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Dynamics of Machinery 1 PDF
Dynamics of Machinery 1 PDF
of Machinery I
Mircea Radeş
Universitatea Politehnica Bucureşti
2007
Preface
Preface i
Contents iii
1. Rotor-bearing systems 1
1.1 Evolution of rotating machinery 1
1.2 Rotor-bearing dynamics 22
1.3 Rotor precession 24
1.4 Modeling the rotor 26
1.5 Evolution of rotor design philosophy 29
1.6 Historical perspective 32
2. Simple rotors in rigid bearings 39
2.1 Simple rotor models 39
2.2 Symmetric undamped rotors 40
2.2.1 Equations of motion 41
2.2.2 Steady state response 43
2.3 Damped symmetric rotors 46
2.3.1 Effect of viscous external damping 47
2.3.2 Effect of viscous internal damping 54
2.3.3 Combined external and internal damping 62
2.3.4 Gravity loading 65
2.3.5 Effect of shaft bow 66
2.3.6 Rotor precession in rigid bearings 67
2.4 Undamped asymmetric rotors 68
2.4.1 Reference frames 69
2.4.2 Inertia torques on a spinning disc 69
2.4.3 Equations of motion for elastically supported discs 72
2.4.4 Natural frequencies of precession 75
2.4.5 Response to harmonic excitation 81
2.4.6 Campbell diagrams 87
2.4.7 Effect of gyroscopic torque on critical speeds 97
2.4.8 Remarks on the precession of asymmetric rotors 98
iv MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
stage, which was replaced by single-row versions on two to three impulse wheels.
In 1914, a turbine of 25 MW at 1000 rpm was the largest single-cylinder steam
turbine in the world. The first systematic studies of Rotor Dynamics started in
1916, carried out by professor Aurel Stodola at the Swiss Federal Institute of
Tehnology in Zürich.
After 1920, the high price of coal imposed the increase of steam turbine
efficiency. Among other means, this was achieved by the reduction in the diameter
and the increase in the number of stages, hence by the increase of the shaft length,
a major incentive for developing the Dynamics of Rotor-Bearing Systems.
The maximum unit output of a turbine is largely dependent on the
available last-stage blade length. The permissible blade length to diameter ratio has
an influence on the machine efficiency. Shafts should be as slender as possible, to
ensure small rotor diameter and large blade length. Otherwise, increased shaft
weight gives rise to an increase in the average specific bearing loading.
Increasing the cross-section of a machine is limited by the mechanical
stresses and the size of pieces that can be transported. This is compensated by the
increase of the active length, eventually with a tandem arrangement, having a long
shaft line, in which the mechanical power is produced in several turbine cylinders.
The first super-pressure three-cylinder (high, intermediate and low
pressure) turbine was built by BBC in 1929, and had an output of 36 MW at 3000
rpm. The steam flowed through high pressure and intermediary pressure rotors in
opposite directions, to balance the thrust. Rotors, which previously were composed
of keyed and shrunk-on wheels on a continuous shaft, started to be welded from
solid discs, allowing larger rotor diameters and increased ratings. The increased
efficiency of steam turbines lowered the amount of coal required for producing 1
kWh of electrical energy from 0.75 kg during the war to 0.45 kg in 1927. The
output of the largest turbines in Europe had reached 50 to 60 MW by the mid
twenties, when, for large units, turbines of 1500 rpm were coupled to four-pole
generators. A 165 MW two-shaft turboset was built in 1926-1928, with the high-
pressure shaft rotating at 1800 rpm, and the low-pressure shaft at 1200 rpm.
In 1948, the largest steam turboset of single-shaft design (Fig. 1.1) had
four cylinders, a length of 27 m (without the station service generator), an output of
110 MW and speed of 3000 rpm [2]. In 1950, turbosets of 125 MW were built in
Europe and of 230 MW in the U.S.A., then, in 1956 - with ratings of 175 MW, and
in 1964 - with ratings of 550 MW and two shafts.
In 1972, the first 1300 MW cross-compound turboset was built at 3600
rpm, provided with two shaft lines for two 722 MVA generators. Figure 1.2 shows
a longitudinal section of the high-pressure turbine of a 1300 MW unit at 1800 rpm.
Current designs have generators of 1635 MVA at 1500 rpm, and of 1447
MVA at 3000 rpm. At present time, turbosets of 1700-2000 MW at 1500 or 1800
rpm, and of 1500-1700 MW at 3000 or 3600 rpm are currently built.
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 3
4 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
provided channels. Due to the turbulence of the steam, the pressure drop is
sufficiently high to allow the gland to be made relatively short. The labyrinth strips
are caulked into grooves in the rotor shaft whereas the corresponding grooves are
machined into a separate bushing of the casing. The risk of damaging the rotor by
distortion caused by friction in the seals is avoided, as the heat transfer from the
tips of the thin labyrinth strips to the shaft is very small.
The balancing piston 5 is positioned between the impulse wheel and the
gland at the steam inlet end. The chamber between is interconnected with the
exhaust. Generally, the balancing ring is integral with the shaft. In older designs it
was shrunk-on but this design can give rise to instability due to rotating dry
friction. This arrangement counteracts the axial forces imposed on the rotor by the
steam flow.
The bearing 6 at the steam inlet end is a combined thrust and journal
bearing, to reduce the rotor length. The thrust part of it acts in both axial directions
on the thrust collars 7 to absorb any excess forces of the balancing piston. Usually
tilting bronze pads are fitted on flexible steel rings according to the Mitchell
principle.
The journal bearing of the combined bearing and that at the opposite end
8 are lined with white metal cast into separate shells. Tilting pad bearings are used
in some designs.
The rotor 9 is machined from high-quality steel forging. After the blades
are fitted, the rotor is balanced and subjected to a 20 percent overspeed test for a
few minutes. A high-alloy chromium steel is used for high pressures and
temperatures. Figure 1.4 shows presently used steam turbine rotor designs [5].
6 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The development of gas turbines is more recent. From the first gas
turbine for airplanes, designed by Whittle in 1937, and the first stationary turbine
built by Brown Boveri in 1939, turbines of 80 MW at 3000 rpm and 72 MW at
3600 rpm are found in power plants, while 16 MW turbines are working with blast-
furnace gases. The progress is mainly due to blade cooling and limitation of the
effects of corrosion and erosion. State-of-the-art gas turbines built by ABB have
265 MW at 3000 rpm and 183 MW at 3600 rpm.
The simplest type of open circuit stationary gas turbine installation
comprises a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a gas turbine. In the
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 7
arrangement from Fig. 1.5, the compressor and turbine rotors form a single shaft
line, while the generator 7 is coupled via a clutch 6. The starter 9 is used to launch
the generator when operating as a compensator. The starter 5 is used to launch the
turbine while the generator turns. Part of the compressed air is used for the fuel
combustion. The remainder (approx. 70%) is used for cooling the shell of the
combustion chamber and some components of the turbine, and is mixed with the
hot gases.
The volume of the expanded gas in the turbine is much larger than the
volume of the compressed air in the compressor, due to the heating in the
combustion chamber. The difference between the work produced by the turbine
and the work absorbed by compressor and friction losses is the work supplied to
the electrical generator. It is a function of the compressor and turbine
thermodynamic efficiencies and the turbine inlet temperature.
Figure 1.7 shows the Rolls-Royce RB.211 turbofan rotors. The three-
stage low pressure (LP) turbine drives the single-stage LP fan which has no inlet
guide vanes. The single-stage intermediate pressure (IP) turbine drives the seven-
stage IP compressor. The single-stage air-cooled high pressure (HP) turbine drives
the six-stage HP compressor.
The eight main bearings are located in four rigid panels (not shown). The
three thrust ball bearings are grouped in a stiff intermediate casing. Oil squeeze-
film damping is provided between each roller bearing and housing to reduce engine
vibration. The short HP system needs only two bearings located away from the
combustion zone for longer life.
The single-stage LP fan has 33 blades with mid-span clappers and fir-tree
roots. The seven-stage IP axial compressor has drum construction. It consists of
seven discs electron beam welded into two drums of five and two stages bolted
together between stages 5 and 6. The blade retention is by dovetail roots and
lockplates. The six-stage HP compressor consists of two electron beam welded
drums bolted through the stage 3 disc with blades retained by dovetail roots and
lockplates.
The three-shaft concept has two basic advantages: simplicity and rigidity.
Each compressor runs at its optimum speed, thus permitting a higher pressure ratio
per stage. This results in fewer stages and fewer parts, to attain the pressure ratio,
than in the case of alternative designs. The short, large diameter shafts give good
vibration characteristics and a very smooth engine. The short carcase and the
positioning of the engine mounting points give a very rigid structure. This allows
the rotors to run with smaller tip clearances and thus improved efficiency.
Gas turbines manufactured in Romania are: 1) the Viper 632-41, Rolls-
Royce license, 8-stage axial compressor and 2-stage turbine at 13,800 rpm; 2) the
Alouette III B, Turbomeca license, 422 kW, 33,480 rpm; and 3) the Turmo IV CA,
Turbomeca license, 1115 kW.
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 9
Although patents for axial compressors were taken out as long ago as
1884, it is only in the early 1950's that they become the most versatile form for gas-
turbine work. In the aircraft field, where high performance is at a premium, the
axial compressor is now used exclusively. It is only for some industrial
applications that other compressor types offer serious competition.
One of the oldest applications was in marine engines. In 1923, BBC and
the Vulkan shipyard manufactured turbochargers for the 10-cylinder four-stroke
engines from the vessels 'Preussen' and 'Hansestadt Danzig'. The engines, which
were designed for an uncharged performance of 1700 HP each at 235 rpm
provided, when charged, a cruising power of 2400 HP at 275 rpm and a temporary
overload of 4025 HP at 320 rpm (for a m.e.p. = 8.4). Turbocharging of two-stroke
marine engines began after 1950.
For the relatively short turbocharger rotors, which are almost always
equipped with single-stage compressor and turbine wheels, two bearings are
sufficient. One of these is a combined radial-axial bearing, the other a pure radial
bearing. Two bearing layouts have proved successful on the market: 1) bearings at
the shaft ends (external bearings), used predominantly in large machines, and 2)
bearings between the compressor and turbine wheel (internal bearings) used mainly
for small turbochargers. In both arrangements the axial bearing is located near the
compressor wheel, to keep the axial clearance in that region small.
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 13
In the variant with external bearings (Fig. 1.11, a), the large distance
between the bearings reduces the radial bearing forces and requires smaller
clearances at the compressor wheel and turbine wheel. The frictional losses in the
bearings are smaller, particularly at part load. The shaft ends can be kept small in
diameter and are simple to equip with a lubricating oil pump and centrifuge, thus
rendering rolling-contact bearings and self-lubrication possible.
Fig. 1.11
Fig. 1.15
The Porţile de Fier I hydroelectric power plant has eight Kaplan turbines
of 194 MW, head 27 m, nominal water flow 840 m3/s, speed 71.43 rpm, 6 blades
and rotor diameter 9.5 m.
The Porţile de Fier II hydroelectric power plant has eight double-
regulated bulb units type KOT 28-7.45, with the bulb upstream and the turbine
overhung downstream. The unit has three guide bearings and a thrust bearing, 16
stator blades and 4 rotor blades, and the following parameters: head 7.45 m,
nominal water flow 432 m3/s, rated power 27 MW, rotor diameter 7.5 m.
1.1.8 Turbo-generators
20,000 kVA and higher, but are not normally used below 2500 kW, because
salient-pole machines with end-shield bearings are more economical. Beyond 2500
kW, an alternator running at 3000 (or 3600) rpm permits a more economical gear
to be used than a 1500 (or 1800) rpm alternator for the same turbine [16].
The marked increase in the unit ratings of turbo-generators has not, for
the most part, been accompanied by a corresponding increase in the size of
machines because of the increase in the specific electric ratings. For example,
between 1940-1975, the maximum power of electric generators increased from 100
to 1600 MVA, whereas in 1940 a 3000 rpm turbo-generator weighed 2 kg per kW
of output, and its 1975 counterpart weighed only 0.5 kg/kW.
Alternator rotors have been also designed to be progressively longer and
more flexible. The forging of a 120 MW rotor had approximately 30 tons and 8 m
distance between bearing centres, while a 500 MW rotor had 70 tons and 12 m.
Modern rotors have two or three critical speeds below their operating speed of
3000 rpm.
Rotors of electrical machines are different from rotors with bladed discs
or impellers, being more massive, but occasionally rising problems due to
asymmetrical stiffness properties.
Figure 1.17 is a cutaway perspective drawing of a 400 MVA, 3000 rpm
generator with water-cooled stator winding and forced hydrogen direct cooling in
the rotor. Due to the high flux density and current loadings, generators of over 500
MW employing these cooling methods must have their stator cores mounted in a
flexible suspension. This is necessary in order to isolate the foundations from the
enormous magnetic vibration forces arising between rotor and stator.
Two-pole generator rotors have axial slots machined to match more
closely the principal stiffnesses. They are intended to reduce the parametric
vibrations induced by the variation of the cross-section second moment of area
about the horizontal axis, during rotation.
The second order (or 'twice per revolution') forced vibration which arises
from the dual flexural rigidity is virtually inescapable in a two-pole machine;
where the motion is excited by the weight of the rotor. This is a source of
considerable difficulty, largely because it can be cured only at the design stage and
cannot be 'balanced'. Certain 'trimming' modifications can be made but these
present problems of their own. In fact it would be very difficult to design
accurately an alternator rotor so as to have axial symmetry in a dynamical sense.
The rotor is, in effect, a large rotating electromagnet, having a north pole and a
south pole on opposite sides of the rotor and having slots cut in it, in which copper
conductors are embedded to provide the magnetic field.
unlikely to be the same for bending about the horizontal and the vertical neutral
axes, even after copper conductors and steel wedges have been placed in the slots.
Rotor-Bearing Dynamics has got its own status, apart from Mechanical
Vibrations and Structural Dynamics, becoming an interdisciplinary research field,
as soon as the importance of the effects of bearings and seals on the rotor dynamic
response has been recognized.
The scope of Rotor-Bearing Dynamics is the study of the interaction
between rotor, stator and the working fluid, for the design, construction and
operation of smooth-running machines in which allowable vibration and dynamic
stress levels are not overpassed, within the whole operating range.
Smooth machine operation is characterized by small, stable rotor
precession orbits, and by the absence of any instability throughout the machine
operating range.
In order to understand the dynamic response of a rotating machine it is
necessary to have, early in the design stage, information on the following aspects
of its behavior:
1. Lateral critical speeds of the rotor-bearing-pedestal-foundation system;
effects of the stiffness and damping of bearings, seals, supporting structure and
foundation on the location of critical speeds within the machine operating range.
2. Unbalance response: orbits of the rotor precession as a response to
different unbalance distributions, throughout the whole operating range of the
machine, and vibration amplitudes due to rotor unbalance.
3. Rotor speed at onset of instability: the threshold speed for unstable
whirling due to the rotor/bearing and/or working fluid interaction, as well as the
consequences of its crossing.
4. Time transient response analysis, to a blade loss, mainly for gas turbine
engines operating at supercritical speeds, or when passing through a critical speed.
5. System torsional critical speeds, especially at geared rotors, eventually
the transient response of the shaft line to electric disturbances applied to the
generator.
Practical measures regarding the balancing and the monitoring of the
dynamic state of rotors are added to these:
6. Balancing of rotors: calculation and attachment (removal) of correction
masses such that the centrifugal forces on the rotor due to these additional masses
and the inherent unbalance forces are in equilibrium.
7. Machinery monitoring: measurement of the parameters characterizing
the dynamic state of machines and trending their time evolution, in order to detect
any damage, to anticipate serious faults, determining the outage.
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 23
The most important sources of machinery vibration are the residual rotor
unbalance and rotor instability.
Most rotors have at least two bearings. With horizontal rotors, the rotor
weight is distributed between all the bearings. The rotation axis is coincident with
the static elastic line under the own weight. If the weight effect is neglected, the
rotation axis coincides with the line connecting the bearing centres.
Any rotational asymmetry due to manufacturing, or produced during
operation, makes the line connecting the centroids of rotor cross-sections not to
coincide with the rotation axis. Hence, as the rotor is brought up in speed, the
centrifugal forces due to dissymmetry cause it to deflect. For example, a 50 tons
rotor, with its mass centre off-set by 25 μm from the axis of rotation, experiences a
force of approximately 13 tons force, when rotating at 3000 rpm. The rotating
centrifugal forces are transferred to the bearings and their supports, and produce
unwanted vibrations.
While the bearings and the casing vibrate, the rotor has a precession
motion. For isotropic bearings, at constant speed, the deflected shape of the rotor
remains unchanged during the motion, any cross-section traces out a circular
whirling orbit. The motion appears as a vibration only when the whirl amplitude is
measured in any fixed direction.
Despite the analogy often used in describing vibration and precession,
their practical implications are different. The remedy for resonance – internal
damping – is totally inefficient in the case of critical speeds, since the shape of the
deflected rotor does not change (or changes very slightly) during the precession
motion at constant speed. Moreover, at a critical speed, if the deflections are not
limited, a rotor bends rather than damages by fatigue, phenomenon produced by the
lateral vibrations. Instead, journal bearings, small clearance liquid seals, or viscous
sleeves are the major source of damping in most cases. Without this damping or a
similar source, it would be very difficult to pass through a critical speed. That is
why bearings and seals play a major role in the dynamics of the rotor systems.
If identical orbits are traced out with successive rotor rotations, the
motion is said to be stable precession. If the orbit increases in size with successive
rotations, the motion is an unstable whirl. It may subsequently grow until the orbit
becomes bounded either by system internal forces, or by some external constraint,
e.g. bearing rub, guard ring, shut-down, etc.
Some typical orbits are shown in Fig. 1.20. The circular orbit (Fig. 1.20,
a) represents the synchronous whirling of a rotor in isotropic radial supports. The
absence of loops within the orbit denotes synchronous whirl.
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 25
An elliptical orbit (Fig. 1.20, b) may arise from orthotropic supports, i.e.
from dissimilar bearing or pedestal stiffnesses in the horizontal and vertical
directions. Inclination of ellipse axes occurs due to cross-coupled stiffnesses and
damping properties.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 1.20 (from [19])
direction within the bearing clearance, but without contacting the bearing surface.
Following the impact, the rotor motion is a damped decaying spiral transient, as it
returns to its original small unbalance whirl condition.
Many other types of whirl orbits have been observed, such as those
associated with system non-linearities and nonsymmetric clearance effects.
For the mechanical design of rotor, bearings and supporting structure, one
has to take into account that they work as a whole, responding together to the
dynamic loading, and interacting. The rotor is part of a dynamic system, its
behavior being determined by the location and stiffness of bearings, seals,
pedestals and foundation, as well as their damping properties. The casing and
foundation masses also play an important role.
The rotor is the main part in any piece of rotating machinery. Its function
is to generate or transmit power. It consists of a shaft on which such components as
turbine wheels, impeller wheels, gears, or the rotor of an electric machine may be
mounted. The rotor is never completely rigid and in many applications it is actually
quite flexible. However, in practice, rigid rotors are considered to be those running
below 1/3 of the first bending critical speed. Elastic rotors operate near or beyond
the first bending critical speed, so that the centrifugal forces due to the residual
unbalance cause it to deflect.
In most machines, rotors have shafts with axisymmetric cross-section. If,
in some parts, the cross-section is not symmetrical, then the bending stiffness with
respect to a fixed axis is variable during the rotation giving rise to non-synchronous
motions and instabilities (e.g. two-pole generators and cracked rotors). The rotor
shaft can be modeled as a Timoshenko-type beam, accounting for the shear and
rotational inertia, including also the effect of gyroscopic couples. The discs –
usually rigid – are included by lumped parameters: the mass, and the polar and
diametral mass moments of inertia. More advanced calculations consider the disc
flexibility. Rotors of individual machines are joined by couplings (locked spline,
double-hinged, sliding spline, flex plate).
Bearings are selected as a function of static load and speed, taking into
account the dynamic loading, available space, energy losses, simplity of design
solution, as well as durability and reliability requirements.
In early studies, bearings were considered as rigid supports (Fig. 1.21, a).
Later, their radial stiffness and damping has been taken into account (Fig. 1.21, b).
In rolling bearings and air bearings, the damping is usually neglected. The stiffness
and damping characteristics of journal bearings are functions of running speed and
loading. At rolling bearings, the stiffness is considered independent of speed and
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 27
loading. Generally, only the bearing translational radial stiffness is taken into
account, the angular stiffness being relatively small (one tenth).
With journal bearings, under steady-state hydrodynamic conditions, the
total pressure force equals the static load on the bearing. If the centre of the rotating
journal is in motion, as for instance during synchronous precession, additional
pressures are set up in the lubricant film, which act as dynamic forces on the
journal in addition to the static forces. The dynamic force depends on both the
relative displacement and the velocity of the journal centre motion but, in contrast
to conventional elastic forces, the dynamic force does not have the same direction
as the imposed motion, being phase shifted in space and time.
Fig. 1.21
Resolving the dynamic force into two components along fixed coordinate
axes in the bearing, say Oy and Oz, and likewise resolving the journal centre
motion into y and z displacements, the dynamic force components may be
expressed by:
⎧ f y ⎫ ⎡k yy k yz ⎤ ⎧ y ⎫ ⎡c yy c yz ⎤ ⎧ y& ⎫
⎨ ⎬ = ⎢k ⎥⎨ ⎬ + ⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬. (1.1)
⎩ f z ⎭ ⎣ zy k zz ⎦ ⎩ z ⎭ ⎣ c zy c zz ⎦ ⎩ z& ⎭
The above equations are exact only for very small amplitudes, but in practice they
prove to be valid even for amplitudes as large as a third of the bearing clearance.
28 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
⎧ f y ⎫ ⎡ K k ⎤ ⎧ y ⎫ ⎡ C c ⎤ ⎧ y& ⎫ ⎧ &y&⎫
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬ + ⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬ + M ⎨ &&⎬. (1.2)
⎩ f z ⎭ ⎣− k K ⎦ ⎩ z ⎭ ⎣− c C ⎦ ⎩ z& ⎭ ⎩z⎭
The inertial term is negligible at gas seals, where direct stiffnesses can be
very small, even negative. For long annular clearance seals, like those used to
break down large pressure differences in multi-stage pumps, angular dynamic
coefficients are introduced, because the rotor is acted upon by couples, and forces
give rise to tilting shaft motions, and moments produce linear displacements.
Radial seals in centrifugal pumps are either balance disks or the radial
gap of mechanical seals. Impellers generate motion-dependent forces and moments
in the flow fields between impeller tip and casing (volute or diffuser) and in the
leakage flow fields developed between impeller shrouds and casing.
