Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter 12: Radiation Heat Transfer: Waves in Radiation. Electromagnetic Waves Transport Energy Like Other Waves and
Chapter 12: Radiation Heat Transfer: Waves in Radiation. Electromagnetic Waves Transport Energy Like Other Waves and
Blackbody Radiation
A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. At a
specified temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a
blackbody.
A blackbody is a diffuse emitter which means it emits radiation uniformly in all
direction. Also a blackbody absorbs all incident radiation regardless of wavelength
and direction.
where
W
σ = 5.67 × 10 −8
m2 K 4
where T is the absolute temperature of the surface in K and Eb is called the
blackbody emissive power.
A large cavity with a small opening closely resembles a blackbody.
It can be shown that integration of the spectral blackbody emissive power Ebλ over
the entire wavelength spectrum gives the total blackbody emissive power Eb:
∞
Eb (T ) = ∫ Ebλ (T )dλ = σT 4 (W / m )2
The Stefan-Boltzmann law gives the total radiation emitted by a blackbody at all
wavelengths from 0 to infinity. But, we are often interested in the amount of
radiation emitted over some wavelength band.
To avoid numerical integration of the Planck’s equation, a non-dimensional
quantity fλ is defined which is called the blackbody radiation function as
λ
∫ E λ (T )dλ
b
f λ (T ) = 0
σT 4
The function fλ represents the fraction of radiation emitted from a blackbody at
temperature T in the wavelength band from 0 to λ. Table 12-2 in Cengel book lists
fλ as a function of λT.
Therefore, one can write:
f λ1 −λ 2 (T ) = f λ 2 (T ) − f λ1 (T )
f λ −∞ (T ) = 1 − f λ (T )
Ebλ
Ebλ(T)
λ
λ1 λ2
Fig. 12-3: Fraction of radiation emitted in the wavelength between λ1 and λ2
Radiation Properties
A blackbody can serve as a convenient reference in describing the emission and
absorption characteristics of real surfaces.
Emissivity
The emissivity of a surface is defined as the ratio of the radiation emitted by the
surface to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. Thus,
0 ≤ ε ≤1
Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximate a blackbody,
εblackbody = 1.
The emissivity of a surface is not a constant; it is a function of temperature of the
surface and wavelength and the direction of the emitted radiation, ε = ε (T, λ, θ)
where θ is the angle between the direction and the normal of the surface.
The total emissivity of a surface is the average emissivity of a surface over all
direction and wavelengths:
E (T ) E (T )
ε (T ) = = → E (T ) = ε (T ) σ T 4
Eb (T ) σ T 4
Spectral emissivity is defined in a similar manner:
E λ (T )
ε λ (T ) =
Ebλ (T )
where Eλ(T) is the spectral emissive power of the real surface. As shown, the
radiation emission from a real surface differs from the Planck’s distribution.
∫ ε λ (T )E λ (T )dλ
b
ε (T ) = 0
σT4
Emissivity is a strong function of temperature, see Fig. 12-20 Cengel book.
Radiosity, J
(Reflected + Emitted radiation)
Incident Reflected
radiation
ρG
G, W/m2 Emitted radiation
ε Ebλ
Absorbed
αG
Semi-transparent
material
Transmitted
τG
For opaque surfaces τ = 0 and thus: α + ρ = 1. The above definitions are for total
hemi-spherical properties (over all direction and all frequencies). We can also
define these properties in terms of their spectral counterparts:
Kirchhoff’s Law
Consider an isothermal cavity and a surface at the same temperature T. At the
steady state (equilibrium) thermal condition
Gabs = α G = α σ T4
and radiation emitted
Eemit = ε σ T4
Since the small body is in thermal equilibrium, Gabs = Eemit
ε(T) = α(T)
The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at temperature T is equal to its total
hemi-spherical absorptivity for radiation coming from a blackbody at the same
temperature T. This is called the Kirchhoff’s law.
T
Eemit
T
G
A, ε, α
Solar Radiation
The solar energy reaching the edge of the earth’s atmosphere is called the solar
constant:
Gs = 1353 W / m2
Owing to the ellipticity of the earth’s orbit, the actual solar constant changes
throughout the year within +/- 3.4%. This variation is relatively small; thus Gs is
assumed to be a constant.
The effective surface temperature of the sun can be estimated from the solar
constant (by treating the sun as a blackbody).
The solar radiation undergoes considerable attenuation as it passes through the
atmosphere as a result of absorption and scattering:
Absorption by the oxygen occurs in a narrow band about λ = 0.76 µm.
