. Thermal Energy Methods
The Non‐traditional Machining Methods are classified y Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
according to the major energy sources employed in
machining. y Laser beam Machining (LBM)
1. Thermal Energy Methods y Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
g
2. Electro ‐ Chemical Energy Method y Electron Beam Machining(EBM)
3. Chemical Energy Methods y Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
4. Mechanical Energy Methods

Page 2 of 45 1
 10/30/2011

2. Electro ‐ Chemical Energy Method 3. Chemical Energy Methods

These methods involve controlled etching of the
y Electro‐Chemical Machining (ECM)
workpiece material in contact with a chemical solution.
y Electro‐Chemical grinding (ECG)
y Chemical Machining Method (CHM).
y Electro‐Chemical Honing (ECH) 
El t Ch i l H i  (ECH) 

y Electro‐Chemical Deburring (ECD)

4. Mechanical Energy Methods Some Observations
y EDM has the lowest specific power requirement and can
y Ultra Sonic Machining (USM)
achieve sufficient accuracy.
y Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) y ECM has the highest metal removal rate, MRR.
y USM and AJM have low MRR and combined with high
y Water Jet Machining (WJM)
g tool wear,, are used for non‐metal cutting.
g
y LBM and EBM have high penetration rates with low
MRR and, therefore, are commonly used for micro
drilling, sheet cutting, and welding.
y CHM is used for manufacturing PCB and other shallow
components.
y PAM can be used for clean, rapid cuts and profiles in
almost all plates upto 20 cm thick with 5o to 10o taper.

Shapes Cutting Capability Limitations of NTMM
The various NTMM have some special shape cutting y Expensive set up, low MRR and skilled labour required.
capability as given below:
y The limitation of electrical machining methods is that
1. Micro‐machining and Drilling : LBM and EBM
the work material must be an electrical conductor. Also,
2 Cavity sinking and standard Hole Drilling: EDM and
2.
consumption of electrical energy is very large.
USM
y The NTMM which have not been proved commercially
3. Fine hole drilling and Contour Machining: ECM
economical are: USM, AJM, CHM, EBM and PAM.
4. Clean, rapid Cuts and Profiles: PAM

5. Shallow Pocketing: AJM

Page 3 of 45 2
 10/30/2011

Electrochemical Machining
y Electrochemical machining is the reverse of electro
plating
y The work‐piece is made the anode, which is placed in

ECM close proximity to an electrode (cathode), and a high‐

amperage direct current is passed between them through
an electrolyte, such as salt water, flowing in the anode‐
cathode gap.
y Metal is removed by anodic dissolution and is carried
By  S K Mondal away in the form of a hydroxide in the electrolyte for
recycling or recovery.
y MRR in ECM depends on atomic weight of work material

Electrochemical Machining
y Variation in the current density will result in work
taking the electrodes shape.
y The electrode is fed with a constant velocity, and the
electrolyte is fed through the tool.

Fig- Electrochemical Machining process

ECM Equipment ECM Equipment
y Supply Voltage 2 to 35 V DC and Current 500 to 40,000 A
y The tool‐to‐work gap needs to be maintained at a very
small value 0.1 to 0.25 mm. A servo drive is provided on
the tool axis for this purpose.
y The
Th electrolyte
l t l t needs d to
t be
b pumped
d through
th h this
thi gap att
high pressures ranging from 0.70 to 3.00 MPa. This
introduces a large amount of load on the machine,
because of the large working areas involved. Hence the
machine structure will have to be made rigid to a
withstand such forces.

Page 4 of 45 3
 10/30/2011

ECM Equipment Electrolyte
y The electrolyte consists of the metal debris removed The electrolyte is so chosen that the anode (workpiece)
from the anode, which will have to be filtered before it is is dissolved but no deposition takes place on the cathode
re‐pumped into the system. (tool).
y Also a large amount of heat is generated during the
Properties electrolyte should be
electrolysis which heats up the electrolyte,
electrolysis, electrolyte and hence it 1. Highg electrical conductivityy
needs to be cooled. 2. Low viscosity
3. High specific heat
4. Chemical stability
5. Resistance to formation of passivating film on
workpiece surface
6. Non‐corrosive and non‐toxic
7. Inexpensive and readily available

Tool
The properties of tool materials should be:
1. High electrical and thermal comductivity
2. Easy machinability
3. Good shiffness

For ECM of steel NaCl is used as the electrolyte. 4. High corrosion resistance

y Tool materials: Copper, brass, bronze, Al, Stainless

Steel, Cupro nickel, etc.
y Material wear / Tool wear: Infinite

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Complex three‐dimensional surfaces can be machined 1. Use of corrosive media as electrolytes makes it difficult to
handle.
accurately. Good for low machinability or complicated
2. Sharp interior edges and corners (< 0.2 mm radius) are
shapes. difficult to produce.
2. As ECM leads to atomic level dissolution, the surface 3. Very expensive machine.
fi i h is
finish i excellent
ll t (Ra 0.2 to
t 0.66 μm)) with
ith almost
l t stress
t 4. Forces are large with this method because of fluid pumping
free machined surface and without any thermal forces.
damage. 5. Very high specific energy consumption (about 150 times
3. The tool wear is practically nil which results in a large that required for conventional processes),
number of components produced per tool. 6. Not applicable with electrically non‐conducting materials
and jobs with very small dimensions
4. MRR is highest (1600 mm3/min) among NTMM and 7. Lower fatigue strength
comparable with conventional machining.

Page 5 of 45 4
 10/30/2011

Applications PSU
y Any electrically conductive work material irrespective
of their hardness, strength or even thermal properties. ECM cannot be undertaken for
y The machining surface can be situated at any (a) steel
inaccessible.
(b) Nickel based superalloy
y Shape application – blind complex cavities, curved
surfaces through cutting,
surfaces, cutting large through cavities.
cavities (c) Al2O3
y It is used for the machining of the gas turbine blades. (d) Titanium alloy
y Die sinking
y Profiling and contouring
y Trepanning
y Grinding
y Drilling
y Micro‐machining

ECM Calculations
PSU Faraday’s laws state that,
Commercial ECM is carried out at a combination It E
of m =
(a) low voltage high current F
(b) low current low voltage Where m  = weight (g) of a material
(c) high current high voltage I = current (A)
(d) low current low voltage t = time (sec)
E = gram equivalent weight of the 
material
F = constant of proportionality –
Faraday (96,500 coulombs)

ECM Calculations ECM Calculations
EI AI
yMRR = F
g/s =
F. V
g/s
‐3

If you put E = equivalent weight in CGS i.e.  g/mole
If you put E = equivalent weight in CGS i e   g/mole
I in Ampere (A)
F = 96500 columb/mole  i. e.   As/mole
The MRR will be in g/s

Page 6 of 45 5
 10/30/2011

ECM Calculations Example
y MRR for pure metal Using ECM remove 5 cm3/min from an iron workpiece, 
what current is required?
AI ⎛ cm3 ⎞ EI ⎛ cm3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ Atomic weight of iron 56, density 7.8 g/cm3 valency, 2
ρvF ⎝ sec ⎠ ρF ⎝ sec ⎠
y MRR for Alloy
Eeq I ⎛ cm3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
ρeq F ⎝ sec ⎠

100 ⎛x ⎞ 100 ⎛x v ⎞
= ∑⎜ i ⎟ and = ∑⎜ i i ⎟
ρeq i ⎝ ρi ⎠ Eeq i ⎝ Ai ⎠

Example Example (GATE‐2009)
Calculate the material removal rate and the Electrochemical machining is performed to remove 
electrode feed rate in the electrochemical material from an iron surface of 20 mm x 20 mm under 
machining of an iron surface that is 25 mm × 25 mm the following conditions:
in cross‐section using NaCl in water as electrolyte. Inter electrode gap = 0.2 mm
The gap between the tool and the workpiece is 0.25 Supply Voltage (DC) 
S l  V lt  (DC)  = 12 V
 V
mm. The supply voltage is 12 V DC. The specific
Specific resistance of electrolyte Ω
= 2   cm
resistance of the electrolyte is 3 Ω c m
For iron, Valency, Z = 2 Atomic weight of Iron = 55.85
Atomic weight, A = 55.85 Valency of Iron = 2
Density, = 7860 kg / m3 Faraday's constant  = 96540 Coulombs
The material removal rate (in g/s) is