Squeeze-film dampers are used in gas turbines as a means of reducing
vibrations and transmitted forces due to unbalance. A squeeze film is an annulus of
oil supplied between the outer race of a rolling-element bearing (or the bush of a
sleeve bearing) and its housing. It can be considered as a parallel element of a
vibration isolator, or as a series element in a bearing housing.
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 29
Fig. 1.22
Figure 1.22 shows the response of a rotor journal versus the ratio of
natural frequency to running speed. Values calculated for rigid supports are
denoted by R1 and R2, while values for bearings treated as elastic springs are
indicated by E1, E2 and E3. The continuous line shows the unbalance response
calculated considering both the stiffness and the damping in bearings. D1, D2, D3
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 31
are the actual critical speeds, measured by the peaks in the unbalance response
characteristic. It can be seen that critical speeds based on rigid support calculations
can be seriously in error, that criticals calculated assuming elastic supports can be
more accurate and that neither calculation can be used to determine a response
level because damping has been neglected.
Figure 1.23 shows an analysis of a complete system consisting of high
pressure turbine (HPT), intermediate pressure turbine (IPT), low pressure turbine
(LPT), generator (G) and exciter (E).
Fig. 1.23
the rotor stiffness, determining a decrease of the critical speeds and their
interference with the range of operating speeds. As the bearing dynamic
characteristics are not exactly known, critical speeds cannot be determined
accurately, so that the traditional criterion aiming at operation at or near to a
critical cannot offer the necessary safe limit
In practice it has been found out that one can operate perfectly safe and
reliable at well damped critical speeds if the vibration levels do not exceed the
allowable levels and if the rotor has not a pronounced sensitivity to mass
unbalance. It means that the unbalance response of the rotor can give the most
useful information about the soundness of a design solution. Carrying out this
calculation for different unbalance distributions, judiciously chosen so as to
enhance the deflection at different unbalance critical speeds, it can be established
how critical each of the critical is and what measures have to be taken so that the
vibration amplitudes remain within normal limits, even in the presence of
unbalances that occur during the normal operation (erosion, deposits, component
failures, thermal strains, etc.).
The first analysis of critical speeds of a uniform elastic shaft has been
made in 1869 by Rankine [21], who devised the term ‘critical speed’. The
phenomenon was incorrectly thought to be an unstable condition, the rotor being
unable to run beyond that speed. In this case art preceded science, for in 1895 some
commercial centrifuges and steam turbines were already running supercritically.
Gustaf de Laval first demonstrated experimentally that a (single stage steam)
turbine could operate above the rotor’s lowest bending resonance speed and
supercritical operation could be smoother than subcritical. In many European
papers, the rotor model consisting of a central disk, mounted on a massless flexible
shaft supported at its ends, is referred to as the Laval rotor. Although the first
correct solution for an undamped model has been given by Föppl [22], who was the
first to demonstrate analytically that that a rotor could operate supercritically, the
confusion persisted until the publication in 1919 of Jeffcott’s paper [23] using a
model with damping. This simple model is called the Jeffcott rotor in recent
papers.
In 1894 Dunkerley [24] published results of his studies on critical speeds
of shafts with many discs, and gave his well-known method with its experimental
verification. In 1916 Stodola [25] published an analysis of the bearing influence on
the flexible shaft whirling. He also introduced the gyroscopic couples on disks.
Hysteretic whirl was first investigated by Newkirk [26] in 1924 during
studies about a series of failures of blast-furnace compressors. It was observed that
at speeds above the first critical speed, these units would enter into a violent
1. ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS 33
whirling in which the rotor centerline precessed at a rate equal to the first critical
speed. If the unit rotational speed was increased above its initial whirl speed, the
whirl amplitude would increase, leading to eventual rotor failure. During the course
of the investigation, Kimball in 1924 suggested that internal shaft friction could be
responsible for the shaft whirling. In 1925, Kimball and Lovell performed
extensive tests on the internal friction of various materials. At the end Newkirk
concluded that the internal friction created by shrink fits of the impellers and
spacers is a more active cause of the whirl instability than the material hysteresis in
the rotating shaft.
In 1925, Newkirk and Taylor [27] observed oil film whirl and resonant
whipping. The true upper limit for safe operating speeds has been thus revealed,
namely the threshold speed of rotor-bearing instability. This typically occurs at
speeds between two and three times the lowest resonant frequency, wherefrom the
name of half-frequency and sub-synchronous whirl. The phenomenon was
explained only in 1952 by Poritsky [28], who showed that the destabilizing
influence comes from the hydrodynamic journal bearing which loses its ability to
damp the lowest rotor-bearing bending resonant mode.
In 1933 Smith [29] published a review of the basic rotor dynamics
problems, discussing qualitatively the effect of gyroscopic coupling, and
simultaneous asymmetries of the bearing and shaft flexibilities. Between 1932-
1935, Robertson [30] presented a series of papers on the subjects of bearing whirl,
rotor transient whirl, and hysteretic whirl.
In 1946, Prohl [31] published a transfer matrix procedure for determining
the critical speeds of a multi-disc single shaft rotor, allowing for the inclusion of
gyroscopic effects, but restricted to isotropic elastic supports. Between 1955-1965,
Hagg and Sankey [32], Sternlicht [33], Lund [34] and others have developed the
theory of hydrodynamic bearings, Yamamoto [35] studied the rolling bearings and
Sternlicht [36], Pan and Cheng investigated the rotor instability in gas bearings.
In 1948 Green [37] studied the gyroscopic effect of a rigid disc on the
whirling of a flexible overhang rotor, being credited with the initial generalization
of Jeffcott’s model to account for rigid-body dynamics. In 1957 Downham [38] has
experimentally confirmed the existence of backward whirling.
Between 1963-1967, Lund [39] and Glienicke [40] presented values of
the linearized stiffness and damping coefficients for a series of hydrodynamic
bearings, first presented by Sternlicht in 1959 [33]. Lund [41, 42] expanded the
transfer matrix method of Myklestad and Prohl for calculating damped unbalance
response and damped natural frequencies of a flexible rotor with asymmetric
supports. Ruhl [43] and Nordmann [44] have first used the finite element method
for the dynamic analysis of rotor-bearing systems in their doctoral theses, but the
first papers using this method were published by Ruhl and Booker [45] in 1972,
and Gasch [46] in 1973. Reduction of the finite element model has been used
34 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
starting in 1980 by Rouch and Kao [47], and Jäcker [48], the latter introducing also
the effect of foundation on the rotor response.
The study of the effect of annular fluid seals was initiated by Lomakin
[49] in 1958, and then developed by Black [50] and Childs [51]. The effect of gas
seals has been studied by Benckert and Wachter [52], and Iwatsubo [53]. The study
of instabilities due to unequal gaps between rotor and stator as a result of the rotor
eccentricity was initiated by Thomas [54] and Alford [55].
In Romania, the first book with elements of machinery dynamics was
published in 1958 by Gh. Buzdugan and L. Hamburger [56]. The lubrication theory
has been developed by N. Tipei [57] and V. N. Constantinescu [58-60]. Books on
sliding bearings were published by Tipei et al [61] and Constantinescu et al [62].
The first PhD thesis on Rotordynamics was presented in 1971 by M. Rădoi [63],
using a computer program developed at INCREST [64], based on Lund’s transfer
matrix method [65].
References
10. API Standard 617, Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas
Service Industries, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, 1995.
11. Meiners, K., Compressors in Energy Technology, Sulzer Technical Review,
Vol.62, No.4, pp 143-148, 1980.
12. Shaw, M. C., and Macks E. F., Analysis and Lubrication of Bearings, McGraw
Hill, New York, 1949.
13. Eck, B., Ventilatoren, Springer, Berlin, 1957.
14. Pfleiderer, C., and Petermann, H., Strömungsmaschinen, 6.Aufl., Springer,
Berlin, 1990.
15. Siekmann, H., Wasserturbinen, Dubbel. Taschenbuch für den Maschinenbau,
17. Aufl., Springer, Berlin, pp R30-R36, 1990.
16. Krick, N., and Noser, R., The Growth of Turbo-Generators, Brown Boveri
Review, Vol.63, No.2, pp 148-155, 1976.
17. Bishop, R. E. D., and Parkinson, A. G., Second Order Vibration of Flexible
Shafts, Phil. Trans. Royal Society, Series A, Vol.259, A.1095, pp 1-31, 1965.
18. * * * Caractéristiques de construction des alternateurs de grande puissance,
Revue ABB, No.1, 11 pag. 1989.
19. Rieger, N. F., and Crofoot, J. F., Vibrations of Rotating Machinery. Part I:
Rotor-Bearing Dynamics, The Vibration Institute, Illinois, Nov 1977.
20. API Standard 610, Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Services, American
Petroleum Institute, Washington, 1979.
21. Rankine, W. J. M., On the centrifugal force of rotating shafts, The Engineer,
Vol.27, p.249, Apr.1869.
22. Föppl, A., Das Problem der Laval'schen Turbinewelle, Civilingenieur, Vol.41,
pp.332-342, 1895.
23. Jeffcott, N., Lateral vibration of loaded shafts in the neighbourhood of a
whirling speed – The effect of want of balance, Philosophical Magazine, Series
6, Vol.37, pp.304-314, 1919.
24. Dunkerley, S., On the whirling and vibration of shafts, Trans. Roy. Soc.
(London), Vol.185, Series A, pp.279-360, 1894.
25. Stodola, A., Neuere Beobachtungen uber die Kritischen Umlaufzahlen von
Wellen, Schweizer.Bauzeitung, Vol.68, pp.210-214, 1916.
26. Newkirk, B. L., Shaft whipping, General Electric Review, Vol.27, pp.169-178,
1924.
36 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
55. Alford, J., Protecting turbomachinery from self-excited rotor whirl, Trans.
ASME, J. Engng. Power, pp.333-344, 1965.
56. Buzdugan, Gh. and Hamburger, L., Teoria vibraţiilor, Editura tehnică,
Bucureşti, 1958.
57. Tipei, N., Hidro-aerodinamica lubrificaţiei, Editura Academiei, Bucureşti,
1957.
58. Constantinescu, V. N., Lubrificaţia cu gaze, Editura Academiei, Bucureşti,
1963.
59. Constantinescu, V. N., Aplicaţii industriale ale lagărelor cu aer, Editura
Academiei, Bucureşti, 1968.
60. Constantinescu, V. N., Teoria lubrificaţiei în regim turbulent, Editura
Academiei, Bucureşti, 1965.
61. Tipei, N., Constantinescu, V. N., Nica, Al., and Biţă, O., Lagăre cu alunecare,
Editura Academiei, Bucureşti, 1961.
62. Constantinescu, V. N., Nica, Al., Pascovici, M. D., Ceptureanu, Gh., and
Nedelcu, Şt., Lagăre cu alunecare, Editura tehnică, Bucureşti, 1980.
63. Rădoi, M., Contribuţii la studiul dinamicei şi stabilităţii rotorilor, cu
considerarea influenţei reazemelor, Teză de doctorat, Inst. Politehnic
Timişoara, 1971.
64. Biţă, O., Program pentru calculul răspunsului dinamic al unui rotor,
INCREST, Bucureşti, 1973.
65. Lund, J. W., Rotor-Bearings Dynamic Design Technology Part III: Design
Handbook for Fluid-Film Bearings, Mechanical Technology Inc. Report
AFAPL-Tr-65-45, 1965.
2.
SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS
Fig. 2.3
Let the point G be the disc mass centre and point C - the disc geometric
centre, where the geometric axis of the shaft intersects the disc plane. The disc has
mass m and polar moment of inertia J G . The bearing line intersects the disc at
point O. Denote C G = e the offset of the disc mass centre G with respect to the
point C.
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 41
m &y&G + k yC = 0 ,
m &z&G + k zC = 0, (2.1)
J G θ&& + k yC e sin θ - k zC e cos θ = M ( t ).
yG = yC + e cos θ ,
(2.2)
zG = zC + e sin θ .
M ( t ) k ⎛ yC z ⎞ e
θ&& = − ⎜⎜ sinθ − C cosθ ⎟⎟ .
JG m ⎝ iG iG ⎠ iG
Because e << iG and yC , zC << iG , the second term in the right hand side
can be neglected with respect to the first one. For steady-state motion, when the
active and resistant torques balance each other, M (t ) = 0, hence θ&& ≅ 0. As a result,
the running speed is constant, θ& = Ω = const ., and
θ = Ω t + θ0 . (2.4)
Because, in reality, the free motion decays due to the inherent damping
and dies out after a short time interval, in the following only the forced steady-state
motion will be studied.
m eΩ 2 Ω2 (Ω / ω n ) 2
ŷC = ẑC = = e = e. (2.9)
k − mΩ 2 ωn2 − Ω 2 1 − (Ω / ω n ) 2
Due to the disc mass unbalance, the point C moves along a circle of
radius
(Ω / ω n ) 2
r̂C = ŷC2 + ẑC2 = e , (2.10)
1 − (Ω / ω n ) 2
with the angular speed Ω .
The above calculations can be written in a more compact form using
complex numbers.
Fig. 2.4
In the plane yOz, Oy is taken as the real axis and Oz as the imaginary axis
(Fig. 2.4). The following notations are used
rC = yC + i zC ,
(2.11)
rG = yG + i zG ,
where i = − 1.
Multiplying the second equation (2.2) by i, by addition to the first one
and using the notation (2.4), we find
44 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
yG + i zG = yC + i zC + e [ cos (Ω t + θ 0 ) + i ⋅ sin (Ω t + θ 0 )]
or
rG = rC + e ei ( Ω t +θ 0 ) . (2.12)
(Ω/ωn ) 2
rC = e ei ( Ωt + θ 0 ) . (2.14)
1 − (Ω/ωn ) 2
Inserting (2.14) into (2.12) we obtain the displacement of the disc mass
centre
1
rG = e ei ( Ωt + θ 0 ) . (2.15)
1 − (Ω/ωn ) 2
CG = e ei ( Ωt + θ 0 ) . (2.16)
Denoting
because from equations (2.14) and (2.15) it comes out that r̂C and r̂G are real
quantities, the vectors O G and O C are collinear with C G , hence the points O, C
and G are collinear.
At Ω = const. the relative position of these points is fixed. The shaft
deflected axis is located in the plane defined by the axis Ox and the line O C G ,
having a constant bend. The shaft rotates around the Ox axis in this deflected shape
so that, at any section, the bending stresses are time invariable. As the motion of
point C around the bearings line is executed with the same angular speed Ω as the
rotation of point G around the shaft axis (point C), the motion is referred to as a
synchronous precession.
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 45
Figure 2.5 shows the speed dependence of the radius r̂C of the orbit of
point C (solid line) and the radius r̂G of the orbit of point G (broken line).
Fig. 2.5
For Ω = ωn , the radii r̂C and r̂G become infinite, the shaft bend grows
indefinitely, as do the bending stresses. This state has been considered critical and
the corresponding speed
30 ωn 30 k
ncr = = (2.18)
π π m
has been referred to as the rotor undamped critical speed. The critical angular
speed Ω cr = ωn corresponds to the natural circular frequency of the rotor
undamped lateral vibrations.
In the undercritical range, for Ω1 < ω n , O1G1 > O1C1 , point G1 is outside
the segment O1C1 , moving as in Fig. 2.6, a along a circle of radius larger than that
of point C1 . In the overcritical range, for Ω2 > ωn , O2G2 < O2C2 , the point G2 is
located between the points O2 and C2 , moving as in Fig. 2.6, b along a circle of
radius smaller than that of point C 2 .
At very large angular speeds, for Ω3 >> ωn , the point G3 coincides with
O3 , hence the disc mass centre tends to the bearing line (Fig. 2.6, c). The shaft
deflection becomes practically equal to the offset e. It is said that the rotor is self-
balanced. This is the optimal operating regime in the overcritical range, since the
dynamic forces in bearings have the minimum value k e .
The results of the above analysis are of theoretical interest. In practice,
large (but not infinite) rotor shaft deflections could be anticipated at the rotor
critical speed, when the rotor speed coincides with its flexural natural frequency.
46 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The findings are limited to the synchronous motion, condition in which equal
precession and rotation rates are assumed for the rotor. The orbits of the rotor
points are circles only if the shaft is circumferentially symmetric.
Fig. 2.6
The rotor motion takes place in the presence of friction forces arising due
to the rotor interaction with its stationary environment and due to the relative
motion of its particles and components during bending.
In the following, distinction will be made between external and internal
friction forces. The external friction forces, producing the "external damping",
limit the precession radius at the critical speed and stabilize the motion. The
internal friction forces act at joints, between components mounted with shrink fits,
or arise from the internal friction in the shaft material. They produce the "internal
damping", attenuating the magnitude of the precession motion at the critical speed,
and being able to produce, at higher speeds, unstable motions, as a result of the
character of tangential follower forces.
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 47
mλ2 + ce λ + k = 0 ,
whose solutions are
2
ce ⎛ ce ⎞ k
λ 1,2 = − ± ⎟ − = ωn ⎛⎜ − ζ e ± i 1 − ζ e ⎞⎟
2
⎜ (2.21)
2m ⎝ 2 m ⎠ m ⎝ ⎠
ce c
ζe = = e (2.22)
2 k m 2ωn m
where the integration constants R 1 and R2 are determined from the initial
conditions for the displacement and velocity, rC ( 0 ) and r&C ( 0 ).
In order to determine the orbit of point C, the free undamped motion will
be considered first, when ce = ζ e = α e = 0. The solution (2.24) becomes
rC (t ) = R 1 ei ω n t + R 2 e − i ω n t . (2.25)
In the complex plane, this represents the sum of two vectors of length
R 1 and R 2 , respectively, rotating in opposite directions with angular velocity
ωn . The tip of the resultant vector moves along an ellipse (Fig. 2.7, a). The major
semiaxis a = R 1 + R 2 is directed along the bisector of the angle between the
two vectors. The minor semiaxis is b = R 1 − R 2 .
a b
Fig. 2.7
In the case of the damped motion, the solution (2.24) represents the sum
of two vectors rotating in opposite directions with angular speed ωd e ≅ ωn
( for ζ e << 1 ) . For α e < 0 , the factor eα e t produces a decrease in magnitude,
hence a motion along a converging spiral (Fig. 2.7, b).
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 49
rC (t ) = ~
rC ei ( Ω t +θ 0 ) (2.26)
into equation (2.20) gives
(−m Ω 2 + i Ω ce + k ) ~
rC = m e Ω 2 .
After transformations, the expression of the displacement of point C is
obtained as:
~ e (Ω / ωn ) 2
rC = =
1 − (Ω / ωn ) 2 + i 2ζ e (Ω / ωn )
=
[
e (Ω / ωn ) 2 1 − (Ω / ωn ) 2 − i 2ζ e (Ω / ωn ) ] = rC R + i rC I .
(2.27)
[1 − (Ω / ωn ) 2 ] 2 + [ 2ζ e Ω / ωn ] 2
rC = ~
rC ei ( Ω t +θ 0 +θ C ) (2.28)
where
~ e ( Ω/ωn ) 2
rC = ,
[1 − ( Ω/ωn ) 2 ] 2 + [ 2ζ e (Ω/ωn ) ] 2
(2.29)
2ζ e (Ω/ωn )
tan θC = − ,
1 − (Ω/ωn ) 2
Fig. 2.8
50 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Figure 2.8 shows the relative position of these vectors in the case of
rotation at undercritical speeds (Ω < ωn ). Because tan θ C < 0, the angle θ C is
negative and the vector O C lags the line C G . The real part ℜe (rC ) = O C '
CG .
The radius of the disc mass centre orbit is
rG = rC + e ei ( Ωt + θ 0 )
hence
~ 1 + i 2ζ e (Ω / ωn )
rG = ~
rC + e = e = rG R + i rG I (2.30)
1 − (Ω / ωn ) 2 + i 2ζ e (Ω / ωn )
so that
rG = ~
rG ei ( Ω t +θ 0 +θ G ) (2.31)
where
~ e 1 + 4ζ e2 (Ω / ωn ) 2
rG = , (2.32)
[1 − (Ω / ω ) ]
n
2 2
+ [2ζ e (Ω / ωn )] 2
2ζ e (Ω / ωn )3
tan θ G = −
1 − (Ω / ωn ) 2 + 4ζ e2 (Ω / ω n ) 2
In figure 2.8, for Ω < ω n , tan θG < 0 and the vector O G lags the line
C G with an angle θ G .
The peak response speeds are slightly different from the undamped and
the damped critical speeds, and are different for points C and G.
a b
Fig. 2.9
(r2
CR + rC2I ) 2
( )
+ e rC R rC2R + rC2I −
e2 2
rC = 0
4 ζ e2 I
(2.33)
Fig. 2.10
The relative orientations of points C and G are sketched in Fig. 2.11 for
three speeds. Note the difference compared to Fig. 2.6, drawn for undamped rotors.
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 53
As the rotor rotates, the eccentric mass tends to pull the rotor toward the
bearings on the side the point G is located, called the ‘heavy spot’. The point where
the precession radius is a maximum is called the ‘high spot’. The opposite point is
the ‘low spot’.
Fig. 2.11
where ci is the coefficient of internal viscous damping, and r& is the time rate of
change of the shaft deflection at the point of disc attachment.
For a non-rotating shaft, this force is proportional to the absolute velocity
of the respective point, hence the internal viscous damping plays the same role as
the external damping.
For the rotating shaft, the rate of change of shaft deflection, equal to the
velocity of the relative displacement of its points, is different from the absolute
velocity. Equation (2.34) holds only in a rotating coordinate system fixed to the
rotor, hence the name of rotating damping.
Figure 2.12 [6] shows a simple model which illustrates the action of
internal viscous damping. If the rotor has a synchronous precession, r = const . ,
and the damping force (2.34) is zero. Internal damping forces are produced only by
alternating bending stresses and strains, when the rotor orbits are non-circular.
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 55
of Fel , however. If the shaft is placed on ends, a whirling motion of the shaft is
likely to build up provided the rotational speed exceeds the natural whirling speed.
Fig. 2.13
In the preceding discussion, the frictional reaction Fi has been shown to
arise in the fibers during compression and elongation. This is not the only sort of
friction which may cause the reaction Fi , however.
Any frictional resistance which arises within a revolving deflected rotor,
while one-half of the cross section is stretching and the other half is shortening,
also must produce a frictional reaction component Fi . For example, the rotor may
be a shaft with rings shrunk on it. In this case, friction may take place between the
surface of the shaft and the inner surface of the rings, due to a working of the shaft
in the rings as it revolves. The surface fibers of the deflected shaft go through a
cycle of elastic lengthening and shortening for every complete revolution of the
shaft. This produces a friction against the inside surface of the rings which may be
as great as to cause the shaft to take a slight permanent set when deflected a small
amount”.
