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ɤs SL = − ɤw
(Gs + Gs ω)ɤw Gs = m2 m2
ɤ= ɤw
1+e e m2
(Gs + Se)ɤw Bulk Specific Gravity: SL = ; SR =
ɤ= Gs V2 ɤw
1+e g = Gs (1 − n)
When S=0:
1
Gs ɤw
Relative Compaction: Atterberg Limits G𝑠 =
ɤd 1
ɤd = R= PI = LL − PL − SL
1+e SR
Volume Weight ɤd 𝑚𝑎𝑥
When S=100%:
Se = Gs ω ω − PL GI = (F − 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL − 40)]
(Gs + e)ɤw Relative Density/ LI = +0.01(F − 15)(PI − 10)
Vv Ww W ɤsat = LL − PL
e= ω= ɤ= 1+e Density Index:
Vs Ws V e𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e LI State
ɤsub = ɤsat − ɤw Dr = SI = PL − SL LI < 0 Semisolid PI Description
Vv WS e𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e𝑚𝑖𝑛 0 < LI < 1 Plastic 0 Non-plastic
n= 0<e<∞
n ɤd = (Gs − 1)ɤw LL − ω
CI = LI > 1 Liquid 1-5 Slightly plastic
V e= V ɤsub = 1 1
1−n 1+e − LL − PI 5-10 Low plasticity
Vw ɤ ɤd 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ɤd qu Ac Class 10-20 Medium plasticity
0<n<1 ɤd = Dr = PI
S= e 1+ω Gs ɤw 1 1 Ac = ; St = und AC < 0.7 Inactive 20-40 High plasticity
Vv n= ɤzav = −
ɤd 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ɤd 𝑚𝑎𝑥
μ q u rem 0.7 < AC < 1.2 Normal >40 Very High plastic
1+e 1 + Gs ω μ = % passing 0.002mm AC > 1.2 Active
where: where:
Group of Piles Alternate Equation for Group pe → effective pressure at bottom QTIP c → cohesion
Efficiency (sand only) Nq → soil bearing factor Nc → soil bearing factor
Group Efficiency (sand or clay) Atip → Area of tip Atip → Area of tip
2(m + n − 2)s + 4d Critical depth, dc:
Q des−group Eff = Q T = Q f + Q tip Loose 10 (size of pile)
Eff = mnπD Dense 20 (size of pile) Q T = Q f + Q tip
Q des−indiv where:
m → no. of columns QT QT
n→ no. of rows Q des = Q des =
s → spacing of piles F. S. F. S.
D → diameter of pile
𝑦→ F = A[ ] F → future worth
2 𝑖 P → principal or present worth
Depreciation A → periodic payment
𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑥1 (1 + 𝑖)n − 1
′
i → interest rate per payment
𝑥𝑦 → BVm = FC − Dm P = A[ ] n → no. of interest periods
2 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n n’ → no. of payments
Straight-Line: CALTECH:
Differential Calculus FC − SV Mode 3 2 Perpetuity:
x y
d= (time) (BV) A
Curvature: Radius of curvature: n P= = F(1 + 𝑖)−n
0 FC
y" 3
Dm = d(m) n SV 𝑖 where:
k= 3
[1 + (y′)2 ]2 C → capitalized cost
ρ= Capitalized Cost: FC → first cost
[1 + (y′)2 ]2 𝑦" Sinking Fund: where: OM → annual operation
FC → first cost OM RC − SV or maintenance cost
Maxima & Minima (Critical Points): (1 + i)n − 1 −1 SV → salvage cost C = FC + + RC → replacement cost
d = (FC − SV) [ ] d → depreciation 𝑖 (1 + 𝑖)n − 1 SV → salvage cost
𝑑𝑦 𝑖 per year
AC → annual cost
= y′ = 0 (+) minima m
(1 + i) − 1
n → economic life
m → any year before n
AC = C ∙ 𝑖
𝑑𝑥 (-) maxima Dm = d [ ] BVm → book value (RC − SV)𝑖
𝑖 after m years
AC = FC ∙ 𝑖 + OM +
Point of inflection: Dm → total depreciation
(1 + i)n − 1
Sum-of-the-Years-Digit (SYD):
𝑑2 𝑦 n−m+1
= y" = 0 dm = (FC − SV) [ ] CALTECH: Single-payment-compound-amount factor:
𝑑𝑥 2 ∑ years Mode 3 3
(F/P, 𝑖, n) = (1 + 𝑖)n
x y
(time) (BV)
∑nn−m+1 x 0 FC Single-payment-present-worth factor:
Integral Calculus-The Cardioid Dm = (FC − SV) [ ] n SV −n
∑n1 x n+1 SV
(P/F, 𝑖, n) = (1 + 𝑖)
A = 1.5πa2 Equal-payment-series-compound-amount factor:
Declining Balance (Matheson): ′
P = 8a BVm = FC(1 − k)m CALTECH: (1 + 𝑖)n − 1
Mode 3 6 (F/A, 𝑖, n) = [ ]
r = a(1 − sin θ) r = a(1 − cos θ) SV = FC(1 − k)n k → obtained x y 𝑖
(time) (BV)