Example Flow analysis
Composition of a Nickel super‐alloy is as follows: y To calculate the fluid flow required, match the heat
Ni = 70.0%, Cr = 20.0%, Fe = 5.0% and rest Titanium generated to the heat absorbed by the electrolyte.
Calculate rate of dissolution if the area of the tool is 1500
mm2 and a current of 1000 A is being passed through the
cell Assume dissolution to take place at lowest valancy
cell.
of the elements.

y Neglecting all the heat losses

l2R = q ρe ce (θB − θo )

Page 7 of 45 6
 10/30/2011

Example
The electrochemical machining of an iron surface that is Overvoltage
25 mm × 25 mm in cross‐section using NaCl in water as y If the total over voltage at the anode and the cathode is
electrolyte. The gap between the tool and the workpiece ΔV and the applied voltage is V, the current I is given
is 0.25 mm. The supply voltage is 12 V DC. The specific by,
V − ΔV
resistance of the electrolyte is 3 Ωcm. I=
R
Estimate the electrolyte flow rate. Specific heat of the
electrolyte is given as 0.997 cal/g˚C. The ambient
temperature is 35˚C and the electrolyte boiling
temperature, is 95˚C.
Density, = 7860 kg/cm3

Dynamics of Electrochemical Machining Example
In ECM operation of pure iron an equilibrium gap of 2
mm is to be kept. Determine supply voltage, if the total
overvoltage is 2.5 V. The resistivity of the electrolyte is 50
Ω‐mm and the set feed rate is 0.25 mm/min.

y Schematic representation of the ECM process with no

feed to the tool

Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
y In ECG, the tool electrode is a rotating, metal bonded,
diamond grit grinding wheel.
y As the electric current flows between the workpiece and the
wheel, through the electrolyte, the surface metal is changed
to a metal oxide, which is ground away by the abrasives. As
the oxide film is removed,
removed new surface metal is oxidized and
removed.
y ECG is a low‐voltage high‐current electrical process.
y The purpose of the abrasive is to increase the efficiency of the
ECG process and permit the continuance of the process.
y The abrasive particles are always nonconductive material
such as aluminum oxide, diamond, or borazon (CBN). Thus
they act as an insulating spacer maintaining a separation of Equipment setup and electrical circuit for electrochemical grinding.
from 0.012 to 0.050 mm between the electrodes.

Page 8 of 45 7
 10/30/2011

Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
y The process is used for shaping and sharpening Other Electrochemical processes
carbide cutting tools, which cause high wear rates on
expensive diamond wheels in normal grinding. y Electrochemical polishing
Electrochemical grinding greatly reduces this wheel
wear. y Electrochemical hole‐drilling
g
y Fragile parts (honeycomb structures), surgical needles,
and tips of assembled turbine blades have been ECG‐ y Electrochemical Deburring
processed successfully.
y The lack of heat damage, burrs, and residual stresses is
very beneficial, particularly when coupled with MRRs
that are competitive with conventional grinding but
with far less wheel wear.

Physical Principle
y Basic process

EDM

Physical Principle Physical Principle
y An arc jumps between two points along the path of least y The energy of the arc is so concentrated that it causes the
resistance. electrode, and the work to melt. But the electrode
material is chosen so that it melts less.

Page 9 of 45 8
 10/30/2011

Physical Principle Physical Principle
y The metal and dielectric fluid is partly vaporized, y The blast from the expanding vapors knocks some
causing sudden expansion. molten particles loose, and the remaining molten metal
hardens.

Characteristics of EDM Characteristics of EDM
y Mechanics of material removal ‐ melting and y Uses Voltage of 60 to 300 V to give a transient arc lasting
evaporation aided by cavitation. from 0.1 μ s to 8 ms.
y The process is based on melting temperature, not y Typical cycle time is 20 ms or less, up to millions of
hardness, so some very hard materials can be machined cycles may be required for completion of the part.
this way.
way y Rotating
R t ti the
th wire
i ini an orbital
bit l direction
di ti will,
ill
y The arc that jumps heats the metal, and about 1 to 10% of ‐ Increase accuracy in form and surface finish
the molten metal goes into the fluid. The melted metal ‐ Decrease electrode wear
then recast layer is about 1 to 30 μm thick, and is
generally hard and rough. y Surface finish obtained 0.25 μm
y The electrode workpiece gap is in the range of 10 μm to
100 μm.

EDM Tool EDM Tool
Prime requirements EDM tool Material The usual choices for tool (electrode) materials are
1. It should be electrically conductive. y Copper, 
2. It should have good machinability, thus allowing y brass, 
easy manufacture of complex shapes. y alloys of zinc and tin, 
3. It should have low erosion rate or good work to tool y hardened plain carbon steel, 
wear ratio. y copper tungsten, 
4. It should have low electrical resistance.
y silver tungsten, 
5. It should have high melting point.
y tungsten carbide, 
6. It should have high electron emission.
y copper graphite, and graphite. 

Page 10 of 45 9
 10/30/2011

Wear Ratio  Servo‐Mechanism
y One major drawback of EDM is the wear that occurs on y The gap between the tool and work has a critical
the electrode at each spark. Tool wear is given in terms of
wear ratio which is defined as, importance. As the workpiece is machined, this gap
tends to increase. For optimum machining efficiency,
Volume of metal removed work
W
Wear ratio
ti =
Volume of metal removed tool this gap should be maintained constant. This is done by
servo‐ mechanism which controls the movement of the
y Wear ratio for brass electrode is 1: 1. For most other
metallic electrodes, it is about 3: 1 or 4: 1. electrode.
y With graphite (with the highest melting point, 3500°C),
the wear ratio may range from 5: 1 up to 50: 1.

Dielectric Fluid IES 2011 Conventional
y Fluid is used to act as a dielectric, and to help carry away
Discuss the effects of insufficient dielectric and
debris.
y If the fluid is pumped through and out the end of the electrolyte circulation in the inter‐electrode gap on the
electrode, particles will push out, and mainly collect at
the edges. They will lower the dielectric resistance, Electric Discharge machining and Electro Chemical
resulting in more arcs. As a result the holes will be Machining process respectively. [5 Marks]
conical.
y If fluid is vacuum pumped into the electrode tip, straight
holes will result.
y Quite often kerosene‐based oil.
y The dielectric fluid is circulated through the tool at a
pressure of 0.35 N/m2 or less. To free it from eroded
metal particles, it is circulated through a filter.

Relaxation circuit Advantages
1. Hardness, toughness or brittleness of the material poses no
problems. Due to this EDM can be used for machining
materials that are too hard or brittle to be machined by
conventional methods.
2. The method does not leave any chips or burrs on the work
Fig-Relaxation circuit used for generating the pulses in EDM process piece.
piece
3. Cutting forces are virtually zero, so very delicate and fine
work can be done.
4. The process dimension repeatability and surface finish
obtained in finishing are extremely good.
5. The characteristic surface obtained, which is made up of
craters, helps in better oil retention. This improves die life.
6. Because the forces between the tool and the workpiece and
virtually zero, very delicate work can be done.

Page 11 of 45 10
 10/30/2011

Disadvantages Applications
1. Only electrically conductive materials can be machined
y EDM can be used for machining any material that is
by EDM. Thus non ‐ metallic, such as plastics, ceramics
or glass, cannot be machined by EDM. electrically conductive, thus including metals, alloys and
2. Electrode wear and over‐cut are serious problems.
most carbides.
33. A re‐hardened,, highly
g y stressed zone is p
produced on the
work surface by the heat generated during machining. y EDM is widely used for machining burr free intricate
This brittle layer can cause serious problems when the
part is put into service. shapes, narrow slots and blind cavities etc., for example,
4. Perfectly square corners cannot be made by EDM. sinking of dies for moulding, die casting, plastic
5. High specific energy consumption (about 50 times that
in conventional machining) moulding, wire drawing, compacting, cold heading,
6. MRR is quite low forging, extrusion and press tools.