Consider the coordinate system Oξηζ fixed to the disc, rotating at the
running speed Ω (Fig. 2.14). The rotating coordinate frame is selected so that the
axis Oη makes an angle θ with respect to C G (the unbalance). The axis Oζ is
perpendicular to Oη and in the disc plane (see Fig. 2.3). For the symmetric rotor,
the axis Oξ coincides with the axis Ox of the stationary coordinate system. At a
given time t, the axis Oη makes an angle Ω t with the axis Oy .
The coordinates of any arbitrary point P, in the two coordinate systems,
are related by the following equations
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 57
⎧ y ⎫ ⎡ cos Ω t − sin Ω t ⎤ ⎧ η ⎫
⎨ ⎬ = ⎢ ⎨ ⎬ .
cos Ω t ⎥⎦ ⎩ ζ ⎭
(2.35)
⎩ z ⎭ ⎣ sin Ω t
r = ρ eiΩt , (2.38)
ρ = r e− i Ω t . (2.39)
Note that r = OP in the stationary Oxyz system, while ρ = OP in the
rotor-fixed Oξηζ system.
Fig. 2.14
For undamped rotors, the equation of motion of the disc centre, in
stationary coordinates, has the form (2.13):
rC = ρC ei Ω t (2.41)
and, by successive differentiation with respect to time, we obtain
r&C = ( ρ C + i Ωρ C ) ei Ω t , (2.42)
Because the internal damping force has a fixed position with respect to
the rotating coordinate system, and rotates with the same angular speed, its
expression in the stationary coordinate system is
Fi = − ( ci ρ&C ) ei Ω t . (2.49)
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 59
hence
so that the components of the internal damping force along the axes of the
stationary coordinate system are
Considering that the force (2.52) acts upon the disc, the above terms are
added with opposite sign in the left-hand side of equations (2.5) to obtain the
equations of the motion with internal damping
The study of the motion of the perfectly balanced rotor is carried out
substituting e = 0 in equation (2.56) and looking for a solution of the form
rC = RC e λ t
for the homogeneous equation.
Denoting
ci λ Ω
ζi = , Λ= , η= , (2.57)
2mωn ωn ωn
Λ 2 + 2ζ i Λ + ( 1 − i 2ζ i η ) = 0 (2.58)
with the roots
Λ 1,2 = −ζ i ± ζ i2 − 1 + i 2ζ iη , (2.59)
For Ω > ωn , the real part of the root Λ1 is positive and its associated
motion is divergent. At the passage through the 'resonance', when Ω ≥ ωn , the
motion becomes unstable, the shaft deflection increasing suddenly.
Equations (2.60) show that for η < 1 the motion associated with Λ1 is
forward, while the motion associated with Λ 2 is backward. For η > 1 the motion
associated with Λ1 is divergent. Increasing the rotor speed Ω , the real part of Λ1
decreases and the real part of Λ 2 increases. The stability of the forward
component decreases but that of the backward component increases.
This is a general result. Forces which tend to destabilize forward precession
modes of a rotor, generally stabilize the backward precession modes.
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 61
The previous analysis has shown that in the presence of internal damping the
rotor becomes unstable for angular speeds greater than Ω s = ωn - the onset speed
of instability and the displacement rC grows unbounded in time.
A simple physical explanation of this phenomenon can be given considering
that the point C moves in a circle of radius RC with angular speed ω n , hence
rC (t ) = RC eiω n t . In this case, the internal damping force is
Fi = − ci ( r&C − i Ω rC ) = −i ci ( ωn − Ω ) rC . (2.61)
depends upon the tightness of the shrink fit and the relative stiffness of the two
parts”.
Robertson (1935) reported that even short, highly stressed shrink fits are not
entirely devoid of problems [11]. He stated that even small, tight shrink fits may
develop whirl instability provided the rotor is given a sufficiently large initial
disturbance or displacement to initiate relative internal slippage in the fit. If long
shrink fits such as compressor wheels and impeller spacers must be employed, it is
important that these pieces be undercut along the central region of the inner bore so
that the contact area is restricted to the ends of the shrink fit.
A similar effect can be produced by any friction which opposes a change of
the deflection of the shaft, such as the friction which exists at the connections of
flexible couplings, and even in “rigid” couplings. This group of friction forces was
referred to as “hysteretic forces” and the corresponding instability – “hysteretic
whirl”.
Extensive testing using an experimental test rotor uncovered the following
features of this phenomenon [8]: 1) the onset speed of whirling or whirl amplitude
was unaffected by refinement in rotor balance; 2) whirling always occurred above
the first critical speed, never below it; 3) the whirl threshold speed could vary
widely between machines of similar construction; 4) the precession (or whirl)
speed was constant regardless of the unit rotational speed; 5) whirling was
encountered only with built-up rotors; 6) increasing the foundation flexibility
would increase the whirl threshold speed; 7) distortion or misalignment of the
bearing housing would increase stability; 8) introducing damping into the
foundation would increase the whirl threshold speed; 9) a small disturbance was
sometimes required to initiate the whirl motion in a well balanced rotor. If the
foundation flexibility is increased, the rotor stability will be improved only if
damping is incorporated into the system” [12].
In order to avoid the instability induced by internal friction, the balancing
pistons of steam turbine rotors are no more shrunk on but machined integral with
the shaft, built-up rotors with shrunk-on discs are used only in the low pressure
turbines, and spline teeth couplings between the rotors of the turbine sections are
replaced by other designs without Coulomb friction.
Denoting
k ci ce
ωn2 = , ζi = , ζe = , ζ = ζe +ζi , (2.63)
m 2mωn 2 mω n
equations (2.62) can be written in matrix form as
λ Ω
Λ= , η= , (2.65)
ωn ωn
the study of the motion of the perfectly balanced rotor (e=0) leads to the
characteristic equation
( ) (
Λ 4 + 4ζ Λ 3 + 2 2ζ 2 + 1 Λ 2 + 4ζ Λ + 1 + 4ζ i2 η = 0 . ) (2.66)
Λ4 + B3 Λ3 + B2 Λ2 + B1 Λ + B0 = 0,
then, according to the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion [6], the roots do not have
positive real parts (the system is stable) on condition that
B1 B2 − B0 B3 ≥ 0 ,
B1 B2 B3 − B12 − B0 B32 ≥ 0.
⎛ ζ ⎞
Hence, for angular speeds Ω > ωn ⎜⎜1 + e ⎟⎟ the rotor motion is unstable,
⎝ ζi ⎠
and the displacement of the point C with respect to O increases unbounded if there
is no damping.
A perfectly balanced rotor, rotating with the angular speed Ω , cannot
operate beyond the onset speed of instability
⎛ ζe ⎞
Ω s = ωn ⎜⎜1 + ⎟. (2.68)
⎝ ζ i ⎟⎠
ci ( ωn − Ωs ) rC = ce ωn rC ,
Fig. 2.15
For horizontal rotors, the own weight changes the location of the centre
of the disc orbit.
If we add the rotor weight m g (g is the acceleration of gravity) to the
right-hand side of equations (2.56) with external damping, we obtain the equation
of motion [6]
mg g 1
rC g = = . (2.70)
k − i Ω ci ωn2 1 − i 2ζ Ω
i
ωn
In the absence of internal damping, for ζ i = 0, we obtain
g mg
rC g = rC st = =
ωn2 k
which corresponds to the shaft static deflection under the disc weight.
Fig. 2.16
Similar precession motions can occur due to an initial bend in the shaft,
sometimes referred to as "elastic unbalance" [14].
In this section, simple rotors are considered with shafts supporting a rigid
disc attached either in-board off-centre, as in Fig. 2.17, or overhung, as in Fig. 2.2.
The disc rotates with the angular speed Ω .
If the rotor speed and the disc mass moments of inertia are relatively
small, than the disc can be modeled by a concentrated mass, and the problem can
be reduced to the study of the lateral vibrations of a beam carrying a point mass.
In practical cases, the angular precession of the disc axis (tangent to the
shaft axis) adds to the orbital motion of the centre of the shaft cross-section. This
gives rise to inertia torques that influence the parameters of the rotor whirling
motion.
Fig. 2.17
The disc rotary inertia due to the disc transverse mass moment of inertia
resists any local angular acceleration due to the change of slope of the rotor. This
contributes to the overall inertia of the rotor and tends to lower the system critical
speeds. The gyroscopic couple resists any change in the angular momentum of the
disc. For forward precession, this acts in opposition to rotatory inertia and
introduces a so-called ‘gyroscopic stiffening’ effect, proportional to the disc polar
mass moment of inertia and rotation speed.
The gyroscopic coupling yields pairs of forward and backward precession
modes whose natural frequencies are, respectively, larger and lower than the
associated zero-speed natural frequencies. Because the natural frequencies depend
on the rotor speed, distinction should be made between rotor natural frequencies
and critical speeds. Base excitation and harmonic forces with fixed direction in
space excite both forward and backward critical speeds. The occurrence of
backward precession is not desirable in practice, producing alternating bending
stresses, which can shorten the fatigue life of the rotor. Rotor unbalance cannot
excite backward modes.
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 69
Fig. 2.18
It is assumed that, due to the shaft deflection, the disc spinning axis Gx1
makes an angle ϕG with the plane yOx (hence with y'Gx') and an angle ψ G with
the plane zOx (hence with z'Gx') as shown in Fig. 2.18.
The principal mass moments of inertia of the rotor disc with respect to the
coordinate frame G x1 y1 z 1 are denoted :
J x1 = J P , J y 1 = J z 1 = JT , (2.71)
where J P is the polar mass moment of inertia and J T is the diametral (transverse)
mass moment of inertia.
70 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 2.19
K z = K z' = K z 1 − K x 1ϕG ,
(2.73)
K y = K y' = K y 1 + K x 1 ψG .
On inserting expressions (2.72) into (2.73), we obtain
K y = J T ϕ&G + J P Ω ψG ,
(2.74)
K z = J T ψ& G − J P Ω ϕG .
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 71
Fig. 2.20
Using the angular momentum principle, the components along the axes
Oy and Oz, respectively, of the torque applied to the disc, as a result of the shaft
deflection, can be written
M G y = K& y = J T ϕ&&G + J P Ω ψ& G ,
(2.75, a)
M G z = K& z = J T ψ&&G − J P Ω ϕG
or, in matrix form,
⎧M G y ⎫ ⎡ J T 0 ⎤ ⎧ϕ&&G ⎫ ⎡ 0 J P ⎤ ⎧ϕ&G ⎫
⎨M ⎬ = ⎢ ⎨ ⎬+Ω ⎨ ⎬. (2.75, b)
⎩ Gz ⎭ ⎣ 0 J T ⎥⎦ ⎩ψ&&G ⎭ ⎢− J
⎣ P 0 ⎥⎦ ⎩ψ& G ⎭
When the disc is part of a rotor, the system equations of motion can be
obtained from d'Alembert's principle if the right-hand sides of (2.75, b) are
introduced with opposite signs as inertia torques acting on the disc (Fig. 2.20):
⎧ M G y ⎫ ⎡ JT 0 ⎤ ⎧ ϕ&&G ⎫ ⎡ 0 J P ⎤ ⎧ ϕ&G ⎫ ⎧ 0 ⎫
⎨ M ⎬−⎢ ⎨ ⎬−Ω ⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬. (2.75, c)
⎩ Gz ⎭ ⎣ 0 J T ⎥⎦ ⎩ ψ&&G ⎭ ⎢− J
⎣ P 0 ⎥⎦ ⎩ ψ& G ⎭ ⎩ 0 ⎭
↓ ↓ ↓
applied angular gyroscopic
diametral acceleration torques
torques inertia torques
The last term in the left-hand side of equation (2.75, c) describes the
gyroscopic torques acting on the disc. They couple the equations of motion. The
72 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
torque M y about the Oy axis is proportional to the angular velocity ψ& about the
Oz axis and vice versa.
From Fig. 2.20 it can be seen that a torque M y , which produces a
rotation ϕ , gives rise to a gyroscopic torque J P Ω × ϕ& directed along the Oz axis,
which "tends to rotate the spin axis Ox toward the Oy axis".
A torque M z , which produces a rotation ψ , gives rise to a gyroscopic
torque J P Ω × ψ& directed along the negative Oy axis, hence "tends to rotate the
spin axis Ox toward the Oz axis".
The general rule, also given by the vector product from the expression of
the gyroscopic torque, can be stated as follows: "the spin vector Ω tries to move
into the torque vector".
The shaft is acted upon by torques of the same magnitude but opposite
direction as those applied to the disc
M C y = −M Gy ,
(2.76)
M C z = − M Gz .
Moreover, the shaft is acted upon by the disc inertia forces, whose
projections on the fixed frame axes have the following expressions
FC y = − FG y = − m &y&G ,
(2.77)
FC z = − FGz = − m &z&G ,
Fig. 2.21
and
zC = FC z δ11 + ( − M C y ) δ12 ,
(2.79)
− ϕC = FC z δ 21 + ( − M C y ) δ 22 .
In matrix form
yG + i zG = rG , yC + i zC = rC ,
(2.81)
ψG − i ϕG = α G , ψC − i ϕC = α C .
Generally, if the disc has a running speed Ω and an offset e, then the
mass G and the geometric centre C of the shaft cross-section do not coincide. The
radii of the orbits of these points are related by
rG = rC + e e i ( Ω t +θ o ) . (2.83)
If the disc is attached at an angle α to the shaft, the slope of the shaft
axis α C and the inclination of the disc spinning axis (perpendicular to its plane)
α G are related by
α G = α C + α e i ( Ω t +θ α ) . (2.84)
r = R e iω t , α = Α eiω t . (2.89)
76 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
and represents the characteristic equation, also termed the frequency equation.
It is a quartic in the variable ω , and has four roots (two positive and two
negative), which correspond to the four natural frequencies ω i ( i = 1,..,4 ) of an
elastically-supported disc. They are functions of the rotational angular speed Ω .
Fig. 2.22
Fig. 2.23
r = R e − iω t , α = Α e − iω t ,
which implies the substitution of ω by (− ω ) in equation (2.87), or substitution of
Ω by (− Ω ) .
When ω and Ω have the same sign (in this case - positive), the rotation
of the deflected shaft around the bearing line has the same direction as the disc
spinning motion. The motion is a forward precession, i.e. the precession motion is
in the direction of rotation.
78 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
When ω and Ω have opposite signs (in this case, ω > 0 , Ω < 0 ), the lines
O C and C G rotate in opposite directions; the motion is a backward precession.
The directions of the rotor precession and rotor rotation are opposite. Points on the
curves ω = ω (Ω ) , in the quadrant with ω > 0 , Ω > 0 , correspond to the forward
precession; points in the quadrant ω > 0 , Ω < 0 correspond to backward
precession (Fig. 2.23).
Fig. 2.24
JP =
m 2
2
R , JT =
m
12
( )
3R 2 + H 2 , (2.93)
where R is the disc radius, H is the disc length and m is the disc mass.
⎛ J T 2 Ω ⎞ δ 12 l
JP
1 −η 2 − ⎜ η − η⎟ l
⎜ JP
m l2 ω 0 ⎟⎠ δ 11
⎝ =0 (2.91, a)
J P ⎛⎜ J T 2 Ω ⎞⎟ δ 22 l
2
δ 21 l 2 1
− η 1− η − η
δ 11 l m l 2 ⎜⎝ J P ω 0 ⎟⎠ δ 11
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 79
where
ω
η= , (2.94)
ω0
1
ω0 = (2.95)
m δ11
Ω 3 Ω
a4η 4 − a3 η − a2η 2 + a 1 η + 1 = 0 , (2.96)
ω0 ω0
where
a1 =
J P δ 22 l
2
J J
, a2 = 1 + a 1 T , a3 = P2
(δ 11δ 22 − δ12
2
)
l2
, a4 =
JT
a3 .
2 δ
ml 11 JP ml δ11
2 JP
(2.97)
Substituting the natural frequencies ω i ( i = 1,..,4 ) in the first equation
(2.90) we obtain the amplitude ratios which define the mode shapes
1 − ω 2i m δ11
Ai = Ri . (2.98)
⎛ ⎞
⎜ J T − Ω J P ⎟ δ12 ω 2i
⎜ ωi ⎟
⎝ ⎠
For calculations, equation (2.98) is written under the form
1 − η 2i Ri
Ai = , (2.99)
JP ⎛ JT 2 Ω ⎞ δ 12 l l
⎜ ηi − ηi⎟
m l2 ⎜ JP ω 0 ⎟⎠ δ 11
⎝
where
ωi
ηi = . (2.100)
ω0
80 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Example 2.1
⎡ a 2b 2 l ab (b − a ) l ⎤ l ⎡0.0576 l 2 0.048 l ⎤
[δ ] = 1
⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥.
3E I l 2 ⎢⎣ab (b − a ) l a 3 + b 3 ⎥⎦ 3E I ⎢⎣ 0.048 l 0.28 ⎥⎦
Fig. 2.25
η 4 − 4.1667η 2 + 3 = 0 ,
with roots
− η 01 = η 02 = 0.9621 , − η 03 = η 04 = 1.8003 .
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 81
Fig. 2.26
⎧r ⎫ ⎧ r̂ ⎫ iΩ t
⎨ ⎬= ⎨ ⎬e , (2.101)
⎩α ⎭ ⎩αˆ ⎭
which describes a synchronous precession of angular speed Ω .
⎡k11 − m Ω 2 k12 ⎤ ⎧ r̂ ⎫ 2 ⎧1 ⎫
⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬ = m e Ω ⎨ ⎬. (2.102)
⎣⎢ k 21 k 22 − ( J T − J P )Ω 2 ⎦⎥ ⎩αˆ ⎭ ⎩0⎭
k11 − m Ω 2 k12
=0, (2.103, a)
k 21 k 22 − ( J T − J P )Ω 2
m ( J T − J P ) ( δ11 δ 22 − δ12
2
) Ω4 −
(2.103, b)
− [ m δ11 + ( J T − J P ) δ 22 ] Ω 2 + 1 = 0.
It comes out that, in Figs. 2.23 and 2.24, the intersection points of the
synchronous excitation line ω = Ω with the curves ω i (Ω ) correspond to the
critical speeds of (synchronous) forward precession.
In forward precession, the rotor with J P > J T has only one critical speed
(Fig. 2.23) and the rotor with J P < J T has two critical speeds (Fig. 2.24).
The unbalance can excite a response at critical speeds only in the modes
with forward precession.
In order to determine the synchronous response to mass unbalance
excitation, consider equations (2.85)
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 83
JP ⎛ JT ⎞ δ 12 l
(1 − η 2 ) r̂ − η 2 ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ l αˆ = η 2 e ,
m l2 J
⎝ P ⎠ 11 δ
(2.106)
δ 12 l 1 ⎡ J ⎛ JT ⎞ δ 22 l
2 ⎤ δ l1
−η 2
r̂ + ⎢ 1 − η 2 P2 ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ⎥ αˆ = η 2e 21 .
δ 11 l ⎢⎣ ml ⎝ J P ⎠ δ 11 ⎥⎦ δ11 l
Using notations (2.94), (2.95) and (2.97), the solution for r̂ can be
written
r̂
=
[
1 − ( a4 − a3 )η 2 η 2 ]
. (2.107)
e ( a4 − a3 )η 4 − ( a2 − a1 )η 2 + 1
Fig. 2.27
84 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
F (t ) = F0 cos ω t (2.108)
can be written under the form
F (t ) =
2
e(
F0 i ω t
)
+ e− i ω t . . (2.109)
⎧r ⎫ ⎧ r̂ f ⎫ iω t
⎨ ⎬= ⎨ˆ ⎬e , (2.110)
⎩α ⎭ ⎩α f ⎭
which describes a forward precession of angular speed ω .
When the circular frequency becomes equal to the rotor angular speed,
ω=Ω , the first component can produce resonance in the modes with forward
precession.
The backward (or asynchronous) critical speeds [4] are solutions of the
equation
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 85
k11 − m Ω 2 k12
=0 . (2.113)
k 21 k 22 − ( J T + J P )Ω 2
The disc precession orbit is an ellipse with the major and minor semiaxes
a=
1
2
(r̂ f + r̂b ), b=
1
2
(
r̂ f − r̂b ). (2.119)
Using notations (2.94), (2.95) and (2.97), the above solutions can be
written
Ω
1 + a3 η − a4η 2
F0 δ11 ω0
r̂ f = , (2.120)
2 a η4 − a Ω η3 − a η2 + a Ω η +1
4 3
ω0
2 1
ω0
and
Ω
1 − a3 η − a4 η 2
F0 δ11 ω0
r̂b = . (2.121)
2 a η4 + a Ω η3 − a η2 − a Ω η +1
4 3
ω0
2 1
ω0
Fig. 2.28
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 87
For the rotor from Example 2.1, the major semiaxis of the disc unbalance
response, a (F0δ11 2) , is plotted against excitation frequency in Fig. 2.28, with
solid line, for Ω = 0.8 ω 0 and with broken line, for Ω = 0.4 ω 0 . For Ω = 0.8 ω 0 ,
the abscissae of the four peaks correspond to the four natural frequencies calculated
in Example 2.1.
a b
Fig. 2.29
The intersections with the line ω = Ω are the points whose abscissae
define the critical angular speeds Ω cr i .
magnitude of the response at the respective speed depends on both the magnitude
of the forcing harmonic and the system damping.
Fig. 2.30
When the critical speeds are determined using the Campbell diagram, the
remark made in Section 2.4.4 has to be taken into account: the unbalance can
produce large deflections only at or near a forward critical speed.
Fig. 2.31
For the rotor from Example 2.1, the Campbell diagram is shown in Fig.
2.31. The synchronous excitation line is drawn with broken line.
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 89
Example 2.2
Determine the mode shapes and plot the Campbell diagram for the
cantilevered rotor shown in Fig. 2.32. Take J P = 2 J T = 0.16 ml 2 , Ω = 0.8 ω 0 .
Fig. 2.32
l ⎡ 2l 2 3l ⎤
[δ ] = ⎢ ⎥.
6E I ⎢⎣ 3l 6 ⎥⎦
1 −η 2 − 0.12η ( η − 1.6 ) l
=0
1 − 0.24η ( η − 1.6 )
1
− 1.5η 2
l
or
0.06η 4 − 0.096η 3 − 1.24η 2 + 0.384η + 1 = 0
with roots
η 1 = −0.7868 , η 2 = 1.0491 , η 3 = −3.8742 , η 4 = 5.2119 .
The corresponding mode shapes are defined by
A1 = 1.6905 R1 l , A 2 = 1.4497 R2 l , A 3 = −5.5047 R3 l , A 4 = −11.5821 R4 l .