The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths below λ = 0.3 µm
almost completely and radiation in the range of 0.3 – 0.4 µm considerably.
Absorption in the infrared region is dominated by water vapor and carbon
dioxide. Dust/pollutant particles also absorb radiation at various wavelengths.
As a result the solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface is about 950 W/m2
on a clear day and much less on a cloudy day, in the wavelength band 0.3 to
2.5 µm.
Scattering and reflection by air molecules (and other particles) are other
mechanisms that attenuate the solar radiation. Oxygen and nitrogen molecules
scatter radiation at short wavelengths (corresponding to violet and blue colors).
That is the reason the sky seems blue!
The gas molecules (mostly CO2 and H2O) and the suspended particles in the
atmosphere emit radiation as well as absorbing it. It is convenient to consider the
atmosphere (sky) as a blackbody at some lower temperature. This fictitious
temperature is called the effective sky temperature Tsky.
Gsky = σ T4sky
Tsky = 230 K for cold clear sky
∑F
j =1
ij =1
Example 12-2
Determine the view factors F12 and F21 for the following geometries:
L=D A1 A1
A1
L
A2 A2
L
A3
A2 A3
1 2 3
1) Sphere of diameter D inside a cubical box of length L = D.
Solution:
1) sphere within a cube:
By inspection, F12 = 1
By reciprocity and summation:
A1 πD 2 π
F21 = F12 = 2
×1 =
A2 6L 6
π
F21 + F22 = 1 → F22 = 1 −
6
2) Partition within a square duct:
From summation rule, F11 + F12 + F13 = 1 where F11 = 0
By symmetry F12 = F13
Thus, F12 = 0.5.
From reciprocity:
A1 2L
F21 = F12 = × 0.5 = 0.71
A2 L
3) Circular tube: from Fig. 12-43, with r2 / L = 0.5 and L / r1 = 2, F13 ≈ 0.17.
From summation rule,
F11 + F12 + F13 = 1 with F11 = 0, F12 = 1 - F13 = 0.83
From reciprocity,
A1 πD 2 / 4
F21 = F12 = × 0.83 = 0.21
A2 πDL
= +
2
2
1 1 1
Fig. 12-8: The superposition rule for view factors.
F1→(2,3) = F1→2 + F1→3
3
4
2
5
1
Pyramid in example 12-2.
Fi → j =
∑ (crossed strings ) − ∑ (uncrossed strings )
2 × (string on surface i )
2
1
L2 C
D L1
L5 L5 L6
L6
L4
L3 L4
L3
L1 B L2
A
2
1
( ) (W )
•
Q 12 = A1 F12σ T14 − T24
Consider an enclosure consisting of N black surfaces maintained at specified
temperatures. For each surface i, we can write
Using the sign convention, a negative heat transfer rate indicates that the radiation
heat transfer is to surface i (heat gain).
Now, we can extend this analysis to non-black surfaces. It is common to assume
that the surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. Also, surfaces are considered to
be isothermal. Also the fluid inside the cavity is not participating in the radiation.
Radiosity J is the total radiation energy streaming from a surface, per unit area per
unit time. It is the summation of the reflected and the emitted radiation.
For a surface i that is gray and opaque (εi = αi and αi + ρi = 1), the Radiosity can be
expressed as
J i = ε i E bi + ρ i Gi
J i = ε i E bi + (1 − ε i )Gi (W / m )2
Q•i
Surface i Ebi
Ji
Qij = Ai Fij (J i − J j )
•
(W )
In analogy with Ohm’s law, a resistance can be defined as
• Ji − J j
Qij =
Rij
1
Rij =
Ai Fij
Ebi Q•ij
Ji Jj
Ebj
Ri Rij Rj
Surface i Surface j
Fig. 12-11: Electrical network, surface and space resistances.
In an N-surface enclosure, the conservation of energy principle requires that the
net heat transfer from surface i to be equal to the sum of the net heat transfers
from i to each of the N surfaces of the enclosure.
• N • N Ji − J j
Q i = ∑ Q ij = ∑ (W )
j =1 j =1 Rij
We have already derived a relationship for the net radiation from a surface
Assumptions:
Diffuse, gray, and opaque surfaces and steady-state heat transfer.
Solution:
This is a three-body problem, the two plates and room. The radiation network is
shown below.
1.0 m
T2 =1000°C
2
R12
J1 J2
Eb1 Eb2
R1 R2
Q•1 Q•2
R13
R23
Eb3 = J3 = σT43
Q•3