Applications Applications
y EDM is particularly useful when dealing with internal y The method is also employed for blanking parts from sheets,

cuts that are hard to get tools into. Machining tends to
work best with external cuts.
y In EDM method,
y Almost any geometry (negative of tool geometry) can be
generated on a workpiece if a suitable tool can be
fabricated (the use of punch as a tool to machine its own
mating die is commonly employed in EDM method).
cutting off rods of materials, flat or form grinding and
sharpening of tools, cutters and broaches.
method small holes,
holes about 0.13
0 13 mm,
mm in
diameter and as deep as 20mm diameters can be drilled
with virtually no bending or drifting of hole. Due to this,
EDM is particularly useful for machining of small holes,
orifices or slots in diesel‐fuel injection nozzles, or in aircraft
engines, air brake valves and so on.

Wire EDM
IES 2009 Conventional y Wire EDM is a special form of EDM wherein the
i. What is the principle of metal removal in EDM electrode is a continuously moving conductive wire.
process?
ii. Describe the process with the help of sketch. y A thin wire of brass, tungsten, or copper is used as an
iii. List advantages and limitations of the system. electrode.
[ 15 marks]
y The electrode wire is typically made with a 0.05 to 0.25‐
mm diameter, which is wire electrode wound between
the two spools.

y Deionized water is used as the dielectric.

Page 12 of 45 11

y Geometrically accurate but moderately finished straight
toothed metallic spur gears, both external and internal
type, can be produced by wire type Electro discharge
Machining (EDM).
Fig- Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG)
Page 13 of 45
10/30/2011
Wire EDM
y This process is much faster than electrode EDM.
y This process is widely used for the manufacture of
punches, dies, and stripper plates, with modern
machines capable of cutting die relief, intricate
openings, tight radius contours, and corners routinely.
Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG)
y EDG is similar to EDM except that the electrode is a
rotating wheel (usually graphite).
y Positively charged work pieces are immersed in or
flooded by a dielectric fluid and fed past the negatively
charged wheel by servo‐controlled
servo controlled machine table.
table
y Metal is removed by intermittent high frequency
electrical discharges passing through the gap between
wheel and workpiece.
y Each spark discharge melts or vaporizes a small amount
of metal from the workpiece surface, producing a small
crate at the discharge sit, as in EDM.
Electric Discharge Grinding (EDG)
y The spark gap is normally held at 0.013 to 0.076 mm
y The graphite wheel is rotated at 0.5 to 3 m/s
The method can be used for
1. External cylindrical grinding, internal grinding and
surface grinding.
2. Grinding carbide and steel at the same time without
wheel loading.
3. Grinding thin sections where abrasive wheel pressures
might cause distortion.
4. Grinding brittle materials or fragile parts where
abrasive materials might cause fracturing.
12
 10/30/2011

Ultrasonic Machining
Ultrasonic Machining

By  S K Mondal

Ultrasonic Machining Ultrasonic Machining
y In ultrasonic machining, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an y USM is mainly used for machining brittle materials
ultrasonic frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of {which are poor conductors of electricity and thus
around 15 – 50 μm over the workpiece. cannot be processed by Electrochemical and Electro‐
y Generally the tool is pressed downward with a feed force, F. discharge machining (ECM and EDM)}.
p
Between the tool and workpiece, , the machining g zone is
flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of
water based slurry.
y As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, the abrasive particles
act as the indenters and indent both the work material and
the tool. The abrasive particles, as they indent, the work
material, would remove the same, particularly if the work
material is brittle, due to crack initiation, propagation and
brittle fracture of the material.

Ultrasonic Machining Process Parameters 
y At full indentation, the indentation depth in the work
material is characterized by δw. Due to the indentation,
as the work material is brittle, brittle fracture takes place
leading to hemi‐spherical fracture of diameter ‘2x’ under
the contact zone.
y If at any moment of time, there are an average ‘n’ of grits
and the tool is vibrating at a frequency ‘f’ then material
removal rate can be expressed as

2
y MRRw = π (δ w db )3/2 nf
3

Page 14 of 45 13
 10/30/2011

Effect of machining parameters on MRR Ultrasonic Machine

Ultrasonic Machine Ultrasonic Machine
y The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar y Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on
to a drill press. the tool during machining
y It has additional features to carry out USM of brittle y The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration
work material. y The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies
y The
Th workpiece
k i is
i mounted
t d on a vice,
i which
hi h can beb the
th vibration
ib ti to t the
th required
i d amplitude
lit d off 15 – 50 μm and
d
located at the desired position under the tool using a 2 accommodates the tool at its tip.
axis table.
y The table can further be lowered or raised to
accommodate work of different thickness.
y Slurry delivery and return system

Subsystems of USM
Subsystems of  USM Transducer
y The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the
transducer. The transducer is driven by suitable signal
generator followed by power amplifier. The transducer
B
for USM works on the following principle
¾ Piezoelectric effect

A C ¾ Magnetostrictive effect

¾ Electrostrictive effect

y Magnetostrictive transducers are most popular and

robust amongst all.
E D

Page 15 of 45 14
 10/30/2011

Tool holder or Horn Tool
y Its function is to increase the tool vibration amplitude y Tools should be constructed from relatively ductile
and to match the vibrator to the acoustic load. materials.

y It must be constructed of a material with good acoustic y The harder the tool material, the faster its wear rate will
properties and be highly resistant to fatigue cracking. be.

y Monel and titanium have good acoustic properties and

are often used together with stainless steel, which is
cheaper.

Limitations Applications
y Low MRR y Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys,
y Rather high tool wear semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc.
y Low depth of hole y Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped
holes and surface impressions.
y Machining,
M hi i wire
i drawing,
d i punching
hi or small
ll blanking
bl ki
dies.

Note Chemical Machining
y The following material is generally machined by USM y Chemicals are used to dissolve material
(i) Glass
(ii) Silicon y Masks are used to control attack
(iii) Germanium y Most common use is circuit boards and p
plates for
y Tool in USM is generally made of Steel
printing.

y Cutting speed of 0.0025‐0.1 mm/minute – very slow

Page 16 of 45 15
 10/30/2011

Chemical Machining Photo‐Chemical Machining
y PCM is a material removal process using chemicals
(etchants) to produce high precision parts.
y This process is also known as Photo Etching, Chemical
Blanking and Photo Chemical Milling.
y Coat
C t both
b th sides
id off the
th plate
l t with
ith photoresist.
h t i t
(photoresist is a polymer that adheres to the metal when
exposed to UV light).
y Spray metal with etchant or dip it in hot acidic solution
to etch all material other than part covered with
photoresist (1‐15 min.).
y Rinse the plate to ensure photoresist and etchant
removal.