r = a(1 + sin θ) r = a(1 + cos θ) Dm = FC − BVm 0 FC Equal-payment-sinking-fund factor:
n SV ′ −1
Double Declining Balance:
(1 + 𝑖)n − 1
(A/F, 𝑖, n) = [ ]
BVm = FC(1 − k)m 𝑖
k = 2/n k → obtained Equal-payment-series-present-worth factor:
′
Dm = FC − BVm (1 + 𝑖)n − 1
where: (P/A, 𝑖, n) = [ ]
FC → first cost 𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
Service Output Method: SV → salvage cost
FC − SV d → depreciation per year Equal-payment-series-capital-recovery factor:
Qn → qty produced during
d= ′ −1
Qn economic life
Qm → qty produced during
(1 + 𝑖)n − 1
up to m year
(A/P, 𝑖, n) = [ ]
D = dQ m Dm → total depreciation
𝑖(1 + 𝑖)n
Statistics Fractiles Transportation Engineering Traffic Accident Analysis
Measure of Natural Tendency Range Design of Horizontal Curve Accident rate for 100 million
= 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 vehicles per miles of travel in a
Mean, x̅, μ → average
Minimum radius of curvature segment of a highway:
→ Mode Stat 1-var Coefficient of Range 2
→ Shift Mode ▼s Stat Frequency? on 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 v A (100,000,000)
= R= R=
→ Input 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 + 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 g(e + f) ADT ∙ N ∙ 365 ∙ L
→ AC Shift 1 var x̅ R → minimum radius of curvature
A → no. of accidents during period of analysis
Quartiles e → superelevation
f → coeff. of side friction or ADT → average daily traffic
Median, Me → middle no. when n is even
skid resistance N → time period in years
n+1 1 2 3 v → design speed in m/s L → length of segment in miles
Me th = Q1 = n Q2 = n Q3 = n g → 9.82 m/s2
2 4 4 4
Accident rate per million entering
1 n n when n is odd Centrifugal ratio or impact factor
Me th
= [( ) + ( + 1)] vehicles in an intersection:
2 2 2 1 1 1 2
Q1 = (n + 1) ; Q1 = (n + 1) ; Q1 = (n + 1) v A (1,000,000)
4 4 4 Impact factor = R=
Mode, Mo → most frequent gR
Interquartile Range, IQR
ADT ∙ N ∙ 365
R → minimum radius of curvature
Standard Deviation v → design speed in m/s A → no. of accidents during period of analysis
= 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
g → 9.82 m/s2 ADT → average daily traffic entering all legs
Population standard deviation = Q3 − Q1 N → time period in years
→ Mode Stat 1-var Power to move a vehicle
Coefficient of IQR Severity ratio, SR:
→ Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on P = vR
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
→ Input = P → power needed to move vehicle in watts f∙i
𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 + 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 SR =
→ AC Shift 1 var σx v → velocity of vehicle in m/s
Q − Q1 R → sum of diff. resistances in N
f∙i∙p
= 3
Sample standard deviation
Q3 + Q1 f → fatal
Design of Pavement i → injury
→ Mode Stat 1-var Quartile Deviation (semi-IQR) = IQR/2 p → property damage
→ Shift Mode ▼ Stat Frequency? on Rigid pavement without dowels
→ Input Outlier Spacing mean speed, US:
→ AC Shift 1 var sx
→ extremely high or low data higher than 3W ∑d n
or lower than the following limits: t=√ Us = =
f ∑t ∑ 1
NOTE:
Q1 − 1.5IQR > x ( )
If not specified whether population/sample U1
in a given problem, look for POPULATION. Q 3 + 1.5IQR < x Rigid pavement with dowels
Coefficient of Linear Correlation Time mean speed, Ut:
Decile or Percentile 3W 3W
or Pearson’s r d
m t=√ t=√ ∑
im = (n) 2f 4f ∑ U1
→ Mode Stat A+Bx
10 or 100 Ut = t =
→ Input (at the edge) (at the center) n n
→ AC Shift 1 Reg r t → thickness of pavement Ʃd → sum of distance traveled by all vehicles