Fig. 2.33
Fig. 2.34
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 91
Example 2.3
Determine the precession mode shapes and plot the Campbell diagram for
the simply supported rotor with overhang disc shown in Fig. 2.35. Take
J P = 2 J T = 0.16 ml 2 , c = 0.2 l , Ω = 0.8 ω 0 .
Fig. 2.35
⎡ 2 c ⎤
⎢ c (l + c ) 2 (2l + 3c )⎥ l ⎡0.048l 2 0.26l ⎤
[δ ] = 1 ⎢c ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥.
3E I ⎢ (2l + 3c ) l + 3c ⎥ 3E I ⎣⎢ 0.26l 1.6 ⎦⎥
⎣2 ⎦
The characteristic equation (2.96) is
Fig. 2.36
Fig. 2.37
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 93
Example 2.4
Determine the precession mode shapes and plot the Campbell diagram for
the symmetric rotor with a disc at the middle shown in Fig. 2.38. Take
J P = 2 J T = 0.16 ml 2 , Ω = 0.8 ω 0 .
Fig. 2.38
This is a Laval-Jeffcott rotor with includes the effects of the disc mass
moments of inertia. The translational and rotational motions of the disc are
elastically decoupled, since the disc is located at the centre of the shaft.
The translational equations of the free motion are
⎡ m 0 ⎤ ⎧ &y& ⎫ ⎡ kT 0 ⎤ ⎧ y ⎫ ⎧0⎫
⎢ 0 m ⎥ ⎨ &z& ⎬ + ⎢ 0 ⎨ ⎬=⎨ ⎬,
kT ⎥⎦ ⎩ z ⎭ ⎩ 0 ⎭
⎣ ⎦⎩ ⎭ ⎣
When the rotor is not rotating (Ω = 0 ) , there are two independent modes
of lateral vibration of equal natural frequency ωT = kT m . One of the modes is a
straight-line vibration in the z direction, and the other is a straight-line vibration in
the y direction (Fig. 2.39).
94 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 2.39
If these two modes are given the same amplitude, they can be superposed
with proper phasing to form a circular precession mode which is either forward or
backward with respect to the rotor spin. For this model, these frequencies are
independent of the rotor spin speed, ω 1,2 = ±ω T .
ϕ = Φ e iω t , ψ = Ψ e iω t
into the equations of motion, we obtain the following homogeneous algebraic
equations
( k R − ω 2 J T )Φ + i ω Ω J P Ψ = 0,
− i ω Ω J P Φ + ( k R − ω 2 J T )Ψ = 0.
The characteristic equation is
( k R − ω 2 J T ) 2 − (ω Ω J P ) 2 = 0 .
Denoting [17]
kR JP
ω R2 = , γ= , ωΩ2 = ω R2 +
1
(γ Ω )2 ,
JT JT 4
we obtain the natural frequencies
1
ω 3,4 = ωΩ m γ Ω ,
2
or
2. SIMPLE ROTORS IN RIGID BEARINGS 95
2
Ω JP ⎛ Ω JP ⎞ k
ω 3,4 = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + R .
2 JT ⎝ 2 JT ⎠ JT
Figure 2.40 shows the dependence of the two natural frequencies on the
rotor speed. The synchronous excitation line as well as the asymptotes ω = γ Ω
1
and ω = γ Ω are also drawn in the figure.
2
Fig. 2.40
l ⎡0.0625l 2 0 ⎤
[δ ] = ⎢ ⎥.
3E I ⎣⎢ 0 0.25⎦⎥
( 0.32η 2
− 0.512η − 1 ) (η 2
)
−1 = 0
with roots
η 1 = −1 , η 2 = 1 , η 3 = −1.1404 , η 4 = 2.7404 .
(η 2
− 3.125 ) (η 2
)
−1 = 0 ,
with roots
η 01,02 = ±1 , η 03,04 = ±1.7678 .
Fig. 2.42
M C y = − ( J T ϕ&&G + J P Ω ψ& G ) ,
(2.122)
M C z = − ( J T ψ&&G − J P Ω ϕ&G ).
ϕG = ϕC = −α C sinω t ,
(2.123)
ψ G = ψ C = α C cosω t .
⎛ Ω ⎞
M C y = −⎜ J P − J T ⎟ ω 2ϕC ,
⎝ ω ⎠
(2.124)
⎛ Ω ⎞
M C z = −⎜ J P − J T ⎟ ω 2ψ C ,
⎝ ω ⎠
and tend to decrease (for positive parenthesis) the slopes, hence to stiffen the shaft.
For synchronous forward precession, Ω = ω , and expressions (2.124)
become
M C y = ( J T − J P ) Ω 2ϕC ,
(2.125, a)
M C z = ( J T − J P ) Ω 2ψ C .
M C y = ( J T + J P ) Ω 2ϕC ,
(2.125, b)
M C z = ( J T + J P ) Ω 2ψ C ,
This explains the shape of the curves from figures 2.23 and 2.24, which
indicate an increase of the forward precession natural frequencies and a decrease of
the backward precession natural frequencies with the increase of the running speed.
Since J xy =
1
(J P − J T ) sin 2α , the effect of disc skewness can be
2
considered as a 'product of inertia' unbalance.
d) When the disc is attached at the middle of the shaft, it has a planar
motion in the cylindrical modes of precession, there is no gyroscopic effect, the
forward and backward natural frequencies coincide and are independent of the
running speed. The corresponding curves in the Campbell diagram are overlapped
straight lines.
e) For rotors in rigid bearings, all points move in circular orbits. The
rotors have circular precession modes with planar deflected shapes.
f) Internal rotor damping from shrink-fit rubbing or material hysterezis
can produce rotor instability. Below the onset speed of instability the rotor's motion
is stable and synchronous. Above this speed, destabilizing forces which are normal
to the radial displacement, and in the direction of shaft rotation, produce large
whirl amplitudes which may result in damaged or destroyed equipment. Whirl
amplitudes grow until they achieve a steady-state limit cycle.
References
1. Föppl, A., Das Problem der Lavalschen Turbinenwelle, Der Civilingenieur,
Vol.4, pp.335-342, 1895.
2. Jeffcott, N., Lateral vibration of loaded shafts in the neighbourhood of a
whirling speed - The effect of want of balance, Philosophical Magazine, Series
6, Vol.37, pp.304-314, 1919.
3. Childs, D., Turbomachinery Rotordynamics. Phenomena, Modeling and
Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1993.
4. Stodola, A., Neuere Beobachtungen uber die Kritischen Umlaufzahlen von
Wellen, Schweizer.Bauzeitung, Vol.68, pp.210-214, 1916.
5. Green, R., Gyroscopic effects on the critical speeds of flexible rotors, J. Appl.
Mech, Vol.15, pp 369-376, 1948.
6. Gasch, R. and Pfützner, H., Rotordynamik, Springer, Berlin, 1975.
7. Kimball, A. L., Jr., Measurement of internal friction in a revolving deflected
shaft, General Electric Review, Vol.28, No.8, pp.554-558, Aug 1925.
8. Newkirk, B. L., Shaft whipping, General Electric Review, Vol.27, p.169, 1924.
9. Gunter, E. J., Jr., and Trumpler, P. R., The influence of internal friction on the
stability of high speed rotor with anisotropic supports, ASME Journal of
Engineering for Industry, Series B, Vol.87, pp.1105-1113, Nov 1969.
100 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
a b
Fig. 3.1
a b
Fig. 3.2
m &y&G + k ( yC − y B ) = 0 ,
m &z&G + k ( zC − z B ) = 0 , (3.1)
J G θ&& + k ( yC − y B ) e sin θ − k ( zC − z B ) e cos θ = M (t ) ,
and the equilibrium of forces acting on the shaft (Fig. 3.2, b):
2k1 y B = k ( yC − y B ),
(3.2)
2k 2 z B = k ( zC − z B ).
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 103
m &y&C + k y yC = m eΩ 2cosΩ t ,
(3.5)
m &z&C + k z zC = m eΩ 2sinΩ t ,
where
2k1k 2k 2 k
ky = , kz = . (3.6)
2k1 + k 2k 2 + k
Equations (3.5) differ from equations (2.5), established for rotors in rigid
bearings, only by the equivalent stiffnesses (3.6), which are different along Oy and
Oz.
Because of the system symmetry, bearings are represented by springs
connected in parallel, and the flexible shaft is connected in series with the bearings.
The equivalent stiffnesses are computed from
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + , = + .
k y k 2k1 k z k 2k 2
eΩ 2
yC (t ) = YC cos (ω y t + θ y ) + cos Ω t ,
ω y2 − Ω 2
(3.7)
eΩ 2
zC (t ) = Z C sin (ω z t + θ z ) + 2 sin Ω t ,
ωz − Ω 2
104 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
where
ky kz
ωy = , ωz = (3.8)
m m
are the natural frequencies of the lateral vibrations along Oy, and Oz, respectively.
Generally ω y ≠ ω z and if k 2 < k1 then
ω z < ω y < ωn = k m.
The natural frequencies of the rotor in flexible bearings are lower than the
natural frequency of the rotor in rigid bearings.
The orbit of point C is an ellipse whose axes are collinear with the bearing
principal stiffness axes.
Point C completes the ellipse in a time interval T = 2π Ω , equal to the
disc rotation period, hence its motion is a synchronous precession.
At speeds Ω < ω z and Ω > ω y the point C moves along the ellipse in the
same direction as the disc running speed; the precession is forward. At speeds
ω z < Ω < ω y the point C moves along the ellipse in the opposite direction; the
precession is backward.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 105
Fig. 3.3
eΩ 2 ω y2 + ω z2 − 2Ω 2
rf = ,
2 (ω y2 − Ω 2 ) (ω z2 − Ω 2 )
(3.12)
eΩ 2 ω y2 − ω z2
rb = − .
2 (ω y2 − Ω 2 ) (ω z2 − Ω 2 )
The first term in equation (3.11, a) represents (in the complex plane) a
vector of length r f which rotates in the same direction as the rotor rotation. The
second term represents a vector of length r b which rotates in the opposite
direction, with the same angular speed. Addition of the two circular counter-
rotating motions (Ω = const .) yields an ellipse (Fig. 3.4).
Fig. 3.4
Based on Fig. 3.3, where ω z < ω y , and on equations (3.12), the following
can be said. For speeds Ω < ω z and Ω > ω y , the precession is forward when
r f > rb . For speeds ω z < Ω < ω y , the precession is backward when
r f < rb . At Ω = ω z the major semiaxis becomes (theoretically) infinite and as
the running speed traverses the rotor first critical speed, the motion changes from
forward to backward precession. Analogously, at Ω = ω y , when the running speed
traverses the second critical speed, the backward precession changes into a forward
precession.
The motion along elliptical orbits produces variable stresses in the shaft
even at constant running speed. During the synchronous forward precession, the
part of the cross-section in tension remains in tension, and the part in compression
remains in compression, but the bending stresses vary cyclically due to the
variation of the orbit radius. During the backward precession, the bending stresses
vary in an alternating non-symmetric cycle, having two reversals per rotation (Fig.
3.3).
The motion of journal centres is defined by the variation in time of the
coordinates of point B (Fig. 3.1). Equations (3.2) yield
( 2k1 + k ) y B = k yC , ( 2 k 2 + k ) z B = k zC . (3.13)
k Ω2
y B (t ) = e 2 cos Ω t ,
2k1 + k ω y − Ω 2
(3.14)
k Ω2
z B (t ) = e 2 sin Ω t .
2k 2 + k ω z − Ω 2
Point B has an elliptic orbit, whose semiaxes are smaller than those of the
point C. Points B and C have a synchronous motion, the largest amplitudes
occurring at ω y and ω z , the rotor critical speeds.
Equations (3.3), (3.9) and (3.14) show that the points O, B, C and G are
collinear. This is due to the neglecting of damping. As will be shown in the
following, in damped rotors the lines O B , B C and C G are not collinear.
108 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
When the shaft is much stiffer than the bearings, it can be considered that
k→∞ and k y = 2k1 , k z = 2k 2 . Equations (3.13) give y B = yC , z B = zC . The disc
centre precession orbit is identical to the precession orbit of the journal centres.
Dropping the index C, the equations of the free precession, obtained for
e = 0 in (3.5), are
m &y& + k y y = 0,
(3.15)
m &z& + k z z = 0.
Using the complex representation
r = y+i z, r = y −i z, (3.16)
equations (3.15) become
m &r& + k r + Δ k r = 0, (3.17)
where
k y + kz k y − kz
k= , Δk = >0. (3.18)
2 2
The precession behaviour can be analyzed in terms of the forward and
backward componets of the motion. Substituting
( k − mω ) r + Δ k r
2
f b = 0,
(3.20)
Δ k r + ( k − mω ) r
f
2
b = 0.
( k − mω ) 2 2
− (Δ k ) 2 = 0 , (3.21)
k m Δk
ω2 = . (3.21, a)
m
The natural frequencies are
k − Δk kz k + Δk k y
ω 12,2 = = = ω z2 , ω 23,4 = = = ω y2 . (3.22)
m m m m
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 109
rb k − mω 2
=− . (3.23)
rf Δk
rb = − r f , ŷ = r f + rb = 0 , ẑ = r f − rb = b . (3.24, a)
rb = + r f , ŷ = r f + rb = a , ẑ = r f − rb = 0 . (3.24, b)
yC = ŷC cos (Ω t + θ y ) ,
(3.26)
zC = ẑC sin (Ω t + θ z ) ,
110 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
where
Ω2 Ω2
e e
ω y2 ω z2 (3.27)
ŷ C = , ẑ C =
2 2 2 2
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎛ ⎞
⎜1 − Ω ⎟ + ⎜ 2ζ Ω ⎟ ⎜1 − Ω ⎟ + ⎜ 2ζ z Ω ⎟
⎜ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ ω z ⎟⎠
⎜ ω y ⎟⎠
2
⎝
y
ω y ⎟⎠ ⎝ ωz ⎠ ⎝
⎝
Ω Ω
− 2ζ y − 2ζ z
ωy ωz
tanθ y = , tanθ z = (3.28)
Ω2 Ω2
1− 2 1− 2
ωy ωz
In equations (3.27) and (3.28), the notations (3.8) and
c c c c
ζy = = , ζz = = (3.29)
2 k y m 2mω y 2 k z m 2mω z
2 k 1 k
ωy = = 0.816 ωn , ω z = = 0.577ωn .
3 m 3 m
c 0.1 c 0 .1
ζy = = = 0.12 , ζz = = = 0.17.
2mω y 0.816 2mω z 0.577
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 111
ŷC η2 ẑC η2
= , = (3.31)
e 2 e 2
⎛2 2⎞ 2 ⎛1 2⎞ 2
⎜ − η ⎟ + ( 0 .2 η ) ⎜ − η ⎟ + (0.2η )
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
− 0.2η − 0.2η
tanθ y = , tanθ z = . (3.32)
2 1
−η 2 −η 2
3 3
Figure 3.5, a illustrates the speed-dependence of the disc unbalance
response components, based on equations (3.31). Unlike the curves from Fig. 3.3,
plotted for the undamped rotor, finite amplitudes result at the critical speeds:
⎛ ŷC ⎞ ⎛ ẑC ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 4.08 , ⎜ ⎟ = 2.885.
⎝ e ⎠η = 0.816 ⎝ e ⎠η = 0.577
a b
Fig. 3.5
inclined elliptical orbits for the precession of damped rotors, in contrast with the
undamped rotors whose elliptical orbits have vertical and horizontal semiaxes.
Equation (3.34) is more often expressed in terms of the major and minor
semiaxes, a and b, and the inclination angle α .
In a principal coordinate frame y1Oz1 , taking the Oy1 and Oz1 axes
along the ellipse axes (Fig. 3.6), the motion is described by
y1 = a cos (Ω t + γ − α ) ,
(3.35)
z1 = b sin (Ω t + γ − α ) ,
Fig. 3.6
2 2
⎛ y1 ⎞ ⎛ z1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 1. (3.36)
⎝a⎠ ⎝b⎠
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 113
1 2
a2 = ( yc + y s2 + zc2 + z s2 ) +
2
, (3.38)
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ ( yc + y s + z c + z s ) − ( yc z s − y s z c )
4
1
b= ( yc z s − y s z c ) , (3.39)
a
2 ( yc z c + y s z s )
tan 2α = . (3.40)
yc2 + y s2 − ( zc2 + z s2 )
⎡k y − Ω 2 m 0 Ωc ⎤ ⎧ yc
0 ⎫ ⎧1⎫
⎢ ⎥⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎢ 0 kz − Ω 2m 0 Ω c ⎥ ⎪ zc ⎪ 2⎪ 0 ⎪
⎢ −Ωc ⎥⎨ y ⎬ = m e Ω ⎨ ⎬. (3.41)
0 ky − Ω 2m 0 ⎪ ⎪0⎪
⎢ ⎥⎪ s
⎢⎣ 0 −Ωc 0 k z − Ω m ⎥⎦ ⎪⎩ z s
2 ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ 1 ⎪⎭
⎛1 2⎞ 2
2 ⎜ −η ⎟ η
zc 0.2η ⋅ η zs ⎝ 3 ⎠
=− , = ,
e Δ2 e Δ2
where
Δ1 = (2 3 − η 2 ) 2 + (0.2η ) 2 , Δ 2 = (1 3 − η 2 ) 2 + (0.2η ) 2 .
0.4 η
tan 2α = .
1 − 2η 2
the precession motion on the axes Oy and Oz is 90 0 , the elliptic orbit degenerates
into a straight line. In fact the two motions are in phase and the 90 0 angle shows
the spatial lag between the two directions. Condition (3.43) defines the limits
between forward and backward precession. On inserting (3.28) into (3.43) we
obtain the threshold angular speeds Ω1∗ and Ω 2∗ .
Figure 3.5, b shows that there are two speeds at which condition (3.43)
holds and these are different from the peak response critical speeds. For undamped
rotors (Fig. 3.3), the change from forward to backward precession and vice versa
takes place at the system undamped natural frequencies, hence at the undamped
critical speeds. For damped rotors, the precession reversal, possible only when the
orbit degenerates into a straight line, occurs at speeds which are different from the
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 115
peak response critical speeds, where the motion components have maximum
amplitude.
Peak response critical speeds are located at the peaks in the major semiaxis
curve a / e . The minor semiaxis curve, b / e , crosses the speed axis at the
threshold speeds between forward and backward precession, Ω1∗ and Ω 2∗ .
Fig. 3.8
If the motion along the ellipse is represented as the sum of two counter-
rotating circular motions, as in equation (3.11, a), then
a+b a −b
rf = , rb = (3.44)
2 2
and, unlike the Fig. 3.4, vectors r f and rb have non-zero phase angles at t = 0.
orbit (Fig. 3.8); and c) diagrams of the radii of circular motions which generate the
ellipse (Fig. 3.9).
Fig. 3.9
Denoting
k y + kz k y − kz Δk k
k= , Δk = , q= , ωn2 = ,
2 2 k m
ci ce
ζi = , ζe = , ζ = ζe +ζi , (3.46)
2mωn 2mωn
Λ Ω
Λ= , η= , (3.48)
ωn ωn
the study of the motion of the perfectly balanced rotor (e = 0) , leads to the
characteristic equation
( ) (
Λ 4 + 4ζ Λ 3 + 2 2ζ 2 + 1 Λ 2 + 4ζ Λ + 1 + 4ζ i2 η 2 − q 2 = 0 . ) (3.49)
4ζ 2 − 4ζ i2 η 2 + q 2 ≥ 0 . (3.50)
2 2
⎛ ζ ⎞ ⎛ q ⎞
Ω s = ωn ⎜⎜ 1 + e ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . (3.51)
⎝ ζi ⎠ ⎝ 2ζ i ⎠
A comparison with equation (2.68) shows that the bearing support
stiffness orthotropy can be used to increase the rotor onset speed of instability. For
rotors supported in rolling bearings this is achieved with unequal support
stiffnesses in two directions, while for hydrodynamic bearings - by increasing the
eccentricity ratio.
The physical explanation of the effect of bearing stiffness orthotropy in
restraining instability due to rotating damping is that “since the natural frequencies
of the rotor system are different in the two principal transverse directions, there is
no tendency to set up a whirl of the type which can be dragged forward by rotating
damping until the rotating damping forces have been so far increased by rising
speed that they are commensurate with the difference between elastic restoring
forces in the two principal directions”.
Analysis of the unbalance response reveals that, with asymmetrical
bearing stiffness, the amplitude of steady motion due to unbalance is restricted by
both internal and external damping, but internal damping has smaller influence in
this respect, especially if there is only slight dissymmetry of bearing stiffness.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 119
Fig. 3.10
2 c y& B + 2k1 y B = k ( yC − y B ),
(3.52)
2 c z& B + 2k1 z B = k ( zC − z B )
and, for the disc
m &y&G + k ( yC − y B ) = 0 ,
(3.53)
m &z&G + k ( zC − z B ) = 0,
where
yG = yC + e cos Ω t ,
(3.54)
zG = zC + e sin Ω t .
rB = y B + i z B , rC = yC + i zC , rG = yG + i zG , (3.55)
120 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
equations (3.52)-(3.54) produce the equations of motion of the disc centre and
journal centre
2c r&B + 2k1rB + k (rB − rC ) = 0,
(3.56)
m &r&C + k (rC − rB ) = m e Ω 2ei Ω t .
The natural frequency ωn of the rotor in rigid bearings and the ratio N
between the shaft stiffness and the support (bearings in parallel) stiffness are
k k
ωn = , N= . (3.57)
m 2k 1
The damping ratio
2c 2c
ζ = = (3.58)
2 mωn 2 k m
is defined with respect to the critical damping of the rigidly supported rotor.
The resulting equations of motion are
1 2
2 ζ ωn r&B + ωn rB + ωn2 (rB − rC ) = 0,
N (3.59)
&r&C + ωn2 (rC − rB ) = e Ω 2 ei Ω t .
For zero right-hand side in (3.59) and substituting solutions of the form
rB = RB e λ t , rC = RC e λ t , (3.60)
⎛ 1 2 2⎞ 2
⎜ 2ζω n λ + ωn + ωn ⎟ RB − ωn RC = 0 ,
⎝ N ⎠ (3.61)
− ωn2 RB + λ ( 2
+ ωn2 )R C = 0.
The requirement for non-trivial solutions is
⎛1 ⎞
2ζω n λ + ω n2 ⎜ + 1⎟ − ω n2
⎝N ⎠ = 0.