Photo‐Chemical Machining Laser Beam Machining

94

Laser Beam Machining Laser Beam Machining
y Direct laser beam against surface of workpiece, as in
y Produces large remelt zone
laser welding
y Can produce holes as small as 0.0005 mm diameter
y Successive pulses from laser gun vaporize tiny bits of
y Can produce deep holes
workpiece
k i
y Used to produce cooling holes in blades/vanes for jet 
y Location of laser beam controlled by computer
engines
y Workpiece need not be conductive

y Cuts are tapered

y Gotta trap overshoot from laser beam

95 96

Page 17 of 45 16
 10/30/2011

Electron Beam Machining Electron Beam Machining
y Workpiece placed in vacuum chamber

y High‐voltage electron beam directed toward

workpiece

y Energy of electron beam melts/ vaporizes selected

region of workpiece

y Electron beam moved by deflection coils

y Similar process to EB welding

97 98

Plasma Arc Cutting
y Plasma is a stream of ionized gas
y Typical temperatures are very high
y Same process as plasma welding, without filler metal
y Torch movement controlled by computer
y Power requirements depend on material being cut,
plus depth of cut
y Recast layer is deeper than with other processes
Water Jet Machining
y Narrow jet of water directed, at high pressure and 
velocity, against surface of workpiece
y Jet of water erodes surface of workpiece, thereby 
cutting workpiece
y Computer control to achieve shape

99 100

Water Jet Machining Abrasive Jet Machining (Dry)
y Similar to sand blasting, except that a very narrow jet
of air/abrasive particles achieves localized cutting

y Computer used to position jet

101 102

Page 18 of 45 17
 10/30/2011

Abrasive Jet Machining Abrasive WJ Cutting
y Used to cut much harder materials

y Water is not used directly to cut material as in Pure,

instead water is used to accelerate abrasive particles which
g
do the cutting
y 80‐mesh garnet (sandpaper) is typically used though 50
and 120‐mesh is also used
y Standoff distance between mixing tube and workpart is
typically 0.010‐0.200 – important to keep to a minimum to
keep a good surface finish
103

Abrasive WJ Cutting
y Evolution of mixing tube
technology
y Standard Tungsten Carbide
lasts 4‐6
4 6 hours (not used much
anymore)
y Premium Composite Carbide
lasts 100‐150 hours
y Consumables include water,
abrasive, orifice and mixing
tube

Ch‐10: Non‐Conventional Machining Operation
Q. No Option Q. No Option
1 D 8 D
2 B 9 A
3 B 10 B
4 D 11 D
5 D 12 A
6 B 13 A
7 A 14 B

Page 19 of 45 18

NC, CNC & Robotics
By  S K Mondal
What is the difference between NC and CNC ?
y The difference between NC and CNC is one of age and
capability.
y The earliest NC machines performed limited functions
and movements controlled by punched tape or punch
cards.
cards
y As the technology evolved, the machines were equiped
with increasingly powerful microprocessors (computers)
with the addition of these computers, NC machines
become CNC machines.
y CNC machines have far more capability than their
predecessor. contd…..
Where did CNC get started?
y 1940 Jhon Parson developed first machine able to drill
holes at specific coordinates programmed on punch
cards.
y 1951 MIT developed servo‐mechanism
y 1952 MIT developed first NC machines for milling.
y 1970 First CNC machines came into picture
Now‐a‐day’s modified 1970’s machines are used.
Page 20 of 45
10/30/2011
What is NC/CNC?
y NC is an acronym for Numerical Control and CNC is an
acronym for Computer Numerical Control.
What is the difference between NC and CNC ?
y Some of the enhancements that came along with CNC
include: Canned Cycles, Sub Programming, Cutter
Compensation, Work coordinates, Coordinate system
rotation, automatic corner rounding, chamfering, and B‐
spline interpolation.
Do all machines speak the same CNC 
language
y No, while there is fairly standard set of G and M codes,
there is some variation in their application. For example
a G0 or G00 command is universally regarded as the
command for rapid travel. Some older machines do not
have a G00 command. On these machines, rapid travel is
commanded by using the F (feed) word address.
1
 10/30/2011

What is a “Conversational Control” Are CNC machines faster than 
y CNC machine tool builders offer an option what is conventional machines?
known as the conversational control. This control lets
y Yes, No, Sometimes. When it comes to making a single,
the operator/programmer use simple descriptive
simple part it is hard to beat a conventional mill or lathe.
lathe
language to program the part. The control then
CNC machines move faster in rapid travel than
displayed a graphical representation of the instructions
conventional machines.
so the operator/programmer can verify the tool path.

Are CNC machines more accurate  NC/CNC Machines‐Advantages
than conventional machines? y High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts
y Volume of production is very high
y Yes, they can be. But like anything else it depends on y Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined. E.g.
Turbines
who
h is
i running
i the
th machine,
hi how
h well
ll the
th machines
hi has
h
y Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less
been maintained, quality of setup and so on. scrap
y More safe, higher productivity, better quality
y Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction
in lead times

NC/CNC Machines‐Disadvantages NC/CNC/DNC
y Direct Numerical Control is a system that uses a
y Costly setup, skilled operators
central computer to control several machines at the same
y Computers, programming knowledge required time
y Distributed Numerical Control (DNC): the central
y Maintenance is difficult computer
t downloads
d l d complete l t programs tot the
th CNC
machines, which can be workstations or PCs, and can get
the information for the machine operations.
y The speed of the system is increased, large files can be
handled and the number of machine tools used is
expanded.

12

Page 21 of 45
2
 10/30/2011

Direct numerical control DNC

13 14

Basic CNC Principles
Stepper Motor
y The stepper motor is special type of synchronous motor
which is designed to rotate through a specific angle
(Called step) for each electrical pulse received from the
control unit.

Basic Length Unit (BLU)
y In NC machine, the displacement length per one pulse
output from machine is defined as a Basic Length Unit
(BLU).
y In the CNC computer each bit (binary digit) represents 1
BLU.
BLU
Bit = BLU
y Example: If one pulse makes a servo motor rotate by one
degree and the servo motor moves the table by 0.0001
mm, one BLU will be 0.0001 mm.
y The lead of a ball screw is related to the displacement
unit of the machine tool table.

Page 22 of 45
3
 10/30/2011

Example IES 2011 Conventional
y A DC servomotor is coupled directly to a leadscrew y The table of a CNC machine is driven by a Lead screw which
which drives the table of an NC machine tool. A is rotated by a DC servomotor. A digital encoder which emits
digital encoder, which emits 500 pulses per
1000 pulses per second is mounted on the lead screw as a
revolution, is mounted on the other end of the
leadscrew.
leadscrew If the leadscrew pitch is 5 mm and the feedback device. If the lead screw p
pitch is 6 mm and motor
motor rotates at 600 rpm, calculate rotates at 500 rpm, find
(a) The linear velocity of the table 1. Basic length Units of the system
(b) The BLU of the NC system
2. Linear velocity of the table.
(c) The frequency of pulses transmitted by the encoder.
3. Frequency of pulses generated by the feedback device.
[5 Marks]

Statement for Linked Answers questions: S‐1 GATE – 2008 Q‐1 (Statement in S‐1) 

In the feed drive of a Point‐to‐Point open loop CNC The Basic Length Unit (BLU), i.e., the table
drive, a stepper motor rotating at 200 steps/rev drives a movement corresponding to 1 pulse of the pulse
table through a gear box and lead screw‐nut mechanism generator, is
(pitch = 4 mm, number of starts = 1). (a) 0.5 microns (b) 5 microns
Output rotational speed
The gear ratio = Input rotational speed is given by U = 14 ( ) 50 microns
(c) i (d) 500 microns
i
The stepper motor (driven by voltage pulses from a pulse
generator) executes 1 step/pulse of the pulse generator.
The frequency of the pulse train from the pulse
generator is f = 10,000 pulses per minute.

GATE – 2008 Q‐2 (Statement in S‐1)  Control Systems possible in CNC Machine

A customer insists on a modification to change the BLU y Point to point mode:
of the CNC drive to 10 microns without changing the
table speed. The modification can be accomplished by

Page 23 of 45
4
 10/30/2011

Point‐to‐point  straight line mode

Co‐ordinate system
y All the machine tool use Cartesian Co‐ordinate system.
y The first axis to be identified is the Z – axis, This is
followed by X and Y axes respectively.

Right‐hand coordinate systems

Page 24 of 45
5
 10/30/2011

Absolute and Incremental Coordinate System

5 axes CNC vertical axis machining centre configuration Absolute Coordinate System Incremental Coordinate System

The following are the steps to be followed 
while developing the CNC part programs.
y Process planning
y Axes selection
y Tool selection
y Cutting process parameters planning
y Job and tool setup planning
y Machining path planning y For a CNC machine control unit (MCU) decides cutting
y Part program writing speed, feed, depth of cut, tool selection , coolant on off
y Part program proving and tool paths. The MCU issues commands in form of
numeric data to motors that position slides and tool
accordingly.