Normal Distribution W → wheel load Ʃt → sum of time traveled by all vehicles
NOTE: f → allow tensile stress of concrete Ʃu1 → sum of all spot speed
-1 ≤ r ≤ +1; otherwise erroneous 1/Ʃu1 → reciprocal of sum of all spot speed
Flexible pavement n → no. of vehicles
Population standard deviation
W Rate of flow:
Variance t=√ −r
Z-score or
standard score → Mode Stat 𝜋f1 q = kUs
standard deviation = σ
or variate → AC Shift 1 Distr f1 → allow bearing pressure of subgrade q → rate of flow in vehicles/hour
variance = σ2 r → radius of circular area of contact
left of z → P( k → density in vehicles/km
x−μ between wheel load & pavement
relative variability = σ/x z= uS → space mean speed in kph
σ right of z → R(
Mean/Average Deviation bet. z & axis → Q( Thickness of pavement in terms Minimum time headway (hrs)
x → no. of observations
μ → mean value, x̅ → Input of expansion pressure = 1/q
Mean/average value σ → standard deviation expansion pressure
t= Spacing of vehicles (km)
b pavement density
1 = 1/k
mv = ∫ f(x)dx Exponential Distribution
b−a a Stiffness factor of pavement
Peak hour factor (PHF)
P(x ≥ a) = e−λa = q/qmax
Mean value
P(x ≤ a) = 1 − e−λa
Es 3 s
SF = √
1 b P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = e−λa − e−λb Ep
RMS = √ ∫ f(x)2 dx ES → modulus of elasticity of subgrade
b−a a EP→ modulus of elasticity of pavement
SF = √
1 b P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = e−λa − e−λb Ep
RMS = √ ∫ f(x)2 dx ES → modulus of elasticity of subgrade
b−a a EP→ modulus of elasticity of pavement
P = PC + PS PN = 0.8P PN = 0.85P
PU = ∅0.8P ; ∅ = 0.7 PU = ∅0.85P ; ∅ = 0.75
P = 0.85fc′ (Ag − Ast ) + Ast fy
PU = (0.7)(0.8)[0.85fc′ (Ag − Ast ) + Ast fy ] PU = (0.75)(0.85)[0.85fc′ (Ag − Ast ) + Ast fy ]
Ast
ρ= No. of main bars: Spacing of bars: fc′ Ag volume of spiral
Ag ρs = 0.45 [ − 1] =
Ast fy Ac volume of core
Thus, N= s = 16db
P Ab s = 48dt
Ag = π
′
0.85fc (1 − ρ) + ρfy N is based on Pu. s = least dimension (dsp )2 ∙ π(Dc −dsp ) 4Asp
s=4 π =
0.01Ag < Ast < 0.08Ag NOTE: If spacing of main bars < 150mm, use 1 tie per set. (D )2 ∙ ρs Dc ρs
4 c
Design of Footing WIDE BEAM SHEAR PUNCHING/DIAGONAL TENSION SHEAR BENDING MOMENT
VU1 = qU (B)(x) VU2 = PU − qU (a + d)(b + d) x
qA = qS + qC + qsur + qE MU = qU (B)(x) ( )
2
P PU √fc′ √fc′ ** design of main bars and
qE = ; qU = VU1 ≤ ∅Vwb = ∅ Bd VU2 ≤ ∅Vpc = ∅ b d
A ftg Aftg 6 3 o temperature bars –
Same as slab.
where: VU1 VU2
qA → allowable bearing pressure τwb = τpc =
∅Bd ∅bo d
qS → soil pressure
qC → concrete pressure
qsur → surcharge
√fc′ √fc′
τwb(allw) = τpc(allw) =
qE → effective pressure 6 3
qU → ultimate bearing pressure
Ø = 0.85
Measurement measure lay-out too long Effect of Curvature & Refraction
too long add subtract e Azimuth
Corrections too short subtract add
CD = MD (1 + )
TL hcr = 0.067K 2 from South
Due to temperature: too short
e D2
(add/subtract); measured length Probable Errors h = h2 + (h − h2 ) − 0.067D1 D2
CD = MD (1 − ) D1 + D2 1
C = αL(T2 − T1 ) TL Reduction to
Probable Error (single):
Sea Level
Due to pull: Stadia Measurement Leveling
(add/subtract); measured length ∑(x − x̅) CD MD
E = 0.6745√ Horizontal: =
(P2 − P1 )L n−1 Elev𝐵 = Elev𝐴 + 𝐵𝑆 − 𝐹𝑆 R R+h
C=
EA D = d + (f + c) Inclined Upward:
Probable Error (mean):
Due to sag: 𝑓 error/setup = −eBS + eFS
(subtract only); unsupported length D = ( )s +C Subtense Bar
E ∑(x − x̅) 𝑖 Inclined Downward:
1 1 H = D cos θ
C 2 = S 2 − h2 Double Meridian Distance Method DMD
𝑤∝ 𝑤∝ 𝑤∝𝑛 V = D sin θ
𝐸2 𝑑 DMD𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = Dep𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