2
− ωn λ2 + ω n2
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 121
3 2
⎛ λ ⎞ N +1 ⎛ λ ⎞ λ 1
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + + = 0. (3.62)
⎝ ωn ⎠ 2 ζ N ⎝ ωn ⎠ ωn 2ζ N
λ 1
If ζ = 0 , then =i . The critical speed of the rotor supported in
ωn N +1
undamped flexible bearings is
ωn
ωel = . (3.63)
N +1
⎛ λ ⎞⎛ λ2 λ ⎞
⎜⎜ + A ⎟⎟ ⎜ 2 + 2 B + B 2 + C 2 ⎟ = 0. (3.64)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ωn ⎠ ⎝ ωn ωn ⎠
The frequency of the damped free precession (of the perfectly balanced
rotor) is
ω d = Cω n (3.66)
where C is the imaginary part of the complex roots of the characteristic equation
(3.62).
For the steady-state motion due to mass unbalance, the solutions are of
the form
rB (t ) = ~
rB eiΩ t , rC (t ) = ~
rC eiΩ t , (3.67)
where ~
rC and ~
rB are complex amplitudes.
122 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ~ ~
⎢⎜ N + 1⎟ + i 2ζη ⎥ rB − rC = 0,
⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎦ (3.68)
~
B (
− r + 1 −η 2 ~ )
r = eη 2 .
C
~ eη 2
rB = , (3.69)
1 ⎛1
N ⎝N
⎞
− ⎜ + 1⎟ η 2 + i 2ζη 1 − η 2
⎠
( )
⎛1 ⎞ 2 3
⎜ + 1⎟ η + i 2ζη
~ ⎝ N ⎠
rC = e . (3.70)
1 ⎛1 ⎞
− ⎜ + 1⎟ η 2 + i 2ζ
N ⎝N ⎠
Ω
ωn
1 −η 2 ( )
The motion of the journal centre B in the complex plane (Fig. 3.11) is
represented by the vector O B .
Fig. 3.11
Its magnitude is
~ eη 2 (3.71)
rB =
( )
2
⎛ 1 N +1 2 ⎞
⎜ − η ⎟ + 4ζ 2η 2 1 − η 2
⎝ N N ⎠
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 123
θ B = tan −1
(
− 2ζ η 1 − η 2). (3.72)
1 N +1 2
− η
N N
( N + 1)2 4
e 2
η + 4ζ 2η 6
~
rC = N (3.73)
( )
2
⎛ 1 N +1 2 ⎞ 2
⎜ − η ⎟ + 4ζ 2η 2 1 − η 2
⎝N N ⎠
The points B and C have circular orbits around the point O, but the points
O, B, C and G are not collinear. The vector O C has a phase lag θ C with respect to
the excitation vector C G and the vector O B has a phase lag θ B with respect to
C G (Fig. 3.11).
If the radii of precession orbits (3.71) and (3.73) are plotted against the
dimensionless speed Ω ωn , for given values of N and ζ , the peak values of the
displacements of points B and C occur at speeds Ω B , and Ω C respectively,
different from ωel and ωd (Fig. 3.12).
⎡ 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ 4
− 16 ζ 4η 6 + 4 ζ 2 ⎢ 4 ζ 2
− ⎜1 + ⎟ η +
⎣ N ⎝ N ⎠ ⎥⎦
(3.76)
⎡⎛ 2 4 ⎞ 2 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ 2
3
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
+ ⎢⎜1 + + 2 ⎟ 2ζ − ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎥ η + 2 ⎜1 + ⎟ = 0.
⎢⎣ ⎝ N N ⎠ N ⎝ N ⎠ ⎥⎦ N ⎝ N ⎠
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 125
Example 3.1
Consider the rotor from Fig. 3.10, with the following characteristics: disc
mass m = 500 kg, shaft stiffness constant k = 2 ⋅10 5 N/mm, bearing stiffness
k1 = 105 N/mm, bearing viscous damping coefficient c = 316.225 Ns/mm [3].
ωn = k m = 632.45 rad/sec,
ω el = ω n / 2 = 447.2 rad/sec.
(λ ωn )3 + (λ ωn ) 2 + ( λ ωn ) + 0.5 = 0
and the roots are
126 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
2 (Ω ω n ) 6 − 1 = 0 ,
hence
Ω B = 0.8909 ωn = 563.4 rad/sec.
The peak response critical speed computed from the journal unbalance
response is
nB = 5380 rpm = 1.26 nel .
Equation (3.76) is written
− 8 (Ω ω n ) 6 + 3 (Ω ω n ) 2 + 2 = 0 ,
hence
Ω C = 0.9076 ωn = 574 rad/sec.
The peak response critical speed computed from the disc centre
unbalance response is
nC = 5481 rpm = 1.28 nel .
Fig. 3.13
Two limit cases are first considered. If the damping coefficient is infinite,
c = ∞ , the lower spring is blocked and the journal displacement is zero, rB = 0.
The frequency response curve of the disc centre (Fig. 3.14) has a(n infinite) peak at
the natural frequency of the system consisting of the mass and the upper spring,
ωn = k m . The case corresponds to the rigidly supported rotor.
Fig. 3.14
The frequency response curve has a(n infinite) peak at the undamped
critical speed ωel = ωn N + 1 . The case corresponds to the rotor supported in
undamped flexible bearings.
For intermediary values of the bearing damping coefficient, denoted c',
and c", respectively, the frequency response curves have peaks at the peak
′ , and Ωcr
response critical speeds Ωcr ′′ , respectively, within the range [ωel , ωn ] .
They correspond to the rotor supported in damped flexible bearings.
Fig. 3.15
k2
2
( N + 1) + 4 Ω 2 c 2
kech = k N , (3.77)
2
2 ( N + 1) 2 2
k + 4Ω c
N2
2c k 2
cech = 2
. (3.78)
2 ( N + 1) 2 2
k + 4Ω c
N2
Figure 3.15 shows the variation of these quantities as a function of the
damping coefficient c.
The stiffness constant kech increases with c, hence the natural frequency
kech m also increases with c, fact that explains the increase of critical speeds
with the bearing damping. The stiffness increase is higher when the natural
frequencies ωel and ωn are relatively more distanced, hence when the ratio N (of
the shaft stiffness to the bearing stiffness) is larger.
The equivalent viscous damping coefficient cech has a maximum value
for the optimal c, fact that explains the lowest value of the maximum amplitude in
this case.
Example 3.2
30 ky 30 kz
ny = = 600 rpm, nz = = 500 rpm,
π m π m
cy 1 cz 1
= , = .
2 kym 16 2 kzm 20
Plot the unbalance response diagrams and several precession orbits for an
eccentricity e = 10 μm [4].
Figure 3.16, a shows the plot of major and minor semiaxes a and b, and
forward and backward circle radii r f and rb as a function of speed. Figure 3.16,
b shows the plot of the y and z displacement components and the minor semiaxis b
versus speed, as well as the precession orbit at eight different speeds.
The range with backward precession is marked by the threshold speeds
n1∗ and n2∗ , where the orbit degenerates into straight lines.
130 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
b
Fig. 3.16 (from [4])
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 131
2 c y& B + 2 k1 y B + 2 m1 &y&B = k ( yC − y B ),
(3.79)
2 c z& B + 2 k1 z B + 2m1 &z&B = k ( zC − z B )
and, for the disc
2m1 &y&C + m &y&G + k ( yC − y B ) = 0 ,
(3.80)
2m1 &z&C + m &z&G + k ( zC − z B ) = 0,
where
yG = yC + e cos Ω t ,
(3.81)
zG = zC + e sin Ω t .
Fig. 3.17
Denoting the ratio of half the shaft mass to the disc mass
ms 2 m 1
μ= = , (3.83)
2m m
and using (3.57) and (3.58), we obtain the equations of motion
1 2
μ &r&B + 2 ζ ωn r&B + ωn rB + ωn2 (rB − rC ) = 0 ,
N (3.84)
(1 + μ ) &r&C + ωn2 ( rC − rB ) = e Ω e 2 iΩt
.
For zero right-hand side in (3.84) and substituting solutions of the form
(3.60), we obtain the homogeneous algebraic set of equations
⎛ 2 1 2 2⎞ 2
⎜ μ λ + 2ζω n λ + ωn + ωn ⎟ RB − ωn RC = 0 ,
⎝ N ⎠ (3.85)
− ωn2 RB + [ ωn2 + ( 1 + μ )λ 2
]R
C = 0.
4 3 2
⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞
μ ( 1 + μ ) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 2ζ ( 1 + μ )⎜⎜ λ ⎟⎟ + ⎢ N + 1 ( 1 + μ ) + μ ⎥ ⎜⎜ λ ⎟⎟ + 2ζ λ + 1 = 0.
⎝ ωn ⎠ ⎝ ωn ⎠ ⎣ N ⎦ ⎝ ωn ⎠ ωn N
(3.86)
We denote
λ = α + i ωd , (3.87)
a b
Fig. 3.18 (from [5])
The rotor with N = 2.5 (Fig. 3.18, b) has a different behaviour. The
second damped natural frequency, ωd 2 , decreases first from ωel 2 = 1.3372 ωn (for
ζ = 0 ) to 0.676 ωn (for ζ = 1 ) then increases to ω rig = 0.707ω n (for ζ = ∞ ). The
first damped natural frequency ωd 1 diminishes from ωel 1 = 0.3344 ωn (for ζ = 0 )
to zero (for ζ ≅ 0.98 ) when the first precession mode becomes overdamped.
Figure 3.19 shows (for μ = 1 ) the variation of the dimensionless damped
natural frequencies ωd 1 ωn (solid lines) and ωd 2 ωn (broken lines) as a function
of the bearing stiffness, for different values of bearing damping. Generally, the
increase of ζ and 1 N makes the first mode overdamped for values ζ < 1 , and the
second mode overdamped for ζ > 1 . For N = 2 and ζ = 1 the system has equal
eigenvalues.
Ω2
e
~ ωn2
rB = , (3.89)
⎛1 2 ⎞ ⎡ 2⎤
⎜ + 1 − μ Ω + i 2 ζ Ω ⎟ ⎢1 − ( 1 + μ ) Ω ⎥ − 1
⎜N ωn2 ωn ⎟⎠ ⎢⎣ ωn2 ⎥⎦
⎝
⎛1 Ω2 2 ⎞
e⎜ + 1 − μ Ω + i 2ζ Ω ⎟
~
⎜N
⎝ ωn2 ωn2 ωn ⎟⎠
rC = . (3.90)
⎛1 Ω 2
Ω ⎞ ⎡ Ω 2⎤
⎜ +1− μ + i 2ζ ⎟ ⎢1 − ( 1 + μ ) ⎥ −1
⎜N ωn2 ωn ⎟⎠ ⎣⎢ ωn2 ⎦⎥
⎝
d ~
rC d (Ω ωn ) = 0 .
2
For other values of N, μ and ζ , the order can be different. For ζ = 1.3 ,
ωd 2 < ωd 1 .
a b
Fig. 3.20 (from [5])
⎧ f B y ⎫ ⎡ k y y k y z ⎤ ⎧ y B ⎫ ⎡ c y y c y z ⎤ ⎧ y& B ⎫
⎨f ⎬=⎢k ⎥⎨ ⎬ + ⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬ , (3.91)
⎩ B z ⎭ ⎣ z y k z z ⎦ ⎩ z B ⎭ ⎣ c z y c z z ⎦ ⎩ z& B ⎭
where y B , z B are the projections along the axes of the fixed coordinate frame of
the journal centre displacement, and y& B , z& B are the corresponding velocities.
For many types of radial bearings, the stiffness matrix is non-symmetric,
k yz ≠ k zy . It is not possible to determine stiffness principal directions, with respect
to which the off-diagonal elements of the stiffness matrix vanish. The bearings are
anisotropic, k yy ≠ k zz , and the stiffness matrix non-symmetry produces unstable
precession motions. In the following, only Laval-Jeffcott rotors are considered,
neglecting the disc rotary inertia.
2 f B y = k ( yC − y B ),
(3.92)
2 f B z = k ( z C − z B ),
m &y&G + k ( yC − y B ) = 0 ,
(3.93)
m &z&G + k ( zC − z B ) = 0,
where
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 137
yG = yC + e cos Ω t,
(3.94)
zG = zC + e sin Ω t.
m &y&C + k ( yC − y B ) = m e Ω 2 cos Ω t,
(3.95)
m &z&C + k ( zC − z B ) = m e Ω 2 sin Ω t ,
and
k
( yC − y B ) = k y y y B + k y z z B + c y y y& B + c y z z& B ,
2
(3.96)
k
( zC − z B ) = k z y y B + k z z z B + c z y y& B + c z z z& B .
2
On inserting expressions (3.97) and (3.99) into the first equation (3.95)
and identifying the coefficients of the terms in cos Ω t and sin Ω t , we obtain a
non-homogeneous algebraic set of equations, in which C and D are expressed in
terms of A and B. Substitution into (3.99) yields
Aωn2 + eΩ 2 Bωn2
yC = cos Ω t + sin Ω t , (3.101)
ωn2 − Ω 2 ωn2 − Ω 2
where
ωn = k m (3.102)
Analogously, inserting (3.98) and (3.100) into the second equation (3.95),
identifying the coefficients and solving the algebraic equations, G and H are
expressed in terms of E and F, yielding
138 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Eωn2 Fωn2 + eΩ 2
zC = cos Ω t + sinΩ t , (3.103)
ωn2 − Ω 2 ωn2 − Ω 2
The solutions (3.97), (3.98), (3.101) and (3.103) are then substituted into
(3.96). Identifying the coefficients of the terms in cosΩ t and sinΩ t , we obtain
the algebraic set of equations
(k y y − χ ) A + Ω c y y B + k y z E + Ω c y z F = χ e ,
− Ω c y y A + (k y y − χ ) B − Ω c y z E + k y z F = 0,
(3.104)
k z y A + Ω c z y B + (k z z − χ ) E + Ω c z z F = 0,
− Ω c z y A + k z y B − Ω c z z E + (k z z − χ ) F = χ e ,
where
k Ω2
χ= . (3.105)
2 ωn2 − Ω 2
⎧ f B y ⎫ ⎡k y 0 ⎤ ⎧ y B ⎫ ⎡c y 0 ⎤ ⎧ y& B ⎫
⎨f ⎬=⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬ + ⎢ ⎥⎨ ⎬ (3.106)
⎩ B z ⎭ ⎣ 0 k z ⎦ ⎩ z B ⎭ ⎣ 0 c z ⎦ ⎩ z& B ⎭
( k y − χ ) A + Ω c y B = χ e,
− Ω c y A + ( k y − χ ) B = 0,
(3.107)
( k z − χ ) E + Ω cz F = 0,
− Ω c z E + ( k z − χ ) F = χ e.
( k z y − Ω c y y ) A + ( k y y − χ + Ω cz y ) B =
= −( k z z − χ − Ω c y z ) E − ( k y z + Ω c z z ) F ,
(3.108)
( k y y − χ + Ω cz y ) A − ( k z y − Ω c y y ) B =
= −( k y z + Ω c z z ) E + ( k z z − χ − Ω c y z ) F .
μ A +ν B ν A−μ B
E=− , F= (3.109)
χy χy
where
μ = ( kz y − Ω cy y ) ( kz z − χ − Ω cy z ) +
+ ( k y y − χ + Ω cz y ) ( k y z + Ω cz z ), (3.110)
ν = ( k y y − χ + Ω cz y ) ( k z z − χ − Ω c y z ) −
− ( k z y − Ω c y y ) ( k y z + Ω cz z ),
χ y = ( k z z − χ − Ω c y z )2 + ( k y z + Ω cz z )2 .
1
k y = k yy − ( μ k yz − ν Ω c yz ) ,
χy
(3.111)
1
Ω c y = Ω c yy − (ν k yz + μ Ω c yz ).
χy
Solving equations (3.108) in terms of E and F yields
ν F −μE μ F +ν E
A= , B=− , (3.112)
χz χz
where
μ 2 +ν 2
χz = = ( k yy − χ − Ω c zy ) 2 + ( k zy + Ω c yy ) 2 . (3.113)
χy
Substituting (3.112) into the third (or the fourth) equation (3.104), by
identification to the third (or the fourth) equation (3.107), we obtain
140 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
1
k z = k zz − ( μ k z y + ν Ω cz y ),
χz
(3.114)
1
Ω c z = Ω c zz + (ν k z y − μ Ω c z y ).
χz
Equations (3.111) and (3.114), together with (3.110) and (3.113), allow
the reduction of the eight bearing coefficients to only four, equations (3.107) being
coupled two by two.
Solving equations (3.107), the coefficients A, B, E, F are determined as:
eχ ( k y − χ ) eχ Ω c y
A= 2 2
, B= , (3.115)
( k y − χ ) + (Ω c y ) ( k y − χ ) 2 + (Ω c y ) 2
eχ Ω c z eχ ( k z − χ )
E=− 2 2
, F= . (3.116)
( k z − χ ) + (Ω c z ) ( k z − χ ) 2 + (Ω c z ) 2
The solutions (3.97) and (3.98) define the journal centre motion and can
be written as
y B (t ) = ŷ B cos (Ω t + θ y B ) ,
(3.117)
z B (t ) = ẑ B sin (Ω t + θ z B ) ,
where
eχ
ŷ B = A2 + B 2 = ,
(k y − χ ) 2 + (Ω c y ) 2
(3.118, a)
B Ω cy
tan θ y B =− =− ,
A ky − χ
and
eχ
ẑ B = E 2 + F 2 = ,
(k z − χ ) 2 + (Ω c z ) 2
(3.118, b)
E Ω cz
tan θ z B = =− .
F kz − χ
The parametric equations (3.117) define an ellipse. Eliminating the time,
the orbit equation is obtained as (3.34)
( E 2 + F 2 ) y B2 − 2 ( AE + BF ) y B z B + ( A2 + B 2 ) z B2 − ( AF − EB ) 2 = 0.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 141
The distance from the origin of the stationary coordinate frame O to the
journal centre B is represented in the complex plane by the vector O B = rB , which
can be written as the sum of two counter-rotating vectors
rB = y B + i z B = ( A + i E ) cos Ω t + ( B + i F ) sin Ω t =
⎛ A+ F E − B ⎞ iΩ t ⎛ A − F E + B ⎞ −i Ω t
=⎜ +i ⎟e +⎜ +i ⎟e = r f ei Ω t + r b e − i Ω t .
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(3.119)
The magnitudes of the two components are
1 1 (3.120)
rf = ( A + F )2 + (E − B )2 = A2 + B 2 + F 2
+ E 2 + 2 AF − 2 EB ,
2 2
respectively
1 1 (3.121)
rb = ( A − F )2 + (E + B )2 = A2 + B2 + F 2
+ E 2 − 2 AF + 2 EB .
2 2
a = r f + rb (3.122)
and minor semiaxis
b = r f − rb (3.123)
2(AE + B F)
tan 2α = . (3.124)
( A + B2 ) − (E 2 + F 2 )
2
If b > 0 , the journal centre has a forward precession, and if b < 0 , it has a
backward precession.
Similar conclusions are obtained from the analysis of the motion of point
C, the disc geometric centre.
The forces acting on the bearing supports have the following components
142 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
f B y = k y y B + c y y& B =
= eχ
( )2
k y2 + Ω c y
(
cos Ω t + θ yB + φ y , )
(3.125, a)
( k y − χ )2 + ( Ω cy )2
f B z = k z z B + cz z& B =
k z2 + ( Ω c z )2 (3.125, b)
= eχ sin ( Ω t + θ zB + φ z ) ,
( k z − χ ) 2 + ( Ω cz ) 2
where
Ω cy Ω cz
tan φ y = , tan φ z = . (3.126)
ky kz
yC = YC eν ω n t , zC = Z C eν ω n t ,
(3.128)
y B = YB eν ω n t , z B = Z B eν ω n t ,
where
k
ωn = (3.129)
m
is the critical angular speed of the rigidly supported rotor (3.102).
Substituting solutions (3.128) into equations (3.127) yields
1 1
YC = YB , ZC = ZB . (3.130)
1 +ν 2 1 +ν 2
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 143
ν =iΛ (3.133)
X + k y y + i Λ c y y ωn k y z + i Λ c y z ωn
=0. (3.134)
k z y + i Λ c z y ωn X + k z z + i Λ c z z ωn
Canceling the real and the imaginary parts of the determinant (3.134)
gives the equations
2
X + (k y y + k z z ) X + (k y y k z z − k z y k y z ) −
− Λ 2ω n2 ( c y y c z z − c y z c z y ) = 0 , (3.135)
ω n Λ [ X (c y y + c z z ) −
− (c z y k y z + c y z k z y − c y y k z z − c z z k y y ) ] = 0 ,
2
2 X + (k y y + k z z ) X + (k y y k z z − k z y k y z )
Λ ω n2 = ,
c y ycz z − c y zcz y (3.136)
(c z y k y z + c y z k z y ) − (c y y k z z + c z z k y y )
X = ,
c y y + cz z
where
k Λ2
X= . (3.137)
2 Λ2 −1
2 So ΔR 2 So ΔR
K i j = ki j , Ci j = ci j Ω, (3.138)
mg mg
where So is the inverse of the usual Sommerfeld number S [6], ΔR is the bearing
clearance (difference between the bearing radius and the journal radius) and g is
the acceleration of gravity.
Equations (3.136) become
Ω s2 = Λ 2ω n2 =
X 2 + (K y y + K z z ) X + (K y y K z z − K z y K y z ) (3.139)
= Ω 2,
C y yC z z − C y zC z y
m g ( Cz y K y z + C y z K z y ) − ( C y y K z z − Cz z K y y )
X= . (3.140)
2 So ΔR C y y + Cz z
Fig. 3.21
Fig. 3.22
⎧y ⎫ ⎡ δ11 0 0 δ14 ⎤ ⎧ Fy ⎫
⎪z
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎢
⎢ 0 δ 22 δ 23 0 ⎥⎥ ⎪⎪ Fz ⎪⎪
⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬ (3.141)
⎪ϕ ⎪ ⎢ 0 δ 32 δ 33 0 ⎥ ⎪My ⎪
⎢ ⎥
⎪⎩ ψ ⎪⎭
C ⎣
δ 41 0 0 δ 44 ⎦ ⎪⎩ M z ⎪⎭C
Table 3.1
Model I Model II
l3 2 2 β 2 α 2 l3 2 γ 2 ( 1 + γ )2
δ11 = α β + + δ11 = γ (1 + γ ) + +
3EI k A1 k B1 3EI k A1 k B1
l 2αβ β α l 2γ γ 1+ γ
δ14 = − (β − α ) + − δ14 = − ( 2 + 3γ ) − −
3EI k A1l k B1l 6 EI k A1l k B1l
l 1 1 l 1 1
δ44 = (α3 + β 3) + + δ 44 = (1 + 3γ ) + 2
+
3EI kA1l kB1l 2
2 EI k A1l k B1l 2
l3 2 2 β 2 α 2 l3 2 γ 2 (1 + γ ) 2
δ 22 = α β + + δ 22 = γ (1 + γ ) + +
3EI k A2 k B 2 3EI k A2 kB2
l2 β α l2 γ 1+ γ
δ 23 = αβ ( β − α ) − + δ 23 = γ (2 + 3γ ) + +
3EI k A2l k B 2 l 6 EI k A 2l k B 2l
l 1 1 l 1 1
δ 33 = (α 3 + β 3 ) + 2
+ δ 33 = (1 + 3γ ) + +
3EI k A2 l k B 2l 2 EI k A2l 2
k B 2l 2
a b c
α= , β= γ=
l l l
δ44 δ δ 2
k11 = , k14 = − 14 , k 44 = 11 , Δ1 = δ11δ44 − δ14 ,
Δ1 Δ1 Δ1
(3.142)
δ δ δ 2
k 22 = 33 , k 23 = − 23 , k33 = 22 , Δ2 = δ22 δ33 − δ23 .