Page 25 of 45
6
 10/30/2011

Part Programming CNC programming
Important things to know:
y FANUC CONTROLL
• Coordinate System
y SIEMENS CONTROLL
• Units, incremental or absolute positioning
• Coordinates: X,Y,Z, RX,RY,RZ
• Feed rate and spindle speed
• Coolant Control: On/Off, Flood, Mist
• Tool Control: Tool and tool parameters

Table of Important G codes
Programming Key Letters Code Meaning Format
y O ‐ Program number (Used for program identification)
G00 Rapid Transverse N__G00 X___ Y___ Z___
y N ‐ Sequence number (Used for line identification) G01 Linear Interpolation N__G01 X___ Y___ Z___ F___
y G ‐ Preparatory function G02 Circular Interpolation,  N__G02 X__ Y__ Z___ R___ F___
y X ‐ X axis designation CW N__G02 X___ Y__Z__I ___J __K __ F __
y Y ‐ Y axis designation
g
G
G03 Circular Interpolation,
C l   l N G X___ Y___ Z__R__F___
N__G03 X  Y  Z R F
y Z ‐ Z axis designation
y R ‐ Radius designation CCW N__G03 X__ Y__Z__I __J __K __ F __
y F – Feed rate designation G04 Dwell N__G04P___
y S ‐ Spindle speed designation
G17 XY Plane
y H ‐ Tool length offset designation
y D ‐ Tool radius offset designation G18 XZ Plane
y T ‐ Tool Designation G19 YZ Plane
y M ‐ Miscellaneous function

Table of Important G codes Table of Important G codes
Code Meaning Format Code Meaning Format
G20/G70 Inch Unit G44 Tool length compensation  N__G44H__
G21/G71 Metric Unit (minus)
G28 Automatic Return to Reference   G49 Tool length compensation 
Point cancel
G40 Cutter compensation cancel G
G80 C y
Cancel canned cycles
G81 Drilling cycle N__G81 Z__R__F__
G41 Cutter compensation left N__G41D__
G42 Cutter compensation right N__G42D__ G90 Absolute positioning
G91 Incremental positioning
G43 Tool length compensation  N__G43H__ G92 Absolute preset, change the  N__G92X__Y__Z__
(plus) datum position

Page 26 of 45
7
 10/30/2011

Rapid traverse: G00 Linear interpolation: G01 
y G01: 
y G00: 
y linear interpolation at feed speed.
y to make the machine move at maximum speed. 
G91 G0l X200.0 Y100.0 F200.0
y It is used for positioning motion. 
G90  G00  X20.0  Y10.0
G90  G00  X20 0  Y10 0 Y
G91: 
End
End incremental  100.0
G90:  coordinates
(20,10)
absolute 
coordinates (10,10)

Start (0,0)
Start 200.0 X

Circular interpolation: G02, G03  Circular interpolation: G02, G03
y G02, G03: 
y For circular interpolation, the tool destination and the circle  Y
center are programmed in one block 
y G02 is clockwise interpolation, G03 is counterclockwise  X R=-50mm
interpolation End Specify R with 
⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫ sign before it:
G17 ⎨ ⎬ X __ Y __ ⎨ ⎬ F __;
⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ I __ J __ ⎭ ≤180° +R
⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫ R=50mm >180° ‐R
G18 ⎨ ⎬ X __ Z __ ⎨ ⎬ F __; Start
⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ I __ K __ ⎭
⎧G 02 ⎫ ⎧ R ⎫
G19 ⎨ ⎬Y __ Z __ ⎨ ⎬ F __;
⎩G 03 ⎭ ⎩ J __ K __ ⎭ G91 G02  X60.0  Y20.0  R50.0 F300.0
End  Circle center,  radius G91 G02  X60.0  Y20.0  R‐50.0 F300.0
point

Circular interpolation: G02, G03 Circular interpolation: G02, G03
N0010 G92   X200.0  Y40.0  Z0 ;
Y y Specify Center with I, J, K N0020 G90   G03  X140.0  Y100.0  I ‐60.0  F300；
End
N0030 G02   X120. 0  Y60.0  I‐ 50.0； G92:
y I, J, K are the incremental 
Or To define working 
distance from the start of 
N0010 G92  X200.0  Y40.0  Z0；
N0010 G92  X200 0  Y40 0  Z0； coordinate
X the arc;
h
N0020 G90  G03  X140.0   Y100.0  R60.0  F300；
y Viewing the start of arc as  N0030 G02  X120.0  Y60.0   R50.0；
Start the origin, I, J, K have 
Y
j positive or negative signs. G90: 
Center absolute  100 R50
i coordinates 60 R60
40
X
O 90 120 140 200

Page 27 of 45
8
 10/30/2011

Circular interpolation: G02, G03 Tool Compensation
Annotation for Circular Interpolation y Tool‐Radius Compensation 
y I0.0, J0.0, and K0.0 can be omitted.  y Left hand G41 
y If X,Y,Z are all omitted in the program, that means  y Right hand G42 
start and end of arc are same points. 
start and end of arc are same points   y Cancel tool‐radius compensation G40
C l  l di   i  G
N0020 G02 I20.0  (a full circle)
y Tool‐Height Compensation
y If I, J, K, and R all appears in circular interpolation 
y Positive G43 
instruction, R is valid and I, J, and K are invalid
y Negative G44 
y Cancel tool‐height compensation G49

Tool‐Radius Compensation Cancel Tool Compensation: G40
y Tool‐radius compensations make it possible to 
program directly from the drawing, and thus eliminate  y Note the difference between two ways
the tool‐offset calculation 
N0060 G01 X2.000 Y1.700
G41 (G42) D×× N0060 G40 G01 X2.000 Y1.700 M02
N0070 G40
7 4 M02
y D××: the radius of tool to compensate is saved in a memory unit that 
D  th   di   f t l t   t  i   d i       it th t 
is named D××
y G41/G42 is directly related with direction of tool movement and 
which side of part is cut. 

ramp off block effective to the end point

Tool‐Height Compensation Tool‐Height Compensation
G43 (G44) H×× y Example:
y N0010   G91  G00  X12.0   Y80.0  G91: 
y H××: specified memory unit used to save height 
y N0020   G44   Z‐32.0  H02； incremental 
compensation of tool. coordinates
y Positive compensation (G43):  
y If we put 0.5mm into H02, 
real position = specified position + value saved in H××
y real position = ‐32.0 ‐ 0.5 = ‐32.5
y Negative compensation (G44): 
real position = specified position ‐ value saved in H×× y Cancel tool‐height compensation: G49

Page 28 of 45
9
 10/30/2011

Table of Important M codes Rules for programming
y M00 Program stop
Block Format
y M01 Optional program stop
y M03 Spindle on clockwise N135 G01 X1.0 Y1.0 Z0.125 F5

y M04 Spindle on counterclockwise Sample Block

• Restrictions on CNC blocks
y M05 Spindle stop • Each may contain only one tool move
y M06 Tool change • Each may contain any number of non-tool move G-codes
• Each may contain only one feed rate
y M08 Coolant on • Each may contain only one specified tool or spindle speed
y M09 Coolant off • The block numbers should be sequential
• Both the program start flag and the program number must be
y M10 Clamps on independent of all other commands (on separate lines)
• The data within a block should follow the sequence shown
y M11 Clamps off in the above sample block
y M02 or M30 Program stop, reset to start

Tool Home

Example of CNC Programming Top 
View
y What Must Be Done To Drill A Hole On A CNC 
Vertical Milling Machine
g

1.) X & Y Rapid To Hole Position
Front 
View

Top 
View 2.) Z Axis Rapid Move 
Just Above Hole Top 
View
3.) Turn On Coolant
5
5.) Z Axis Feed Move to 
4.) Turn On Spindle
) O i dl Drill Hole

.100”
Front  Front 
View View

Page 29 of 45
10
 10/30/2011

Top  Top 
View View 7.) Turn Off Spindle
6.) Rapid Z Axis Move 
Out Of Hole 8.) Turn Off Coolant