Normal Tension:
DMD𝑛 = DMD𝑛−1 + Dep𝑛−1 + Dep𝑛
0.204W√AE Area of Closed Traverse Area of Irregular Boundaries
PN = DMD𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = −Dep𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡
√PN − P Trapezoidal Rule: 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Lat)
Lat = L cos α
Dep = L sin α d
A= [h + hn + 2Σh]
Error of Closure:
2 1 Double Parallel Distance Method DPD
Parabolic Curves Simpson’s 1/3 Rule:
= √ΣL2 + ΣD2 DPD𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 = Lat𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
Symmetrical: d DPD𝑛 = DPD𝑛−1 + Lat 𝑛−1 + Lat 𝑛
Relative Error/Precision: A = [h1 + hn + 2Σh𝑜𝑑𝑑 + 4Σh𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ]
L Error of Closure 3 DPD𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡 = −Lat 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡
H = (g1 + g 2 ) =
Perimeter Note: n must be odd 2A = Σ(DMD ∙ Dep)
8
L 2
x 2 ( 2) 1 acre = Simple, Compound & Reverse Curves Spiral Curve
= L 4047 m2
y H 1
Unsymmetrical:
L1 L2
H= (g + g 2 )
2(L1 +L2 ) 1
g 3 (L1 +L2 ) = g1 L1 + g 2 L2
Note: Consider signs.
Earthworks
𝑑𝐿 0 𝑑𝑅
±𝑓𝐿 ±𝑓 ±𝑓𝑅 L2 180°
θ= ∙
f w I 2RLs π
A= (d + dR ) + (fL + fR ) T = R tan
2
2 L 4 θ Ls 2
I i= ; p=
Volume (End Area): E = R [sec − 1] 3 24R
2
L I
L3
Ve = (A1 + A2 ) m = R [1 − cos ] x=
2 2 6RLs
Volume (Prismoidal): L = 2R sin
I L5 LT → long tangent
ST → short tangent
2 Y=L− 2 R → radius of simple curve
L 40R2 Ls L → length of spiral from TS to any point
VP = (A1 + 4Am + A2 ) π along the spiral
6 Lc = RI ∙ Ls I Ls → length of spiral
180° Ts = + (R + p) tan I → angle of intersection
I c → angle of intersection of the simple
Prismoidal Correction: 2 2 curve
20 2πR p → length of throw or the distance from
= I tangent that the circular curve has been
L D 360° Es = (R + p) sec − R offset
CP = (c − c2 )(d1 − d2 ) 2 x → offset distance (right angle
12 1 1145.916 distance) from tangent to any point on
R= 0.036k 3 the spiral
xc → offset distance (right angle
VP = Ve − Cp D Ls = distance) from tangent to SC
R Ec → external distance of the simple
Volume (Truncated): 0.0079k 2
curve
θ → spiral angle from tangent to any
Σh e= point on the spiral
VT = ABase ∙ Have = A( ) R θS → spiral angle from tangent to SC
n i → deflection angle from TS to any point
A D L on the spiral
is → deflection angle from TS to SC
VT = (Σh1 + 2Σh2 + 3Σh3 + 4Σh4 ) = y → distance from TS along the tangent
n DC Ls to any point on the spiral
Stopping Sight Distance Parabolic Summit Curve Parabolic Sag Curve Underpass Sight Distance Horizontal Curve
L>S
v2 L>S L>S L>S
S = vt + A(S)2
2g(f ± G) L= 2 A(S)2 A(S)2 h1 + h2 S2
L= L= H= C− R=
a = g(f ± G) (deceleration) 200(√h1 + √h2 ) 122 + 3.5S 800H 2 8M
v L<S L<S L<S L<S
2
tb = (breaking time)
200(√h1 + √h2 ) 122 + 3.5S 800H L(2S − L)
g(f ± G) L = 2(S) − L = 2(S) − L = 2(S) − R=
A A A 8M
f
Eff = (100) L → length of summit curve A → algebraic difference A → algebraic difference of L → length of horizontal
fave S → sight distance of grades, in percent grades, in percent curve
v → speed in m/s h1 → height of driver’s eye L → length of sag curve L → length of sag curve S → sight distance
t → perception-reaction time h1 = 1.143 m or 3.75 ft S → sight distance A(K)2 R → radius of the curve
For passengers comfort,
f → coefficient of friction h2 → height of object L= where K is speed in KPH
M → clearance from the
G → grade/slope of road h2 = 0.15 m or 0.50 ft
395 centerline of the road