Δ2 Δ2 Δ2
⎡m 0 ⎤ ⎧ &y&C ⎫ ⎡ 0 0 ⎤ ⎧ y& C ⎫
⎢0 J ⎥ ⎪ ψ&& ⎪ ⎢ 0 J P ⎥⎥ ⎪⎪ ψ& C ⎪⎪
⎢ T ⎥ ⎪⎨ C ⎪⎬ + Ω ⎢ ⎨ ⎬+
⎢ m 0 ⎥ ⎪ &z&C ⎪ ⎢0 0 ⎥ ⎪ z&C ⎪
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎪
⎣ 0 J T ⎦ ⎪⎩− ϕ&&C ⎪⎭ ⎣0 − J P ⎦ ⎩− ϕ&C ⎪⎭
(3.144)
⎡ k11 k14 ⎤ ⎧ yC ⎫ ⎧ F1 ⎫
⎢k ⎥⎪ ψ ⎪ ⎪ M ⎪
⎢ 41 k 44 ⎥ ⎪⎨ C ⎪⎬ = ⎪⎨ 1 ⎪⎬
+
⎢ k 22 − k 23 ⎥ ⎪ zC ⎪ ⎪ F2 ⎪
⎢ ⎥
⎣ − k32 k33 ⎦ ⎪⎩− ϕC ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩− M 2 ⎪⎭
or
⎡[ m ] 0 ⎤ ⎧ { &y& } ⎫ ⎡ 0
+
[ g ]⎤ ⎧ { y& } ⎫ ⎡ k
+⎢ y
[ ] 0 ⎤ ⎧ { y }⎫ { }
⎧ fy ⎫
⎥⎨ ⎬ = ⎨
⎢ 0
⎣ [ m ]⎥⎦ ⎨⎩ { &z& } ⎬⎭ ⎢⎣− [ g ] ⎨ ⎬
0 ⎥⎦ ⎩ { z& } ⎭ ⎣⎢ 0
⎬
[ k z ]⎦⎥ ⎩ { z } ⎭ ⎩ { f z } ⎭
(3.145)
which in shorthand has the form
where ec , es and α c ,α s are the projections of e and α along the coordinate axes.
{
y = ℜe ŷ e
iθ y iω t
e }= ℜe { ( y − i y ) e },
c s
iω t
{
z = ℜe ẑ eiθ z eiω t = ℜe } {( z c − i z s ) e iω t .}
For { f } = { 0 } , equations (3.146) describe the rotor free precession. The
solutions of these equations can be expressed in terms of complex phasors as [8]
⎧{ y }⎫ ⎧ { yc } − i { ys }⎫ iω t
{x }= ⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬ e = {Φ } e iωt . (3.148)
⎩{ z }⎭ ⎩ c { z } − i { z }
s ⎭
Substituting (3.148) into (3.145) with zero right-hand side, leads to the
eigenvalue problem
⎢
[ ]
⎡ k y − ω2 [ m ] iω Ω [ g ] ⎤ ⎧{ yc } − i { y s }⎫
⎥ ⎨ ⎬ =
⎧{ 0 }⎫
⎨ ⎬ (3.149)
⎢⎣ − iω Ω [ g ] [ k z ] − ω2 [ m ]⎥⎦ ⎩ { zc } − i { z s }⎭ ⎩{ 0 }⎭
which delivers the following four equations coupled two by two
( [ k ]− ω
y
2
[ m ] ){ yc } + ω Ω [ g ]{ z s } = { 0 }, (3.150)
( [ k ]− ω
y
2
[ m ] ){ ys } − ω Ω [ g ]{ zc } = { 0 }, (3.151)
( [ k ]− ω
z
2
[ m ] ){ zc } − ω Ω [ g ]{ ys } = { 0 }, (3.152)
( [ k ]− ω
z
2
[ m ] ){ z s } + ω Ω [ g ] { y c } = { 0 } . (3.153)
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 149
{ yc } = −ω ( [ k ]− ω
y
2
[m ])
−1
Ω [ g ] { z s }, (3.154)
} = −ω ( [ k ] − ω [m ])
−1
{ ys y
2
Ω [ g ] { zc }. (3.155)
⎛ [ k ] − ω 2 [ m ] − ω 2Ω [ g ]
⎜ z
⎝
( [ k ]− ω [ m ] )
y
2 −1
Ω [ g ]⎞⎟ { z s } = { 0 }.
⎠
(3.157)
Comparing equations (3.156) and (3.157) it can be noticed that the two
solutions are proportional to one another
{ zc } = β { zs }, (3.158)
where β is a real constant.
Substituting equation (3.158) into equation (3.154) and comparing the
result with equation (3.155) yields
{ ys } = − β { yc }. (3.159)
⎧{ y } − i { ys }⎫
{Φ } = ⎨ c
⎧ { yc } ⎫
= ( 1 + iβ ) ⎨ iγ ⎧ ay ⎫ { }
⎬ ⎬ =e ⎨ ⎬ (3.160)
⎩ { zc } − i { z s }⎭ ⎩− i { z s }⎭ ⎩− i { a z }⎭
where { a y } and { a z } are real vectors.
{ }
⎧ a y ⎫ ⎡[ I ] [ 0 ] ⎤ ⎧ a y ⎫ { }
⎨ ⎬=⎢ ⎥ ⎨ ⎬, (3.162)
⎩− i { a z } ⎭ ⎣[ 0 ] − i [ I ]⎦ ⎩{ a z }⎭
[ k y ] − ω 2 [ m] ω Ω [g]
=0 (3.164)
ω Ω [g] [ k z ] − ω 2 [ m]
or
k11 − ω 2 m k14 0 0
2
k 41 k 44 − ω J T 0 ω Ω JP
2
= 0.
0 0 k 22 − ω m − k 23
0 ω Ω JP − k32 k33 − ω 2 J T
ω8 − ( A6 + B6 Ω 2 ) ω6 + ( A4 + B4 Ω 2 ) ω 4 − ( A2 + B2 Ω 2 ) ω 2 + A0 = 0. (3.165)
⎡[ k y ] − Ω 2 [ m ] Ω 2 [ g ] ⎤ ⎧{a y }⎫ ⎧{0}⎫
⎢ 2 ⎥⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬ (3.166)
⎣⎢ Ω [ g ] [ k z ] − Ω 2 [ m ]⎦⎥ ⎩{a z }⎭ ⎩{0}⎭
⎡[ k y ] [ 0 ] ⎤ 2 ⎡ [ m ] − [ g ]⎤
⎢ [ 0 ] [ k ]⎥ {Ψ r } = Ω r ⎢− [ g ] [ m ] ⎥ {Ψ r }. (r = 1,..,4 ) (3.167)
⎣ z ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
The eigenvalues Ω r give the synchronous critical speeds. The
eigenvectors {Ψ r } define the semiaxes of the disc precession orbit at the related
critical speed and the directivity of precession (forward or backward).
Fig. 3.23
a b
Fig. 3.24
Substituting (3.168) and (3.169) into (3.146) we obtain the algebraic set
of equations
([ K ] − Ω 2
)
[ M ] { X c } + Ω [ G ]{ X s } = { Fc },
(3.170)
− Ω [ G ]{ X c } + ([ K ] − Ω 2
)
[ M ] { X s } = { Fs }.
The two components of the disc translational displacements are given by
equations of the form (3.33). They are utilized for the calculation of the elliptic
orbit parameters of the unbalance response, using equations (3.38) to (3.40) and
(3.44).
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 153
Fig. 3.25
154 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Example 3.2a
Consider a rotor with an overhung disc (Model II) with the following
parameters: m = 8000 kg , J P = 8520 kg m 2 , J T = 4260 kg m 2 , l = 4 m,
c = 0.8 m, E = 210 GPa , d = 0.3 m, ζ = 0.02 , k A1 = 333 N/μm ,
k A2 = 667 N/μm, k B1 = 83.3 N/μm, k B 2 = 167 N/μm .
Fig. 3.26
Figure 3.26 presents the Campbell diagram with the running speed on the
horizontal axis. The intersections with the synchronous line determine the damped
critical speeds: n1 = 437 rpm, n2 = 761 rpm, n3 = 1282 rpm. The second critical
speed is in forward (synchronous) precession. The others are in backward
(asynchronous) precession.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 155
Figure 3.27 shows the unbalance response diagrams. The peaks in the
major semiaxis diagram (Fig. 3.27, a) locate the peak response critical speeds.
Although the first and the third critical speed correspond to backward precession
modes, they are excited by the rotating unbalance. The maximum value of the
major semiaxis in the operating speed range is usually compared to admissible
limits.
a b
c d
Fig. 3.27
In figure 3.27, b the minor semiaxis diagram is added. The two ranges
with negative values define the operation speeds with backward precession
produced by the unbalance. The crossing points with the horizontal axis locate the
threshold speeds where the precession orbit degenerates to a straight line. At these
speeds the orbit changes from forward to backward precession and vice versa. Note
that the threshold speeds are different from the critical speeds.
Figure 3.27, c shows the diagrams of the y and z components of the disc
centre displacement. Figure 3.27, d presents the diagrams of the radii r f and rb
of the two circular counter-rotating motions that generate the ellipse. The ranges
where the radius rb of the circle with backward motion is larger than the radius
156 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
rf of the circle with forward precession define the speed ranges with backward
precession. It is easy to see that they correspond to ranges with negative minor
semiaxis in Fig. 3.27, b.
{ x } = { u } eλ t , (3.174)
λ r = α r + i ω r , λr = α r − i ω r (3.176)
and are functions of the running speed Ω .
The imaginary part ωr is the damped natural frequency (of precession)
and the real part α r is an attenuation ( or growing) constant.
Usually, the damping is expressed in terms of the modal damping ratio
αr αr
ζr = − ≅− . (3.177)
α r2 + ωr2 ωr
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 157
Fig. 3.28
Example 3.3
Figures 3.29 depict the Campbell diagrams and the diagrams of the modal
damping ratio for three values of the coefficient β .
a b c
Fig. 3.29
Example 3.4 a
A rigid disc is mounted at the centre (l 1 = l 2 = 0.35m ) of a massless
rigid shaft and the shaft is supported by identical isotropic bearings at both ends.
The disc mass and mass moments of inertia are m = 30 kg, J T = 1.2 kg m 2 ,
J P = 1.8 kg m 2 . The bearing stiffness and damping coefficients are
6
k yy = k zz = 7 ⋅ 10 N/m and c yy = c zz = 200 Ns/m .
The Campbell diagram is shown in Fig. 3.30. Forward modes are labeled
‘F’ while backward modes are labeled ‘B’. The two ‘cylindrical’ modes at
103.48 Hz have natural frequencies independent of the rotational speed, hence
overlaid straight lines. The disc has a translational motion not influenced by
gyroscopic effects and decoupled from the angular motion.
The third and fourth ‘conical’ modes, labeled 2B and 2F, are decoupled
from the cylindrical modes. As the rotor speed increases, the natural frequency of
the backward mode decreases and crosses the line of the cylindrical modes, due to
gyroscopic effects. The natural frequency of the forward mode increases with rotor
speed. Due to bearing isotropy the two curves start from the same point at zero
rotational speed.
Fig. 3.30
The synchronous excitation line is plotted with dotted line. The critical
speeds are determined as the abscissae of the crossing points with the natural
frequency lines, at 6209 rpm and 6876 rpm. In the case of unbalance excitation, the
only one critical speed is located at the intersection with the line of mode 1F. For
rotor systems with isotropic bearings, backward modes cannot be excited by
synchronous excitation.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 161
a b
c d
Fig. 3.31
The precession mode shapes at 10000 rpm are shown in Fig. 3.31. Due to
bearing isotropy, the orbits at any station are circles. They are plotted as
incomplete (“open”) orbits to help recognizing the motion directivity. The mode
shape at t = 0 is plotted with solid line and the mode shape at t = π 2Ω is drawn
with broken line, so that the motion along the orbit takes place from the point lying
on the solid line, at t = 0 , to the point lying on the broken line, a quarter of a
period later.
Fig. 3.32
162 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The radius of the unbalance response orbit at the disc location is plotted
in Fig. 3.32 as a function of the rotational speed, for a 30 g mm unbalance of the
disc. As expected, only one peak occurs in the diagram, at the natural frequency of
mode 1F.
Example 3.4 b
Fig. 3.33
The Campbell diagram is shown in Fig. 3.33. The two ‘cylindrical’
modes 1B and 1F have different natural frequencies at 88.63 Hz and 103.48 Hz
due to the bearing anisotropy. They are independent of the rotational speed due to
system symmetry.
The third and fourth ‘conical’ modes, are decoupled from the cylindrical
modes. As the rotor speed increases, the natural frequency of the mode 2B
decreases and crosses the lines of the cylindrical modes, due to gyroscopic effects.
The natural frequency of the mode 2F increases with rotor speed. Due to bearing
anisotropy the two curves in a pair start from different points at zero rotational
speed.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 163
Fig. 3.34
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 3.34. Backward modes are
more damped than the forward modes of the same pair. The curves for the conical
modes cross those of cylindrical modes, denoting no coupling effects.
a b
c d
Fig. 3.35
164 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The precession mode shapes at 10000 rpm are shown in Fig. 3.35. As
before, the mode shape at t = 0 is plotted with solid line and the mode shape at
t = π 2Ω is drawn with broken line. The motion along the orbit takes place from
the point lying on the solid line, to the point lying on the broken line.
The orbits of the two ‘cylindrical’ modes 1B and 1F at 88.63 Hz and
103.48 Hz are almost straight lines due to the strong bearing anisotropy and
decoupling of the two motions. The orbits of modes 2B and 2F are elliptical.
a b
Fig. 3.36
Fig. 3.37
The unbalance response curves calculated at the disc station are shown in
Fig. 3.36, for a 30 g mm unbalance of the disc. In Fig. 3.36, a , curve a is for the
major semiaxis and curve b is for the minor semiaxis. In Fig. 3.36, b , curve r f is
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 165
for the forward circle radius and rb is for the backward circle radius. The two
peaks indicate that only two of the three possible damped critical speeds become
peak response critical speeds due to the high damping of mode 2B. Between the
two peaks there is a speed range with backward precession indicated by negative
values of the orbit minor semiaxis, or by rb > r f .
Useful information is given by the root locus diagram (Fig. 3.37). This is
a plot of the damped natural frequency versus negative damping ratio, for each
mode of precession. When the curves are distant of each other, as in Fig. 3.37,
there is no coupling between modes and no compound or mixed modes of
precession can occur.
Example 3.4 c
Consider the rotor of Example 3.4 b, but with the rigid disc mounted off
the shaft centre (l 1 = 0.3 m, l 2 = 0.4 m ) . The shaft is rigid and massless. The
bearing stiffness coefficients are k yy = 5 ⋅ 106 N/m , k zz = 7 ⋅ 106 N/m , and the
damping coefficients are c yy = c zz = 2 ⋅10 2 Ns/m [10].
Fig. 3.38
The Campbell diagram is shown in Fig. 3.38. Curve 2B no more crosses
the lines 1B and 1F and, near the rotational speed of 8000 rpm , veers away from
the line 1F. The rotor translational and angular motions are coupled. With
increasing rotational speed, mode 2B becomes a mixed mode and tends to change
into the first forward mode, while mode 1F becomes a mixed mode and tends to
change into the first backward mode. The synchronous excitation line intersects the
166 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
natural frequency lines at the points whose abscissae determine the damped critical
speeds 5236 rpm , 6051 rpm and 6532 rpm.
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 3.39. With increasing
rotational speed, curve 2B transforms into the former 1F, while 1F transforms into
the former 1B and curve 1B follows the former line 2B. These transformations take
place in the speed range with curve veering in the Campbell diagram.
Fig. 3.39
The root locus diagram is presented in Fig. 3.40. Modes are labeled as
before, according to their shapes at low rotational speeds. When the root loci are
close to each other, two modes with nearly the same natural frequency and
different mode shapes can combine to yield a compound mode which has mixed
backward and forward precession due to the coupling between modes.
Fig. 3.40
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 167
a b
c d
Fig. 3.41
The precession mode shapes at 10000 rpm are shown in Fig. 3.41. For
mixed modes, the precession along the ellipse is marked by B (backward) or F
(forward) and takes place from the point lying on the solid line, at t = 0 , to the
point lying on the broken line, a quarter of a period later.
a b
Fig. 3.42
Along the rotor, the portions of backward and forward motion are
separated by a location where the precession orbit degenerates into a straight line.
Such lines do not appear in Fig. 3.41 due to the small number of stations where
orbits have been drawn.
168 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The unbalance response curves calculated at the disc station are shown in
Fig. 3.42, for a 30 g mm unbalance of the disc. The abscissae of the three peaks
indicate the peak response critical speeds. Again, the speed range with backward
precession is indicated by negative values of the orbit minor semiaxis or values of
rb larger than r f . When b = 0 and rb = r f the orbit degenerates into a straight
line.
Example 3.5 a
A rigid disc is mounted at the middle of a uniform shaft (Fig. 3.43) of
length 0.44 m , diameter 90 mm , Young’s modulus 2 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and mass
density 7800 kg m 3 .
Fig. 3.43
The mass of the disc is 560 kg, while the diametral and polar mass
moments of inertia are 18 kgm 2 and 32 kgm 2 , respectively. The shaft is supported
at the ends by identical bearings with the following constant coefficients:
′ = 2.2 ⋅ 108 N m , k zz
k ′yy = k ′yy ′′ = 1.1 ⋅108 N m , c′yy = c′yy
′ = k zz ′ = 2.2 ⋅10 4 Ns m , and
c′zz = c′zz′ = 1.11 ⋅ 10 4 Ns m [9].
The Campbell diagram is shown in Fig. 3.44. Due to the system
symmetry, the disc translational and angular motions are decoupled. Modes 1B and
1F have natural frequencies independent of rotational speed. As the rotor speed
increases, the natural frequency of the mode 2B decreases and crosses the lines of
the cylindrical modes, due to gyroscopic effects. Due to bearing orthotropy, the
two curves in a pair start from different points at zero rotational speed.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 169
Fig. 3.44
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 3.45. As in Example 3.4 a,
backward modes are more damped than the forward modes of the same pair. The
curves for the conical modes do not cross those of cylindrical modes.
Fig. 3.45
Example 3.5 b
Consider the rotor of Example 3.5 a supported by bearings with slightly
different stiffness and damping coefficients (Fig. 3.43): k ′yy = 2.15 ⋅108 N m ,
′ = 1.15 ⋅ 108 N m , c′yy = 2.15 ⋅ 10 4 Ns m , c′zz = 1.15 ⋅104 Ns m , k ′yy
k zz ′ = 2.25 ⋅ 108 N m ,
′′ = 1.05 ⋅ 108 N m , c′yy
k zz ′ = 2.25 ⋅ 10 4 Ns m and c′zz′ = 1.05 ⋅ 10 4 Ns m [9].
170 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The Campbell diagram is shown in Fig. 3.46 for the first four modes of
precession. The curves in the diagram are labeled in the usual way, 1B, 1F, 2B and
2F, as for Example 3.5 a, though there are speed intervals with mixed modes.
Curve 2B crosses the line 1F at 600 rpm and veers away from line 1B at 2065 rpm.
Fig. 3.46
In Fig. 3.47 the damping ratio curves of modes 2B and 1F have a trough,
respectively a peak, at 600 rpm, not crossing each other, while curves 2B and 1B
do cross each other at about 2065 rpm.
Fig. 3.47
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 171
Fig. 3.48
a b c
Fig. 3.49
Figure 3.49 shows the evolution of mode 1M between 1700 and 3000
rpm. Mode 1M results from the coupling of a vertical conical mode 1B with a
horizontal cylindrical mode 1F. With increasing rotational speed, the latter
becomes a conical horizontal mode.
172 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
a b c
Fig. 3.50
Figure 3.50 shows the evolution of mode 2M between 200 and 1000 rpm.
Despite the crossing of natural frequency curves (Fig. 3.46) the mode is mixed. It is
the result of the compounding of a cylindrical vertical mode and a conical
horizontal mode. Mixed modes exist even when there is no curve veering in the
Campbell diagram.
a b c
Fig. 3.51
Figure 3.51 presents the evolution of mode 3M between 250 and 1000
rpm. It is basically the second backward mode 2B, but at low speeds, the vertical
and horizontal conical components cross the rotor longitudinal axis at different
locations. At these points the precession orbit degenerates into straight lines that
mark the change from backward to forward or vice versa.
a b c
Fig. 3.52
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 173
Figure 3.52 shows the evolution of mode 3M between 1700 and 2500
rpm. At 1700 rpm the mode is apparently still backward 2B. Its mixed nature is
overlooked due to the small number of stations at which the orbit is drawn.
A closer look at Fig. 3.52, a shows that the vertical and horizontal conical
components cross the rotor longitudinal axis at different locations so that there is a
portion with forward precession not revealed with only five stations. At 2100 rpm
the horizontal mode becomes cylindrical. Because the vertical component remains
conical, the precession mode is mixed.
A similar rotor system with slightly different parameters is presented in
the following, to illustrate the above statements. Horizontal stiffnesses are larger in
this case than the vertical stiffnesses.
Example 3.6
A uniform shaft of length 0.437 m , diameter 91 mm , Young’s modulus
2 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and mass density 7750 kg m 3 carries at the middle a rigid disc of
mass 566 kg , diametral and polar mass moments of inertia 18.1 kg m 2 and
36.2 kg m 2 , respectively.