9.) X&Y Axis Rapid 
Move Home
Front  Front 
View View

Here’s The CNC Program! Tool At Home Tool At Home

Top  O0001 Top  O0001

View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03 View O0001 
Number Assigned to this program
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
Front  N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 Front 
View N035 M30 View

Tool At Home

Top  O0001 Top  O0001

View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03 View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
N005  Sequence Number N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
G54  Fixture Offset
G90  Absolute Programming Mode G00
G R id M i
Rapid Motion
S600  Spindle Speed set to 600 RPM X1.0 X Coordinate 1.0 in. from Zero
M03  Spindle on in a Clockwise Direction Y1.0 Y Coordinate 1.0 in. from Zero

Front  Front 
View View

Page 30 of 45
11
 10/30/2011

Top  O0001 Top  O0001

View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03 View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0 N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08 N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
G43 Tool Length Compensation N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5
H01 Specifies Tool length compensation
G01 Straight Line Cutting Motion
Z.1 Z Coordinate .1 in. from Zero
Z‐.75 Z Coordinate ‐.75  in. from Zero
Front  M08 Flood Coolant On Front  F3.5 Feed Rate set to 3.5 in/min.
View View

O0001
O0001 N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
Top  Top 
View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03 View N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0 N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08 N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5
75 3 5
N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5 N025 G00 Z.1 M09
N025 G00 Z.1 M09 N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
G91 Incremental Programming Mode
Front  G00 Rapid Motion Front  G28 Zero Return Command
Z.1 Z Coordinate .1 in. from Zero
View M09 Coolant Off
View X0, Y0, Z0 
X,Y,& Z Coordinates at Zero

APT Language
Top  O0001
y APT (Automatically Programmed Tools)
View N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
y The APT language consists of many different types of
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0 statements made up of the following valid letters, numerals
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08 and punctuation marks.
N020 G01 Z .75 F3.5
N020 G01 Z‐.75 F3.5 y Letters: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
N025 G00 Z.1 M09 y Numerals: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Front  N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 / A slash divides a statement into two sections. eg., 
N035 M30 GO/PAST, 
View
M30 End of Program ,  A comma is used as a separator between the elements in 
a statement generally to the right of the slash.
= An equals is used for assigning an entity to a symbolic 
name, e.g., P1 = POINT/25,50,30.

Page 31 of 45
12
 10/30/2011

Words The complete APT part program consists of 
the following four types of statements
y The words to be used in the statements are built up from
one to six letters or numerals with the first one being a y Geometry

letter. No special character is allowed in the words. y Motion 

y Post processor

y Compilation control

Other Part Programming Languages
y ADAPT (ADaptation APT) was the first attempt to adapt APT APT Language
programming system for smaller computers
Additional statements:
y AUTOSPOT (AUTOmatic Sytem for POsitioning Tools) was
developed by IBM and first introduced in 1962 ¾ MACHIN/DRILL, 2
¾ COOLNT/
y EXAPT (EXtended subset of APT) was developed jointly in
German in about 1964 by several universities to adapt APT for For example:
p COOLNT/MIST COOLNT/FLOOD COOLNT/OF
European use. It is compatible with APT and thus can use the ¾ FEDRAT/
same processor as APT ¾ SPINDL/
y COMPACT was developed by Manufacturing Data Systems, Inc. For example: SPINDL/ON SPINDL/1250, CCLW
(MDSI) ¾ TOOLNO/
y SPLIT (Sundstrand Processing Language Internally Translated) ¾ TURRET/
was developed by Sundstrand Corporation, intended for its own ¾ END
machine tools
y MAPT (Micro‐APT) is a subset of APT, to be run on the
microcomputers 75 76

Point (POINT)
APT Language
Other capabilities of APT, the macro facility, with use variable argument as in a 
FORTRAN subroutine, for example: PTA = POINT/ 3,4,5
P0 = POINT/0.0, 0.3, 0.1
FROM/P0
CALL/DRILL, X=1.0, Y=1.0, Z=0.1, DEPTH=0.7
y
CALL/DRILL, X=2.0, Y=1.0, Z=0.1, DEPTH=0.7
GOTO/P0 (3, 4, 5)

when the definition of the macro DRILL is: PTA
DRILL = MACRO/X, Y, Z, DEPTH
GOTO/X,Y,Z z
GODLTA/0,0, -DEPTH
GODLTA/0,0, DEPTH
TARMAC
x

77

Page 32 of 45
13
 10/30/2011

Point (POINT) Point (POINT)

PTB = POINT/ INTOF, LIN1, LIN2 PTD = POINT/ YSMALL, INTOF, LIN3, C1 y
PTD = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, LIN3, C1
PTC = POINT/ YLARGE, INTOF, LIN3, C1
PTC = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, LIN3, C1 PTC

LIN2

LIN3
PTB C1
LIN1

PTD

Point (POINT) Point (POINT)

PTE = POINT/ YLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2 PT7 = POINT/ CENTER, C6

PTE = POINT/ XLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2 y
PTF = POINT/ YSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2
PTF = POINT/ XSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2 C1 y

C6
PTE

PT7

PTF C2

x
x

Line (LINE) Line (LINE)

LIN4 = LINE/ PT6, 15, -30, 3

LIN1 = LINE/ P1, P2
y
y
PT6
P2

P1
L4 (15, ‐30, 3)

LIN1

x x

Page 33 of 45
14
 10/30/2011

Line (LINE) Line (LINE)

L12 = LINE/ PT4, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS
LIN = LINE/ POINT, ATANGL, ANGLE (in degrees), LINE
L14 = LINE/ PT1, ATANGL, 40
L15 = LINE/ 32, -3, 2, ATANGL, -15, XAXIS
L16 = LINE/ PT3, ATANGL, 40, YAXIS y
LINE2
y
PT3 L14
L
P1

40°
PT1 L12
L16 30° LINE1
PT4

LINE2 = LINE/ P1, ATANGL, 30, LINE1 
40° 20°

x
15° x
L15
(32, ‐3, 2)

Line (LINE) Line (LINE)

LIN = LINE/ SLOPE, SLOPE VALUE, INTERC, MODIFIER, d LIN = LINE/ ATANGL, DEGREES, INTERC, MODIFIER, d
where the slope value is y/x. The modifier options are [XAXIS, The modifier options are [XAXIS, YAXIS], and d is the
YAXIS], and d is the corresponding intercept value on the selected corresponding intercept value on the selected axis (i.e., modifier).
axis (i.e., modifier).

y y

LINE1 LINE1

LINE1 = LINE/ SLOPE, 1, INTERC, XAXIS, 6 LINE1 = LINE/ ATANGL, 30, INTERC, d
θ = 30°
x x
(6,0)  Point of X‐Intercept d

Line (LINE) Line (LINE)

L2 = LINE/ PT51, RIGHT, TANTO, C11
The LEFT & RIGHT modifier indicates whether the line
L3 = LINE/ PT40, RIGHT, TANTO, C11
is at the left or right tangent point, depending on how
L4 = LINE/ PT40, LEFT, TANTO, C11
one looks at the circle from the point.
L3 Right

L1 = LINE/ PT51, LEFT, TANTO, C11 PT40

L1

L1 Left

C11 Left L4

PT51 PT51

Right L2

Page 34 of 45
15
 10/30/2011

Line (LINE) Line (LINE)

L6 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C3, LEFT, TANTO, C4
L6
L6 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C4, RIGHT, TANTO, C3
C4
Left
C3
Right L6
Right
C4
L8 L9
C3
L7

Left
The descriptive words LEFT and RIGHT are used by L8 L9
looking from the first circle written towards the L7
second circle.

