TEN BASIC RULES OF INFERENCE

Negation Introduction (~I – indirect proof IP) Disjunction Introduction (vI – addition ADD)
Assume p p
Get q & ~q ˫pvq
˫ ~p Disjunction Elimination (vE – version of CD)
Negation Elimination (~E – version of DN) pvq
~~p → p p→r
Conditional Introduction (→I – conditional proof CP) q→r
Assume p ˫r
Get q Biconditional Introduction (↔I – version of ME)
˫p→q p→q
Conditional Elimination (→E – modus ponens MP) q→p
p→q ˫p↔q
p Biconditional Elimination (↔E – version of ME)
˫q p↔q
Conjunction Introduction (&I – conjunction CONJ) ˫p→q
p or
q ˫q→p
˫p&q
Conjunction Elimination (&E – simplification SIMP)
p&q
˫p

IMPORTANT DERIVED RULES OF INFERENCE

Modus Tollens (MT) Constructive Dilemma (CD)

p→q pvq
~q p→r
˫ ~P q→s
Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) ˫rvs
p→q Repeat (RE)
q→r p
˫p→r ˫p
Disjunctive Syllogism (DS) Contradiction (CON)
pvq p
~p ~p
˫q ˫ Any wff
Absorption (ABS) Theorem Introduction (TI)
p→q Introduce any tautology, e.g., ~(P & ~P)
˫ p → (p & q)

EQUIVALENCES
De Morgan’s Law (DM) (p → q) :: (~q→~p)
~(p & q) :: (~p v ~q) Material implication (MI)
~(p v q) :: (~p & ~q) (p → q) :: (~p v q)
Commutation (COM) Material Equivalence (ME)
(p v q) :: (q v p) (p ↔ q) :: [(p & q ) v (~p & ~q)]
(p & q) :: (q & p) (p ↔ q) :: [(p → q ) & (q → p)]
Association (ASSOC) Exportation (EXP)
[p v (q v r)] :: [(p v q) v r] [(p & q) → r] :: [p → (q → r)]
[p & (q & r)] :: [(p & q) & r] Tautology (TAUT)
Distribution (DIST) p :: (p & p)
[p & (q v r)] :: [(p & q) v (p & r)] p :: (p v p)
[p v (q & r)] :: [(p v q) & (p v r)] Conditional-Biconditional Refutation Tree Rules
Double Negation (DN) ~(p → q) :: (p & ~q)
p :: ~~p ~(p ↔ q) :: [(p & ~q) v (~p & q)]
Transposition (TRANS)
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM RULES (e.g., Ǝx(Fx) / ˫ Fy). Also, existential name “a”
Standard Forms of Categorical Statements: must be a new name that has not occurred in any
d u previous line.
A: All S is P (all students are people) Ǝx(Fx) / ˫ Fa
d d Quantifier Equivalence Rules (Quantifier Exchange
E: No S is P (no students are pelicans) QE)
u u
I: Some S is P (some students are Polish)
∀x(Fx) :: ~Ǝx~(Fx)
u d ~∀x(Fx) :: Ǝx~(Fx)
O: Some S is not P (some students are not pilots) ∀x~(Fx) :: ~Ǝx(Fx)
Figures of Syllogisms: ~∀x~(Fx) :: Ǝx(Fx)
1st Fig. 2nd Fig. 3rd Fig. 4th Fig.
M-P P-M M-P P-M MODAL LOGIC: RULES
S-M S-M M-S M-S Modal operators
S-P S-P S-P S-P □p = it is necessary that p
Five Rules of Validity ◊p = it is possible that p
1. One distributed middle term: middle term must Truth assignment of □p and ◊p in possible worlds
be distributed in at least one premise. Necessity: □p is true in world w1 if and only if p
2. Distributed term-distributed term: term is is true in every world accessible to w1
distributed in conclusion iff it is distributed in Possibility: ◊p is true in world w1 if and only if
premise. p is true in some world accessible to w1
3. One affirmative premise: must have at least one Accessibility relations between possible worlds
affirmative premise. Serial relation: every world has access to at least
4. Negative-negative: negative conclusion iff one world
negative premise. {w1}———→ {w2}
5. Particular-particular: cannot conclude a Reflexive relation: every world can access itself
particular from two universals. {w1}
↻
PREDICATE LOGIC RULES Symmetric relation: for all worlds, w1, w2, if w1
A: all S is P (all students are people) has access to w2, then w2 has access to
∀x(Sx → Px) w1
E: no S is P (no student is a pelican) {w1} ←———→ {w2}
∀x(Sx → ~Px) Transitive relation: For all worlds, w1, w2, w3,
I: some S is P (some students are pilots) if w1 has access to w2, and w2 has
Ǝx(Sx & Px) access to w3, then w1 has access to w3
O: some S is not P (some students are not partiers) {w1} ———→ {w2} ———→ {w3}
Ǝx(Sx & ~Px) ⤷————————————⤴
Rules and Axioms
QUANTIFICATION RULES Necessitation Rule (NEC): if wff A is a proved
Universal Elimination/Instantiation (∀E, UI). Two theorem (e.g., truth table tautology such
forms, works with both variables and constants. as “p v ~p”), then we may infer □A
∀x(Fx) / ˫ Fy Change Modal Operator Rule (CMO)
∀x(Fx) / ˫ Fa ◊p :: ~□~p
Universal Introduction/Generalization (∀I, UG). One □p :: ~◊~p
form, works only with variables, not constants ~□p :: ◊~p
(e.g., Fa / ˫ ∀x(Fx)). □~p :: ~◊p
Fy / ˫ ∀x(Fx) Major Axioms
Existential Introduction/Generalization (ƎI, EG). Two AS1: ◊P ↔ ~□~P
forms, works with both variables and constants. AS2: □(P→Q) → (□P → □Q)
Fa / ˫ Ǝx(Fx) AS3: □P→ P
Fy / ˫ Ǝx(Fx) AS4: ◊P → □◊P
Existential Elimination/Instantiation (ƎE, EI). One
form, works only with constants, not variables