The shaft is supported at the ends by orthotropic bearings with the following
constant stiffness and damping coefficients: (Fig. 3.43): k ′yy = 1.14 ⋅108 N m ,
′ = 2.14 ⋅108 N m , k ′yy
k zz ′′ = 2.24 ⋅108 N m , c′yy = 1.14 ⋅ 10 4 Ns m ,
′ = 1.04 ⋅108 N m , k zz
c′zz = 2.14 ⋅ 10 4 Ns m , c′yy
′ = 1.04 ⋅10 4 Ns m and c′zz′ = 2.24 ⋅104 Ns m [11].
Fig. 3.53
174 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The Campbell diagram is shown in Fig. 3.53 for the first four modes of
precession.
In Fig. 3.54 the damping ratio curves of modes 2B and 1F have a trough,
respectively a peak, at 400 rpm, not crossing each other, while curves 2B and 1B
do cross each other at about 1800 rpm.
Fig. 3.54
With increasing rotational speed, mode 2B becomes a mixed mode and
changes into the first backward mode 1B, while mode 1B changes into 2B.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 3.55
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 175
Figure 3.55 shows the evolution of mode 3M between 1000 and 2000
rpm. Mode 3M is obtained from the coupling of a horizontal conical mode 2B with
a vertical cylindrical mode 1B. With increasing rotational speed, the latter becomes
a vertical cylindrical mode 1F.
a b c
Fig. 3.56
Figure 3.56 shows the evolution of mode 1M between 1900 and 2400 rpm.
Fig. 3.57
Example 3.7
Consider a rotor with two bearings and a single disc overhung at one end
(Fig. 3.57). The rigid disc, with mass 8000 kg , polar mass moment of inertia
8520 kgm 2 and diametral mass moment of inertia 4260 kgm 2 , is located at station
7, at the right end. The shaft with Young’s modulus 2.1 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and mass
density 7800 kg m 3 has four different sections with the following lengths and
diameters: l 1 = 0.7 m , d1 = 0.1 m , l 2 = 2.9 m , d 2 = 0.3 m , l 3 = 0.4 m ,
d3 = 0.32 m , l 4 = 0.8 m , d 4 = 0.34 m , and is modeled by 6 beam elements. The
bearings are located at stations 1 and 6 having the following constant stiffness and
′ = (1 12 ) ⋅ 109 N m ,
damping coefficients: at station 1, k ′yy = (1 6 ) ⋅109 N m , k zz
′′ = (1 3) ⋅ 109 N m ,
′ = (2 3) ⋅ 109 N m , k zz
c′yy = c′zz = 105 Ns m ; at station 6, k ′yy
′ = c′zz′ = 105 Ns m [7].
c′yy
176 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The Campbell diagram is presented in Fig. 3.58 for the first six natural
modes. Modes are numbered in ascending order and labeled with their index
without mentioning the directivity.
Fig. 3.58
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 3.59 for the same six modes.
Fig. 3.59
The shape of the first six modes of precession at 2400 rpm is shown in
Fig. 3.60. The system has 4 mixed modes, although there is neither curve veering
nor curve crossing at 2400 rpm in figure 3.58. The natural frequencies of modes 2
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 177
a b c
d e f
Fig. 3.60
a b
Fig. 3.61
178 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Example 3.8
Consider a rotor with two bearings and an overhung disc (Fig. 3.62). The
rigid disc, with mass 7.5 kg , polar mass moment of inertia 0.04 kgm 2 and
diametral mass moment of inertia 0.02 kgm 2 , is located at station 5, at the right
end. The shaft with Young’s modulus 2 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and mass density
8000 kg m 3 has diameter d = 50 mm and total length l = 1 m , and is modeled by
4 equal length beam elements. The identical bearings are located at stations 1 and 3
having the following constant stiffness and damping coefficients
k yy = 2.5 ⋅107 N m , k zz = 4 ⋅ 107 N m , and c yy = c zz = 5 ⋅ 103 Ns m [12].
Fig. 3.62
Fig. 3.63
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 179
The Campbell diagram for the first six modes is presented in Fig. 3.63.
Mode 4 is mixed, due to the interaction of modes 2F and 3B. There is a curve
veering in Fig. 3.63 and a curve crossing in Fig. 3.64, around 13000 rpm.
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 3.64 for eight modes.
Fig. 3.64
The root locus diagram is shown in Fig. 3.65 for the first six modes and
speeds up to 30000 rpm.
Fig. 3.65
180 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The evolution of the mixed mode with the rotor speed is shown in Fig.
3.66.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 3.66
The first six mode shapes at 10000 rpm are presented in Fig. 3.67.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 3.67
The unbalance response curves at the bearing stations 1 and 3 are shown
in Fig. 3.68 for a disc unbalance of 15 g mm . Peaks occur at the eigenfrequencies
of forward modes, because backward modes are relatively highly damped.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 181
a b
Fig. 3.68
Fig. 3.69
cylindrical forward rigid body mode giving rise to compounded modes, sometimes
referred to as ‘convex cylindrical’ and ‘concave cylindrical’. In some cases, even
the forward modes become overdamped and disappear from the diagram.
The stability diagrams are useful to locate the onset speed of instability.
The damping ratio diagrams help locating this threshold speed and show also when
some modes are overdamped. The root locus diagrams give an overview of the
eigenvalue variation with the rotor speed and can be used to explain the occurrence
of mixed modes of precession.
Generally, the mode labeling for these systems is more difficult than for
rotors carried by supports with constant coefficients, and the pattern of mode pairs
with backward and forward precession is either changed or difficult to recognize.
Example 3.9 a
Consider the rotor from Fig. 3.70 supported in two identical journal
bearings. The rigid disc has the mass 20 kg , the polar mass moment of inertia
1 kg m 2 and the diametral mass moment of inertia 0.7 kg m 2 . The massless flexible
shaft of diameter 25.4 mm and Young’s modulus 2.1 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 has lengths
l12 = 85 mm and l 23 = 255 mm [13] and is modeled with only two elements.
Fig. 3.70
a b
Fig. 3.71
The Campbell diagram is presented in Fig. 3.72 for the first six natural
modes of precession. At the crossing points with the synchronous excitation line,
the damped critical speeds are determined as 2186, 6047 and 9442 rpm.
Fig. 3.72
Modes 1B and 2B are overdamped and do not appear in the diagram.
Modes 1F and 2F are ‘rigid body’ modes controlled by the hydrodynamic bearings
and follow closely the half-frequency excitation line ω = Ω 2 . If one sliding
bearing is replaced by a rigid bearing, one of these lines disappears. If both sliding
bearings are replaced by rigid bearings then both lines disappear. The curves of
modes 3F and 4B cross each other at about 12600 rpm but the two modes do not
interact.
184 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 3.73
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 3.73 for the same 6 modes.
Fig. 3.74
The stability diagram is plotted in Fig. 3.74 for only four modes. Mode
1F becomes unstable at 10331 rpm. Looking at the associated point in the
Campbell diagram, it can be seen that the whirling takes place at a frequency of
about half the spin speed, describing the bearing instability known as the ‘oil
whirl’.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 185
a b c
d e f
Fig. 3.75
The shape of the first six eigenmodes at 15000 rpm is shown in Fig. 3.75.
The forward modes, with larger relative displacements in bearings, have higher
damping ratio values.
Fig. 3.76
The root locus diagram for the first six modes and for speeds up to 15000
rpm is shown in Fig. 3.76. The curve of mode 1F crosses the vertical at zero
damping ratio, indicating the loss of stability.
186 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Example 3.9 b
Solve the problem of Example 3.9 a using the Moes’ impedance model
[15] for plain cylindrical bearings.
The speed dependence of the bearing stiffness and damping coefficients
is shown in Fig. 3.77.
a b
Fig. 3.77
The Campbell diagram is presented in Fig. 3.78 and the damping ratio
diagram in Fig. 3.79. The damped critical speeds are 2179, 6047 and 9322 rpm.
Fig. 3.78
Modes 1B and 2B are overdamped and do not show up in the Campbell
diagram. Modes 1F and 2F are ‘rigid body’ modes and their curves follow closely
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 187
Fig. 3.79
The stability diagram for only four modes is given in Fig. 3.80. Mode 1F
becomes unstable at 10016 rpm, which is lower than the onset speed of instability
calculated for Ocvirk bearings. Thus, use of the short bearing approximation is not
recommended in stability analyses.
Fig. 3.80
188 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The shapes of the first six eigenmodes at a rotor speed of 15000 rpm are
shown in Fig. 3.81. With only three nodes in the model, their shape is approximate.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 3.81
The root locus diagram in presented in Fig. 3.82 for the first six modes
and speeds up to 15000 rpm.
Fig. 3.82
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 189
Example 3.9 c
Consider the rotor of Example 3.9 a supported now by two-lobe bearings
with L = 12.7 mm .
The speed dependence of the bearing stiffness and damping coefficients,
calculated based on data from Someya’s book [16] for L D = 0.5 and a preload
factor m p = 3 4 , is shown in Fig. 3.83.
a b
Fig. 3.83
Fig. 3.84
190 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The damping ratio diagram in presented in Fig. 3.85 for only two modes.
Mode 3F becomes unstable at 13854 rpm, which is much higher than the onset
speed of instability for cylindrical bearings.
Fig. 3.85
The same information is given by the stability diagram from Fig. 3.86.
Fig. 3.86
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 191
The root locus diagram in presented in Fig. 3.87 for the first six modes
and speeds up to 16000 rpm. Modes 1F and 2F are highly damped. The curve of
mode 3F intersects the zero damping line at the point marking the damped natural
frequency at the instability threshold.
Fig. 3.87
The unbalance response curves calculated at the left bearing and disc
locations are presented in Fig. 3.88 for an unbalance of 20 g mm on the disc.
a b
Fig. 3.88
Example 3.10 a
Consider the rotor of Fig. 3.43 supported in two identical plain cylindrical
bearings. The rigid disc has the mass 9.07 kg , the polar mass moment of inertia
0.0468 kg m 2 and the diametral mass moment of inertia 0.0305 kg m 2 . The
192 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 3.89
The Campbell diagram for the first four modes is presented in Fig. 3.90.
The damped critical speeds are 384, 1141, 1739 and 2790 rpm.
Fig. 3.90
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 193
The damping ratio diagram in presented in Fig. 3.91. Mode 3F∗ becomes
unstable at 4061 rpm.
Fig. 3.91
The same information is given by the stability diagram from Fig. 3.92.
Fig. 3.92
194 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The root locus diagram in presented in Fig. 3.93 for speeds up to 6000
rpm. The curve of mode 3F∗ intersects the zero damping line at the point marking
the damped natural frequency at the instability threshold.
Fig. 3.93
The first six mode shapes at 3000 rpm are presented in Fig. 3.94.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 3.94
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 195
a b
Fig. 3.95
a b
Fig. 3.96
a b
Fig. 3.97
196 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Example 3.10 b
Fig. 3.98
The Campbell diagram for the first four modes of precession is presented
in Fig. 3.99. The damped critical speeds are 805, 876, 1778 and 2817 rpm. Mode
1F becomes overdamped beyond 1000 rpm.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 197
Fig. 3.99
The damping ratio diagram in presented in Fig. 3.100 for only three
modes. Mode 3F∗ becomes unstable at 5180 rpm.
Fig. 3.100
The same information is given by the stability diagram from Fig. 3.101.
198 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 3.101
The root locus diagram in presented in Fig. 3.102 for speeds up to 6000
rpm. The curve of mode 3F∗ intersects the zero damping line at the point marking
the damped natural frequency at the instability threshold.
Fig. 3.102
The first three mode shapes at 2500 rpm are presented in Fig. 3.103.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 199
a b c
Fig. 3.103
The unbalance response curves are calculated at locations 1 and 3, for an
eccentricity of 1.084 ⋅ 10 −4 m of the disc mass. Figures 3.104 show the diagrams of
the ellipse semiaxes, Figs. 3.105 present the diagrams of the vertical and horizontal
components, while Figs. 3.106 give the diagrams of the radii of the forward and
backward generating circles.
a b
Fig. 3.104
a b
Fig. 3.105
200 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Around 3000 rpm, the orbits in bearings are circular, while the disc orbit
is elliptical.
a b
Fig. 3.106
Between about 2200 and 2800 rpm, the steady state response due to
unbalance is a mixed mode (Fig. 3.107, a), with backward precession at the disc
and forward precession at bearings. At 5200 rpm the steady state precession is
forward (Fig. 3.107, b).
a b
Fig. 3.107
Example 3.11
9.525 mm , density 7860 kg m 3 and Young’s modulus 2.06 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 has total
length 0.59 m and is divided into six elements [19].
a b
Fig. 3.109
Fig. 3.110
The damping ratio diagram in presented in Fig. 3.111. Mode 3F becomes
unstable at 5070 rpm.
Fig. 3.111
The same information is given by the stability diagram from Fig. 3.112.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 203
Fig. 3.112
The root locus diagram in presented in Fig. 3.113 for speeds up to 8000
rpm. The curve of mode 3F intersects the zero damping line at the point marking
the damped natural frequency at the instability threshold.
Fig. 3.113
The first four mode shapes at 4000 rpm are shown in Fig. 3.114.
204 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
a b
c d
Fig. 3.114
a b
Fig. 3.115
The unbalance response curves are calculated at the disc location 5 (Fig.
3.115, a) and at the oil-film bearing 7 (Fig. 3.115, b) for an eccentricity of
0.0305 m of the disc mass.
3. SIMPLE ROTORS IN FLEXIBLE BEARINGS 205
References
18. Subbiah, R., Bhat, R. B., Sankar, T. S., and Rao, J. S., Backward whirl in a
simple rotor supported on hydrodynamic bearings, NASA CP 2409, Instability
in Rotating Machinery, 1985.
19. Van de Vorst, E. L. B., Fey, R. H. B., De Kraker, A., and Van Campen, D. H.,
Steady-state behaviour of flexible rotor dynamic systems with oil journal
bearings, Proc. WAM of ASME, Symposium on Nonlinear and Stochastic
Dynamics, (A.K.Bajaj, N.S. Namachchivaya, R.A.Ibrahim, eds.), AMD-
Vol.192, DE-Vol.78, New York, pp.107-114, 1994.
4.
ROTOR DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
The simplest rotor with distributed mass consists of a shaft with uniform
cross-section, simply supported at the ends on flexible bearings of equal stiffness
k B 2 . Figure 4.1 shows the influence of bearing flexibility on the first four lateral
critical speeds of the undamped rotor system.
208 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
In Fig. 4.1, the ratio of the rotor critical speed on flexible bearings to the
first critical speed on rigid bearings ω 1 ( k B = ∞ ) is plotted against the
Fig. 4.1
The third and fourth critical speed ratios first exhibit a rapid decrease with
increasing bearing flexibility and then level out and asymptotically approach values
of 2.27 and 6.25. These two modes are referred to as the first and second flexible
“free-free” modes of the system.
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 209
In Fig. 4.2, the first four critical speed ratios are plotted against the
[ (g
dimensionless stiffness parameter δ B ω 12 )] −1 2
.
Fig. 4.2
kd = k2 + ( Ω c )2 , (4.1)
where k and c are the average stiffness and damping coefficients, respectively, and
Ω is the rotor angular speed.
But few actual bearings retain constant stiffness with speed change. To
determine the actual critical speeds, it is necessary to plot the bearing stiffness
versus speed characteristic over the rotor critical speed lines. The intersections
between the rotor curves and the bearing characteristic are the critical speeds for
the actual rotor in its bearings.
Figure 4.3 shows a rotor having a “soft” support in the horizontal direction,
k zz , and a “harder” stiffness in the vertical direction, k yy . The lower stiffness
mode shape in the horizontal direction at the first critical speed is almost
cylindrical. In the vertical direction, higher support stiffness causes this rotor to be
almost simply supported.
the bearings such as decreasing the clearance or increasing the preload to raise the
critical speed (10 to 20%).
a b
Fig. 4.4 (from [1])
Rotors with stiff bearings operating near criticals change the engineer
options to the rotor shaft. He can modify the shaft diameter (Fig. 4.5) or change the
212 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Critical speed maps are also constructed for machines on more than two
bearings. Figure 4.7 shows such a diagram for a 15 MW synchronous electrical
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 213
Another critical speed map for a generator rotor on three bearings (used for
balancing) is presented in Fig. 4.8, where the mode shapes are also shown for
various bearing flexibilities. The hatched area marks the speed range below one-
third the first critical speed for rigid supports ( α = 0 ).
Figure 4.9 shows the differences in the mode shape forms of a turbo-
generator, coupled and uncoupled. The first five mode shape forms and the
corresponding critical speeds of the shaft line of the generator G coupled with the
turbine T are shown in Fig. 4.9, a. The first two mode shapes of the generator in
three bearings (as it is balanced) are shown in Fig. 4.9, b. The first and second
mode shapes of the generator alone are recognized in the first and fifth mode
shapes of the shaft line, but occur at different speeds. The rigid coupling places a
firm restraint on the shaft end, changing the critical speed, but the difference
between the corresponding mode shapes is small.
214 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Figure 4.10 shows the critical speed map for an industrial turbine rated 50
MW. The mode shapes of the shaft line show the predominance of each component
– generator G, turbine T and exciter E - at the respective critical speed. Comparing
the operating speed of 3600 rpm with the critical speed lines it is concluded that the
practical region of bearing flexibility is between 5 and 10 μm tf .
a b
Fig. 4.12
The cross-over points of the two curves give the critical speeds for the
combined rotor-bearing system. In the range from zero to slightly above overspeed
(4320 rpm) there are four critical speeds, at 1000, 2900, 4100 and 4400 rpm.
Unfortunately, two critical speeds lie very close to the overspeed, which is
undesirable, making the balancing difficult.
a b
Fig. 4.13 (from [3])
The bearings are too ‘soft’. If the bearing pedestal is the softest element in
the chain, then it should be stiffened.
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 219
Figure 4.13, b shows the critical speed map of the same rotor in which the
speed-flexibility characteristic of another stiffer bearing is overlaid, having a
higher natural frequency of 128 Hz (7690 rpm). In this case, the bearing dynamic
flexibility is almost constant 5 μm t f . This leaves only two critical speeds, at 1000
and 2900 rpm, well below the operating speed and the overspeed.
Bearing damping shifts the critical speeds to larger values. When the
damping is significant, as for most hydrodynamic bearings, the main concern is the
computation of damped critical speeds and their associated damping ratios. They
are determined solving the eigenvalue problem of the linearized damped rotor
system.
It is convenient to write the system equation (4.3) in the state space form
[ A ]{ q& } + [ B ]{ q} = { 0 } , (4.4)
[ A ] = ⎡⎢
0⎤
[ B ] = ⎡⎢
K⎤
{ q } = ⎧⎨
M C x& ⎫
, , ⎬. (4.5)
⎣0 I ⎥⎦ ⎣− I 0 ⎥⎦ ⎩x⎭
On trying a solution to equation (4.4) of the form
{ q } = { y } eλ t (4.6)
( λ [ A ] + [ B ] ){ y } = { 0 } . (4.7)
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 221
(− [ A] −1
[ B ] ){ y } = λ { y } , (4.8)
where
(− [ A] [ B ])= ⎢ − [ M ] [C ] − [M ] −1 [ K ] ⎤
−1 ⎡ −1
⎥ (4.9)
⎢⎣ [I ] [0 ] ⎥⎦
αr αr
ζr = − ≅− . (4.11)
α r2 + ωr2 ωr
⎧ λr { ur } ⎫ ⎧ λr { u r } ⎫
{ yr } = ⎨ ⎬, { yr } = ⎨ ⎬, (4.12)
⎩ { ur } ⎭ ⎩ { ur } ⎭
where
{ ur } = { ar } + i { br }, { ur } = { ar } − i { br } (4.13)
so that only the lower half is considered.
222 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 4.14
the percent of F and B motion along the rotor stations, or indicate the two basic
components of a compounded mode which influence each other to give rise to the
M mode.
A critical speed of order κ is defined as the rotor speed for which a
multiple of that speed coincides with one of the system natural frequencies of
precession.
An excitation frequency line has an equation ω = κ Ω . It is a line of
slope κ passing through the origin of the Campbell diagram. The intersection of
this line with the damped natural frequency curve ωr defines the damped critical
speed Ω r . When Ω equals Ω r , the excitation frequency κ Ω r creates a
resonance (critical) condition.
One approach for determining critical speeds is to use the diagram of
damped natural frequencies versus speed and overlap all excitation frequency lines
of interest, marking the intersection points of the two families of curves. Their
abscissae determine the damped critical speeds.
For κ = 1 , ω = Ω is the synchronous excitation line, usually due to mass
unbalance. For κ = 2 , ω = 2Ω is the misalignment excitation line. For κ ≅ 1 2 ,
ω = Ω 2 is the half-frequency subharmonic excitation line due to oil whirl in plain
bearings.
Fig. 4.15
There are ellipses with forward precession (denoted F), ellipses with
backward precession (denoted B), and ellipses degenerated into straight lines.
Mixed modes are described in Section 3.3.5.
Undamped and damped critical speeds have been defined based on the
coincidence of an excitation frequency with a rotor natural frequency. Both are
‘possible’ critical speeds, as far as nothing is said about the level of damping.
Of practical interest are the rotational speeds at which the rotor response
has the largest value. The abscissae of peaks in the plots of the unbalance response
at a rotor station as a function of the rotational speed determine the so-called peak
response critical speeds. As shown in Example 3.1, these criticals are slightly
different from the damped critical speeds and depend on the location along the
rotor where they are calculated.
In machines with journal bearings, the relative motion between journal and
bearing is measured with proximity transducers. The largest orbit radius (major
semiaxis for ellipses) is an indication of the severity of rotor precession. The peaks
in the diagrams of the steady state synchronous response at a rotor section, for a
given unbalance magnitude and location, indicate the peak response critical speeds.
Figure 4.16 shows an example of unbalance response numerical simulation
for an industrial turbine rotor.
First, the total unbalance is estimated based on existing standards on
permissible residual unbalance values (ISO 1940) [11]. For a turbine shaft, a
quality grade G2.5 is usually selected. [12].
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 225
24,000 ⋅ m
U = me = [ mm ⋅ g ] , (4.17)
nN
where m is the mass of the rotor section between two bearings, kg.
For a turbine operating at 3000 rpm, the permissible residual unbalance is
U = 8m [mm g].
Using a finite element model of the rotor, the first modes of lateral
vibration are calculated, usually all modes below the trip speed and the mode just
above the trip speed. Then, the worst unbalance distribution for each mode is
considered, as in Figs. 4.16, a − d , subdividing the total unbalance into suitable
individual unbalance components. Apart from the first three modes of vibration,
the vibration produced by the overhang half couplings is also considered.
The result of the unbalance response calculation at the left bearing location
is shown in Fig. 4.16, e. Each unbalance distribution results in a different
amplitude versus speed curve. The amplitude A is calculated as the major semiaxis
of the precession elliptical orbit.