Line (LINE) Line

LN3 = LINE/ PNT6, PARLEL, LN15 LN5 = LINE/ INTOF, PLAN1, PLAN2
LN4 = LINE/ PNT5, PERPTO, LN13
LN5

y
PNT6 PNT5
LN3

LN4

LN15 PLAN1
LN13

PLAN2

Plane (PLANE) Plane (PLANE)

PLAN10 = PLANE/ PT6, PT12, PT15 PLAN14 = PLANE/ PT4, PARLEL, PLAN10
PLAN14 = PLANE/ PARLEL, PLAN10, YSMALL, 3.0
PLAN10
PLAN10
PT15
PT15
PT6 PT12
y PT6 PT12
y 3.0
3.0

PT4 PT4
z
z
PLAN14
PLAN14

x x

Page 35 of 45
16
 10/30/2011

Circle (CIRCLE) Circle (CIRCLE)

C1 = CIRCLE/ 3, 6, 5, 4.3 C3 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT6, TANTO, LN4

C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT3, RADIUS, 4.3 C7 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, PT8, PT5
y y y
C1 LN4
PT5
4.3

PT3 PT6 PT8

(3,6,5) C3 C7

x x x

The Machining Plan The Machining Plan

Contouring: z
Check surface
y Part surface: the surface on which the end of the Drive surface

y
tool is riding.
Direction of 
y Drive surface: the surface against which the edge of cutter cutter motion

the tool rides. x

y Check surface: a surface at which the current tool

motion is to stop. Part surface

The Machining Plan The Machining Plan

Motion commands:
CS CS CS GOLFT/ : Move left along the drive surface
GORGT/ : Move right along the drive surface
GOUP/ : Move up along the drive surface
DS DS DS GODOWN/ : Move down along the drive surface
GOFWD/ : Move forward from a tangent position
TO ON PAST
GOBACK/ : Move backward from a tangent position

Page 36 of 45
17
 10/30/2011

GOUP
FROM/PTARG
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL2, TO L3
GOLFT GORGT/L3, PAST, L4
GOFWD PL4
PL3
Present tool
GOBACK position

GORGT
PL2
GODOWN PL1

Previous PTARG
tool position (starting location of cutter)

Machining Specifications Machining Specifications

Postprocessor commands for a particular machine tool are: FEDRAT/ : specifies the feed rate for moving the tool along the
MACHIN/ : used to specify the machine tool and call the part surface in inches per minute:
postprocessor for that tool: FEDRAT/ 4.5
MACHIN/ DRILL,, 3 SPINDL/ : gives the spindle rotation speed in revolutions per
COOLNT/ : allows the coolant fluid to be turned on or off: minute:
COOLNT/ MIST SPINDL/ 850
COOLNT/ FLOOD TURRET/ : can be used to call a specific tool from an automatic
COOLNT/ OFF tool changer:
TURRET/ 11

Machining Specifications Machining Specifications

TOLERANCE SETTING: Nonlinear motion is accomplished in
straight-line segments, and INTOL/ and OUTTOL/ statements
dictate the number of straight-line segments to be generated.
INTOL/ 0.0015
OUTTOL/ 0.001
PARTNO: identifies the part program and is inserted at the start of
the program.
CLPRNT: indicates that a cutter location printout is desired.
CUTTER: specifies
p a cutter diameter for offset ((rough
g versus finish
cutting). If a milling cutter is 0.5 in. in diameter and we have
CUTTER/ 0.6
then the tool will be offset from the finish cut by 0.05 in.

Page 37 of 45
18
 10/30/2011

Machining Specifications
FINI: specifies the end of the program.
APT Language
Other Motion statements:
¾ GO/{TO}, Drive surface, {TO} Part surface, {TO},
Check surface
Or
¾ GO/{TO}, Drive surface, {TO} Part surface, {TANTO},
Check surface
…And the same with PAST or ON instead of TO
¾ GOLFT/
¾ GORGT/
¾ GOUP/
¾ GODOWN/
¾ GOFWD/
¾ GOBACK/
For example:
GO/TO, L1, TO, PS, TANTO, C1
GO/PAST, L1, TO, PS, TANTO, C1

110

IES‐2008
Name the four types of statements in a complete APT
IES‐2007
Prepare part using APT language for milling the contour
part program. Prepare part program for geometry shown in Fig. in a single pass. D [20‐Marks]
C 110
description of the contour shown in the figure below: R30
Y B
[15‐Marks] Q
30 40

20

L2 C1 110
L3 20
R 120
135°

E
+

+
R40
L4 40
80 L1
A F
C2
100 + 40 P
+

L5
20 Material : M S.
R P1
P2 20
X 8 mm

IES‐2006
Prepare part program to machine the contour shown in
IES 2011 Conventional
the figure using APT on CNC milling machine. State the method of defining line segment of
R30
[15‐Marks]
• cutter motion using APT program format.
R20
• [5 Marks]

100 mm
80

60 50
200 mm

Material: MS Thickness: 8.0 mm

Page 38 of 45
19
 10/30/2011

What is an industrial robot?
Robotics A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional
manipulator designed to handle material, parts, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.

Advantages of Robots Disadvantages of Robots
y Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase y Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause:
productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and consistency of – Inappropriate and wrong responses
products – A lack of decision‐making power
y Robots can work in hazardous environments – A loss of power
y Robots need no environmental comfort – Damage to the robot and other devices
– Human injuries
y Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and
y Robots may have limited capabilities in
illnesses
– Degrees
D off Freedom
F d
y Robots have repetable precision at all times – Dexterity
y Robots can be much more accurate than humans, they may have – Sensors
mili or micro inch accuracy. – Vision systems
y Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of – Real‐time Response
humans y Robots are costly, due to
y Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously, – Initial cost of equipment
humans can only one. – Installation Costs
y Robots replace human workers who can create economic – Need for peripherals
problems – Need for training
– Need for Programming

What Can Robots Do?
Asimov's three laws of robotics
Industrial Robots First law (Human safety):
y A robot may not injure a human being, or, through
•Material handling
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
•Material transfer
•Machine loading and/or unloading Second law (Robots are slaves):
•Spot welding
•Continuous arc welding Material Handling  y A robot must obey orders given it by human beings,
•Spray coating
Manipulator except where such orders would conflict with the First
•Assembly Law.
•Inspection
Third law (Robot survival):
y A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
Assembly  protection does not conflict with the First or Second
Manipulator
Spot Welding 
Law.
Manipulator

Page 39 of 45
20
 10/30/2011

All robots have the following basic components:
1. Manipulators: the mechanical unit, often called the
Wrist Configurations
"arm," that does the actual work of the robot. It is
composed of mechanical linkages and joints with actuators y Wrist assembly is attached to end‐of‐arm
to drive the mechanism directly or indirectly through gears, y End effector is attached to wrist assembly 
chains, or ball screws.
2. Feedback devices: transducers that sense the p positions of y Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effector
various linkages and joints and transmit this information to y Body‐and‐arm determines global position of end 
the controllers in either digital or analog Form. effector
3. End effectors: the "hand" or "gripper" portion of the y Two or three degrees of freedom:
robot, which attaches the end of the arm and perform the y Roll 
operations of the robot. y Pitch
4. Controller: the brains of the system that direct the y Yaw
movements of the manipulator.
5. Power supply:

End Effectors
y The special tooling for a robot that enables it to  Grippers and Tools
perform a specific task
y Two types:
y Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., 
parts) during work cycle
y Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray 
painting

Degrees of Freedom
y The degree of freedom or grip of a robotic system can be
compared to the way in which the human body moves.
y For each degree of freedom a joint is required.
y The degrees of freedom located in the arm define the
configuration.
y Each of the five basic motion configurations utilizes three
degrees of freedom in the arm.
y Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end
effector all the flexibility.
Degrees of Freedom (contd.)
y A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a
robot’s hand at any point in its work space.
y Although six degrees of freedom are needed for
maximum flexibility, most robot employee only three to
five degrees of freedom.
y The more the degrees of freedom,
freedom the greater is the
complexity of motions encountered.
y The three degrees of freedom located in the arm of
a robotic system are:
¾The rotational reverse: is the movement of the arm
assembly about a rotary axis, such as left‐and‐right
swivel of the robot’s arm about a base.

Page 40 of 45
21
 10/30/2011

Degrees of Freedom (contd.)
¾ The radial traverse: is the extension and retraction
of the arm or the in‐and‐out motion relative to the
base.
¾ The vertical traverse: provides the up‐and‐down
motion of the arm of the robotic system.
y The three degrees of freedom located in the wrist,
which bear the names of aeronautical terms, are
¾Pitch or bend: is the up‐and‐down movement of the
wrist.
¾Yaw: is the right‐and‐left movement of the wrist.
¾Roll or swivel: is the rotation of the hand.

Robot Control Systems
Joint Drive Systems y Limited sequence control – pick‐and‐place 
operations using mechanical stops to set positions
y Electric
y Uses electric motors to actuate individual joints
y Playback with point‐to‐point control – records 
work cycle as a sequence of points, then plays back 
y Preferred drive system in today's robots
the sequence during program execution
y Hydraulic
y Playback with continuous path control –
y Uses hydraulic pistons and rotary vane actuators
greater memory capacity and/or interpolation 
y Noted for their high power and lift capacity
capability to execute paths (in addition to points)
y Pneumatic
y Intelligent control – exhibits behavior that makes 
y Typically limited to smaller robots and simple material 
it seem intelligent, e.g., responds to sensor inputs, 
transfer applications
makes decisions, communicates with humans

Working Envelope 
Robot Control System
Cell Level 2
Supervisor

Controller  Level 1
& Program

Joint 1 Joint 2 Joint 3 Joint 4 Joint 5 Joint 6 Sensors Level 0

Page 41 of 45
22
 10/30/2011

Robotic Arc‐Welding Cell Robot Programming
y Leadthrough programming
y Robot performs  y Work cycle is taught to robot by moving the
flux‐cored arc  manipulator through the required motion cycle and
welding (FCAW)  simultaneously entering the program into controller
operation at one  memory for later playback
workstation 
k i  
y Robot programming languages
while fitter 
changes parts at  y Textual programming language to enter commands
the other  into robot controller
workstation y Simulation and off‐line programming
y Program is prepared at a remote computer terminal
and downloaded to robot controller for execution
without need for leadthrough methods

Leadthrough Programming Leadthrough Programming Advantages

y Advantages:
1. Powered leadthrough y Easily learned by shop personnel
y Common for point‐to‐
y Logical way to teach a robot
point robots
y No computer programming
y Uses teach pendant
y Disadvantages:
2. Manual leadthrough
y Downtime during programming
y Convenient for 
continuous path  y Limited programming logic capability 
control robots y Not compatible with supervisory control
y Human programmer 
physical moves 
manipulator

CAD CAM
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM):
Computer Aided Design (CAD): Used for creating the
y Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)
product database y Computerized material Resource Planning (MRP)
y NC part programming
y Geometric Modeling
g
y Robot Programming
R b  P i
y Engineering Analysis y Computerized Scheduling
y Computerized process control
y Design Review and Evaluation
y Computerized Manufacturing Control by FMS
y Automated Drafting y Shop floor control
y Computer Aided Quality Control (CAQC)
y Computer Aided Inspection

Page 42 of 45
23
 10/30/2011

What is an FMS?
y A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a
manufacturing system in which there is some
amount of flexibility that allows the system to
react in the case of changes.
y Two categories of flexibility
y Machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be
changed to produce new product types, and ability to
change the order of operations executed on a part.
y Routing flexibility, which consists of the ability to
use multiple machines to perform the same operation
on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb
large‐scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or
capability.
FMS Components
y Most FMS systems comprise of three main
systems
y Work machines (typically automated CNC
machines) that perform a series of operations;
y An integrated material transport system and a
computer that controls the flow of materials,
tools, and information (e.g. machining data
and machine malfunctions) throughout the
system;
y Auxiliary work stations for loading and
unloading, cleaning, inspection, etc.

FMS Goals Advantages of FMS
y Reduction in manufacturing cost by lowering direct y Faster, lower‐ cost changes from one part to another
labor cost and minimizing scrap, re‐work, and material which will improve capital utilization
wastage. y Lower direct labor cost, due to the reduction in number
y Less skilled labor required. of workers
y Reduction in work in process inventory by eliminating
work‐in‐process y Reduced inventory,
y, due to the p planning
g and
the need for batch processing. programming precision
y Reduction in production lead time permitting y Consistent and better quality, due to the automated
control
manufacturers to respond more quickly to the variability
of market demand. y Lower cost/unit of output, due to the greater
productivity using the same number of workers
y Better process control resulting in consistent quality.
y Savings from the indirect labor, from reduced errors,
rework, repairs and rejects

Disadvantages of FMS
y Limited ability to adapt to changes in product or product
mix (e.g., machines are of limited capacity and the
tooling necessary for products, even of the same family,
is not always feasible in a given FMS)
y Substantial pre‐planning
pre planning activity
y Expensive, costing millions of dollars
y Technological problems of exact component positioning
and precise timing necessary to process a component
y Sophisticated manufacturing systems

Page 43 of 45
24
 10/30/2011

APT Program
MACHIN/ MILL
CLPRNT
UNITS/MM
P0 = POINT/ 0, 0, 3
P1 = POINT/ 1, 0
L1 = LINE/ P1, SLOPE, 0
L2 = LINE/ P1, SLOPE, 90
L3 = LINE/ PARLEL, L1, YLARGE, 2
L4 = LINE/ (POINT/ 4, 2), SLOPE, 1, L3
P3
L5 = LINE/ (POINT/ 6,
6 4),
4) ATANGL,
ATANGL 270,
270 L4
L4 L5
L6 = LINE/ (POINT/ 10, 0), PEPTO, L3
P2 = POINT/ INTOF, L3, L4 P2 P4
L3 L3
P3 = POINT/ INTOF, L4, L5
P4 = POINT/ INTOF, L5, L3 L2 L6
PL = PLANE/ P1, P2, P3 P1 L1
CUTTER/ 60
TOLER/ 0.1
SPINDL/ 200
COOLNT/ ON P0
FEDRAT/ 20

APT Program
APT Language 
FROM/ P0
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL, TO, L2 Example:
GOFWD/ P1, PAST, L3
GORGT/ L3, TO, P2
GOLFT/ P2, ON, P3
P3
GORGT/ P3, TO, P4
L4 L5
GOLFT/ P4, PAST, L6
GORGT / L6, PAST, L1 L3 P2 P4 L3
GORGT / L1, TO, P1 L2 L6
COOLNT/ OFF
P1 L1
SPINDL/OFF
END
FINI
P0

148

APT Language  APT Language 
Answer: Example 1:
FROM/SP
GO/TO, L1, TO, PS, ON, L6
GORGT/L1, PAST, L2
GORGT/L2, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1, TANTO, L3
GOFWD/L3, PAST, L4
GOLFT/L4, PAST, L5
GOLFT/L5, PAST, L6
GOLFT/L6, PAST, L1
GOTO/SP

149 150

Page 44 of 45
25
 10/30/2011

APT Language  APT Language 
Answer: Example 2:
P0 = POINT/0.0, 3.0, 0.1
P1 = POINT/1.0, 1.0, 0.1
P2 = POINT/2.0, 1.0, 0.1
FROM/P0
GOTO/P1
GODLTA/0, 0, -0.7
GODLTA/0, 0, 0.7
GOTO/P2
GODLTA/0, 0, -0.7
GODLTA/0, 0, 0.7
GOTO/P0

151 152

APT Language 
Reference Book
Answer: y CAD/CAM: Computer‐Aided Design and 
FROM/SP Manufacturing By Groover
GO/TO, L1, TO, PS, ON, L4 y CNC Machines  By B. S. Pabla, M. Adithan
GORGT/L1, PAST, L2 y Machine tool design and numerical control ‐ By 
GOLFT/L2,
GOLFT/L2 PAST,
PAST L3 Mehta
GOLFT/L3, PAST, C1 y Computer Control Of Manu. Systems  By Koren
GOLFT/C1, PAST, L3
GOLFT/L3, PAST, L4
GOLFT/L4, PAST, L1
GOTO/SP

153

Page 45 of 45
26