226 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The positions of the amplitude peaks along the horizontal axis indicate the
peak response critical speeds. In figure 4.16, e, n 1,1 and n 1,2 are the critical
speeds for the first unbalance distribution, n2,1 and n2,2 are the critical speeds for
the second unbalance distribution. The amplitudes of the unbalance response have
to be compared with limit values given by guidelines and standards for the
operating speed n N .
The guideline ISO 7919-2 [13] indicates, as a limit of 'good' vibration
performance, a maximum value of the journal orbit radius
2400
smax A = [μm] . (4.18)
nN
The critical speed map for the first two modes of vibration is shown in Fig.
4.17, a. The average value of oil film flexibilities of both bearings for the first
mode is α v =1.3 mm/MN in the vertical direction and α h =3.7 mm/MN in the
horizontal direction. According to Fig. 4.17, a, there are two undamped critical
speeds within the speed range from 2600 to 5800 rpm, the first at 3250 rpm with a
predominant horizontal response, and the second at 5000 rpm with a predominant
vertical response. The turbine must therefore be operated at both critical speeds
which is inadmissible according to the conventional critical speed design
considerations.
The commissioning report, however, stated: "Turbine operating behavior is
very good irrespective of load and speed. Turbine shaft amplitudes are 8 − 10 μm ,
bearing housing vibrations are 1 − 3 μm , in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Critical speeds could not be determined" [12].
The unbalance response calculation confirmed the observed operating
behavior. Shaft vibration amplitudes of both bearings show absolutely no
resonance peaks near the critical speeds (solid lines in Fig. 4.17, b). Despite this,
there are two critical speeds in the operating speed range which can be determined
if the unbalance response is calculated with the oil film damping reduced to 10%
(dotted lines). As shown in Fig. 4.17, b, there are two unbalance response peaks,
the first at 3250 rpm and the second at approximately 5000 rpm.
The operating behavior of the shaft was smooth, since in this case it was
short and quite rigid and was also provided with a soft oil film. The softer the oil
film is in relation to the shaft rigidity, the more the shaft moves in its bearing so
that oil film damping becomes fully effective.
In most applications, when the system becomes unstable, the rotor whirls
in its first forward precession mode. The motion associated with an instability
becomes unbounded in time. Below ns the rotor motion is stable and synchronous.
Above this speed, there is a subsynchronous component to the rotor motion whose
amplitude diverges exponentially with time and is a forward motion. The onset
speed of instability always exceeds the rotor first critical speed.
Most of the destabilizing forces in rotor systems are “cross-coupled” in
two directions. A radial deflection of the shaft, away from its equilibrium position,
gives rise to a tangential force which, if it is larger than the opposite damping
force, drives the rotor in an orbital motion.
The destabilizing force is proportional to the shaft deflection and grows
larger as the radius of the whirl grows. The self-excited motion is along a spiral
with increasing radius until is limited by nonlinear effects. The results of the linear
theory predict the onset speed of instability but do not indicate the degree of
instability, i.e. neither the violence of the motion at onset nor the growth of the
unstable motion with increasing speed.
A common type of instability for rotors with oil-lubricated bearings is the
“oil whirl”. The oil film wedge drives the journal within the bearing at slightly less
than half the running speed, hence the name of “half-frequency whirl”.
A sliding bearing can be made stable by increasing its natural frequency or
by increasing the bearing eccentricity ratio ε = e C , where e is the journal
eccentricity and C is the radial clearance.
Changing the natural frequency of the bearing is considerably more
difficult than adjusting the ε ratio. The latter can be increased by decreasing the
Sommerfeld number (see Chapter 6) or by decreasing the bearing length/diameter
ratio.
The Sommerfeld number is defined as
2
NLD⎛ R ⎞
S=μ ⎜ ⎟ , (4.20)
W ⎝C ⎠
where R = D 2 is the bearing radius, L is the bearing length, C is the bearing
radial clearance, μ is the oil dynamic viscosity and N = Ω 2π is the journal
rotational frequency.
The following changes have a tendency to decrease the Sommerfeld
number:
1) increasing the bearing average pressure p = W L D by: a) grooving the
bearing circumferentially to reduce the surface loading area, using pressure dams
and pockets; b) misaligning the bearing purposely to achieve greater loading; and
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 229
Fig. 4.18
The increase of the onset speed of instability by changing the bearing type
was studied [14] for the rotor from Fig. 4.18.
The uniform shaft of diameter 80 mm has lengths l1 = l 3 = 0.3 m ,
l 2 = l 4 = 0.2 m , Young’s modulus 2 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and mass density 8000 kg m 3 .
230 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The three identical discs have the following mass and mass moments of inertia:
m = 15 kg, J T = 0.05 kg m 2 , J P = 0.1 kg m 2 .
The bearings have the length/diameter ratio 0.5, radial clearance
C p = 300 μm and oil dynamic viscosity 5 ⋅ 10 −3 N s m 2 . When applicable, the
preload factor is m p = 1 − Cb C p = 3 4 , where Cb is the assembled clearance and
C p is the machined clearance. The speed dependence of the bearing stiffness and
damping coefficients was taken from [10].
The stability diagrams for six different bearings are overlaid in Fig. 4.19
for the given rotor configuration. The onset speeds of instability are 9,155 rpm for
cylindrical bearings without axial grooves, 9,220 rpm for cylindrical bearings with
two axial grooves, 11,760 rpm for 2-lobe bearings, 12,244 rpm for 4-lobe bearings,
12,389 rpm for 3-lobe bearings and 14,332 rpm for cylindrical bearings with
pressure dam.
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 231
In the following, examples of rotor dynamic analysis are given for selected
rotor models taken as benchmark examples. The numerical results are dependent
on the spatial discretization error (number of finite elements in the model) and the
speed resolution (number of speeds in a given interval).
Example 4.1
A simply supported rotor with three discs (Fig. 4.20) is considered in this
example [15]. The shaft of length 1.3 m and diameter 0.1 m has the Young’s
modulus 2 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and the mass density 7800 kg m 3 . It was divided into 13
beam finite elements of length 0.1 m each.
Fig. 4.20
The three rigid discs, located at stations 3, 6 and 11, have the following
masses and mass moments of inertia: m 1 = 14.58 kg, J T 1 = 0.0646 kg m 2 ,
The two identical orthotropic bearings are located at stations 1 and 14,
and have the following stiffness and damping coefficients: k yy = 7 ⋅ 107 N m ,
k zz = 5 ⋅ 107 N m , k yz = k zy = 0 , c yy = 7 ⋅10 2 Ns m , c zz = 5 ⋅ 10 2 Ns m ,
c yz = c zy = 0 .
232 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 4.21
The Campbell diagram for the first 10 natural modes is shown in Fig.
4.21. The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 4.22.
Fig. 4.22
The precession modes occur in pairs, the lower mode in a pair with
backward precession, and the upper with forward precession. With increasing
mode index, the gyroscopic effect makes the two lines in a pair to become more
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 233
divergent. The line 5B crosses the line 4F so that beyond 20000 rpm the mode
ranking is changed. Modes are labeled according to their order at low rotational
speeds. The synchronous excitation line (dotted line) intersects the natural
frequency lines at the points whose abscissae determine the damped critical speeds
3620 , 3798 , 10017, 11278, 16769, 24397, 26604 rpm, etc.
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
Fig. 4.23
Twelve precession mode shapes at 25000 rpm are shown in Fig. 4.23.
The orbits at any station are ellipses due to bearing anisotropy. The mode shape at
234 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
t = 0 is plotted with solid line and the mode shape at t = π 2Ω is drawn with
broken line, so that the motion along the orbit takes place from the point lying on
the solid line, at t = 0 , to the point lying on the broken line, a quarter of a period
later. Modes 1B and 1F are almost ‘cylindrical’. Modes 2B and 2F are almost
‘conical’. Modes 3B and 3F are ‘two-node’ flexural, modes 4B and 4F are ‘three-
node’ flexural, etc.
Fig. 4.24
The unbalance response curves calculated at station 6 are shown in Fig.
4.24 for the orbit major semiaxis (solid line) and minor semiaxis (broken line). A
mass unbalance of 200 g mm on the disc at station 6 was considered.
Example 4.2
Consider the rotor of Example 4.1, but with the following bearing
stiffness and damping coefficients [16]:
′ = 5 ⋅ 107 N m , k ′yz = k ′zy = −4 ⋅ 107 N m ,
k ′yy = 7 ⋅ 107 N m , k zz
c′yy = 7 ⋅103 Ns m , c′zz = 4 ⋅ 103 Ns m , c′yz = c′zy = 0 ,
k ′yy ′′ = 4 ⋅ 107 N m , k ′yz
′ = 6 ⋅ 107 N m , k zz ′′ = −4.5 ⋅ 10 7 N m ,
′ = k zy
′ = 6 ⋅ 103 Ns m , c′zz′ = 5 ⋅ 103 Ns m , c′yz
c′yy ′ = c′zy
′ =0.
The Campbell diagram for the first eight modes is shown in Fig. 4.25.
The conservative cross-stiffness increases the interval between the eigenvalues in a
pair corresponding to the same modal index. When a lower index forward mode
approaches a higher index backward mode, as for modes 4 and 5, the result is a
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 235
curve veering in the Campbell diagram (at about 28000 rpm) with a corresponding
crossing of damping ratio curves. The relative departure of the two curves in a pair
gives rise to mixed modes. Because all modes are mixed, they are labeled in
ascending order, with their eigenvalue index at very low rotational speeds.
Fig. 4.25
Fig. 4.26
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 4.26. Predominantly
backward modes (like 1 and 3) are more damped that their (predominantly)
forward pair (2 and 4).
236 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
Fig. 4.27
Twelve precession mode shapes at 25000 rpm are shown in Fig. 4.27. For
mixed modes, the precession along the ellipse takes place from the point lying on
the solid line, at t = 0 , to the point lying on the broken line, a quarter of a period
later. The bearings have the principal axes of stiffness oriented at + 450 and − 450 ,
respectively, relative to the vertical axis, so that the elliptical precession orbits have
inclined axes.
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 237
The root locus diagram is presented in Fig. 4.28. When the root loci are
close to each other, two modes with nearly the same natural frequency (4 and 5)
and different deflected shapes can combine to yield a compounded mode which has
mixed backward and forward precession due to the coupling between modes.
Fig. 4.28
a b
Fig. 4.29
238 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Example 4.3
A multi-stepped rotor (Fig. 4.30) has Young’s modulus
11 2 3
2.078 ⋅ 10 N m and mass density 7806 kg m . At station 5 it carries a rigid
disc of mass 1.401 kg , diametral and polar mass moments of inertia 0.00136 kgm 2
and 0.00203 kgm 2 , respectively. The shaft is supported at stations 11 and 15 by
isotropic bearings with the following constant stiffness and damping coefficients:
k yy = k zz = 4.378 ⋅107 N m , and c yy = c zz = 1.752 ⋅103 Ns m . The geometric data
are given in Table 4.1 [17].
Fig. 4.30
Table 4.1
Outer Inner Outer Inner
Element Length, Element Length,
radius, radius, radius, radius,
no. mm no. mm
mm mm mm mm
1 12.7 5.1 0 10 30.5 12.7 0
2 38.1 10.2 0 11 25.4 12.7 0
3 25.4 7.6 0 12 38.1 15.2 0
4 12.7 20.3 0 13 38.1 15.2 0
5 12.7 20.3 0 14 20.3 12.7 0
6 5.1 30.3 0 15 17.8 12.7 0
7 7.6 30.3 15.2 16 10.2 38.1 0
8 12.7 25.4 17.8 17 30.4 20.3 0
9 7.6 25.4 0 18 12.7 20.3 15.2
The Campbell diagram is shown in Fig. 4.31 for the first six modes of
precession. The damped critical speeds, determined at the intersections with the
synchronous excitation line, are also shown in the diagram.
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 239
Fig. 4.31
Fig. 4.32
240 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The first six precession mode shapes at 50000 rpm are shown in Fig.
4.33.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 4.33
Figure 4.34 shows the unbalance response orbit radius versus speed at
station 15 (right bearing) for an unbalance of 200 g mm on the disc at station 5. In
the considered speed range, there are only two peak response critical speeds at the
frequencies of modes 1F and 2F.
Fig. 4.34
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 241
Example 4.4
A rotor is modeled as a 13 station (12 elements) assembly with stations as
indicated in Fig. 4.35 [18]. It is supported by bearings at stations 3, 6 and 13. The
four rigid discs which represent the fan, the low and high pressure compressors and
the turbine are located at the stations 1, 4, 5, and 12. Details of the rotor
configuration are listed in Table 4.2.
Fig. 4.35
Table 4.2
Outer Inner Outer Inner
Element Length, diameter, diameter, Element Length, diameter, diameter,
no. mm mm mm no. mm mm mm
1 42.9 59 28.4 7 152.4 59 53.8
2 46.0 59 28.4 8 152.4 59 53.8
3 16.0 59 28.4 9 152.4 59 53.8
4 96.8 59 28.4 10 152.4 59 45.2
5 75.2 59 39.2 11 149.8 59 28.4
6 165.1 59 53.8 12 78.0 59 46.2
The shaft has Young’s modulus 2.069 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and mass density
8193 kg m 3 . The disc data are given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3
Polar mass moment Diametral mass
Disc no. Station Mass, of inertia, moment of inertia,
kg
10 2 ⋅ kg m 2 10 2 ⋅ kg m 2
1 1 11.38 19.53 9.82
2 4 7.88 16.70 8.35
3 5 7.7 17.61 8.80
4 12 21.7 44.48 22.44
242 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Table 4.4
Stiffness Damping
Bearing no. Station coefficients, coefficients,
10 −6 ⋅ N m 10 −3 ⋅ N s m
1 3 1.751 1
2 6 96.95 1
3 13 13.368 1
The Campbell diagram is presented in Fig. 4.36 for the first 8 natural
modes. At the crossing points with the synchronous excitation line, the damped
critical speeds are determined as 2807, 3670, 10631, 10841 and 17278 rpm. The
line 3F crosses the lines 4B and 4F.
Fig. 4.36
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 4.37 for the same 8 modes.
The curve 3F has a peak and the curve 4F has a trough at the speed where the
corresponding lines cross each other in the Campbell diagram. The two modes do
not interact.
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 243
Fig. 4.37
The shape of the first six modes of precession at 25000 rpm is shown in
Fig. 4.38.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 4.38
The unbalance response curves calculated at the three bearing stations 3,
6 and 13 are shown in Fig. 4.39, for a 200 g mm unbalance on disc 1.
244 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
a b c
Fig. 4.39
Example 4.5
A uniform shaft (Fig. 4.40) is supported by plain cylindrical bearings at
the ends, at the stations 1 and 9 [19].
Fig. 4.40
Fig. 4.41
The shaft has a material with Young’s modulus 2.068 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and
mass density 7833.6 kg m 3 . The plain cylindrical bearings have length 25.4 mm ,
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 245
Fig. 4.42
Fig. 4.43
The Campbell diagram is presented in Fig. 4.42 for the first 4 natural
modes. Modes 1B and 2B are overdamped and do not show up. Modes 1F and 2F
246 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
follow closely the half-frequency excitation line (lower dotted line). The damping
ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 4.43 for the same 4 modes. For mode 1F it becomes
negative at 9060 rpm, the onset speed of instability.
The shape of the first four modes of precession at 6000 rpm is shown in
Fig. 4.44.
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 4.44
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 247
Fig. 4.45
The stability diagram is shown in Fig. 4.45. At 9060 rpm, mode 1F
becomes unstable. The precession frequency at the onset of instability is very close
to one-half of the rotor speed (lower dotted line in Fig. 4.42), which is
characteristic for the type of instability called ‘oil whirl’ or ‘half-frequency whirl’.
Fig. 4.46
The root locus diagram is presented in Fig. 4.46.
248 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
a b
Fig. 4.47
Example 4.6
Fig. 4.48
Table 4.5
The bearings are located at nodes 3 and 11. The eight bearing dynamic
coefficients are given in Table 4.6 [21] and Fig. 4.49. Note that c yz ≠ c zy !
Table 4.6
n k yy k yz k zy k zz c yy c yz c zy c zz
rpm 10 −9 N m 10-6 Ns m
800 5.17 2.67 0.712 1.4 38.7 7.15 13.7 11.0
1000 4.72 2.55 0.57 1.36 29.7 6.12 11.4 9.44
1300 4.28 2.44 0.422 1.34 22.5 4.97 8.98 7.84
1500 3.90 2.38 0.3 1.33 19.3 4.5 7.75 7.0
1700 3.7 2.32 0.232 1.325 16.76 4.02 6.82 6.52
2100 3.17 2.16 0.0416 1.322 13.25 3.49 5.5 5.86
2600 2.7 2.0 -0.175 1.32 10.34 3.02 4.58 5.49
3000 2.5 1.9 -0.3 1.315 9.0 2.7 4.0 5.25
3400 2.3 1.81 -0.437 1.31 8.08 2.49 3.51 5.08
3500 2.28 1.75 -0.45 1.306 7.8 2.4 3.4 5.0
3600 2.25 1.74 -0.5 1.303 7.65 2.35 3.3 4.9
4000 2.14 1.71 -0.56 1.3 7.0 2.21 2.98 4.81
4200 2.05 1.68 -0.6 1.295 6.7 2.15 2.85 4.65
4500 2.0 1.65 -0.65 1.29 6.4 2.05 2.7 4.5
5000 1.91 1.66 -0.75 1.295 5.9 1.91 2.38 4.37
5500 1.8 1.67 -0.8 1.3 5.45 1.8 2.2 4.2
6000 1.75 1.685 -0.9 1.32 5.1 1.7 2.05 4.0
6600 1.7 1.7 -0.95 1.35 4.63 1.59 1.955 3.84
Fig. 4.49
For the first six modes of precession, the Campbell diagram is shown in
Fig. 4.50. Modes 1B and 2B are overdamped at low rotational speeds.
Fig. 4.50
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 251
Fig. 4.51
The root locus diagram is shown in Fig. 4.52. Curves are labeled with
both the eigenvalue index and the mode index showing the directivity.
Fig. 4.52
252 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Despite the absence of discs on the shaft (no gyroscopic effects), the
damped natural frequencies have a strong variation with the rotor speed, due to the
speed variation of bearing coefficients.
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 4.53
The shape of the first six precession modes at 5576 rpm is shown in Fig.
4.53. Modes 1B and 1F are ‘cylindrical’, while modes 2B and 2F are ‘conical’.
They correspond to the rotor so-called rigid body precession in flexible bearings.
Modes 3B and 3F are ‘two-node flexural’.
Fig. 4.54
Example 4.7 a
Fig. 4.55
Table 4.7
Fig. 4.56
The Campbell diagram is presented in Fig. 4.57 for the first 6 natural
modes. Modes 1B and 2B show up only above 5700 rpm. At the crossing points
with the synchronous excitation line, the damped critical speeds are determined as
549, 2400, 2949, and 4446 rpm.
The first forward mode is denoted 1F∗ because, with increasing rotational
speed, it changes from cylindrical to a two-node flexural mode. The third forward
mode is denoted 3F∗ because it changes from a two-node flexural to an almost
cylindrical mode.
Note again the lines 1F∗ and 2F following closely the synchronous
excitation line.
256 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 4.57
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 4.58 for the same 6 modes.
Fig. 4.58
The shape of the first six modes of precession at 7000 rpm is shown in
Fig. 4.59. Modes 1F∗ and 3F∗ , whose lines intersect in the Campbell diagram, are
in fact almost interchanged.
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 257
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 4.59
Fig. 4.60
258 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Mode 3F∗ becomes unstable at 4876 rpm, where the damping ratio
becomes negative. This can also be seen in the stability diagram from Fig. 4.60,
where curve 3F∗ crosses the zero ordinate line at 4876 rpm.
a b
c d
Fig. 4.61
Fig. 4.62
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 259
Example 4.7 b
An alternate set of simulation results has been obtained for the rotor of
Example 4.7, a using a ten times smaller oil viscosity 9 ⋅ 10 −4 N s m 2 .
The speed dependence of the bearing stiffness and damping coefficients
is shown in Fig. 4.63. The stiffness coefficient k yz has only positive values. This
means that the selected speed range corresponds to relatively low values of the
( )
Sommerfeld number. The difference k yz − k zy being smaller than in the previous
example, the rotor is more stable with these bearings.
a b
Fig. 4.63
The Campbell diagram for the rotor with modified oil viscosity is
presented in Fig. 4.64. The damped critical speeds are located at 2241, 2961, 3551,
4733, 4947 and 5143 rpm. Modes 1B and 2B are overdamped at relatively low
running speeds. The curves of modes 1F and 2F start with slopes higher than the
synchronous excitation line.
260 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 4.64
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 4.65 for the same 6 modes.
There is no negative value in the considered speed range.
Fig. 4.65
a b
c d
Fig. 4.66
The three peaks occur near the natural frequencies of modes 1F, 3B and
3F. The second peak is narrower due to the low damping of mode 3B.
Example 4.8
A rotor test rig, designed for rotor dynamic experiments, is presented in
Fig. 4.67 [23]. The finite element model of the rotor-bearing system is shown in
Fig. 4.68.
The shaft is modeled with 19 axisymmetric beam elements (4
DOFs/node) with consistent mass and gyroscopic matrices. The shaft has a material
with Young’s modulus 2 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and mass density 7850 kg m 3 .
The two discs, located at nodes 6 and 19, and the coupling located at
node 1 have masses 35.19 kg , 61.65 kg , 2.08 kg , respectively, polar mass
moments of inertia 0.6422 kg m 2 , 1.9389 kg m 2 , 0.00208 kg m 2 , and diametral
mass moments of inertia 0.3258 kg m 2 , 0.9789 kg m 2 , 0.00192 kg m 2 .
262 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 4.67
Fig. 4.68
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 263
The two journal bearings, located at nodes 2 and 17, are plain cylindrical,
with length 30 mm , diameter 40 mm , radial clearance 17.5 μm , and oil dynamic
viscosity 0.00345 kg ms . The static loads on bearings are 179.37 N and
925.44 N , respectively.
The speed dependence of the bearing stiffness and damping coefficients,
calculated using Moes’ [5] impedance model, is given in Fig. 4.69.
a b
Fig. 4.69
The Campbell diagram is presented in Fig. 4.70 for the first 6 natural
modes. Modes 1F and 2F are controlled by bearings. The associated backward
modes are overdamped. At the crossing points with the synchronous excitation
line, the damped critical speeds are determined at 847, 1304, 2210, and 2687 rpm.
Fig. 4.70
264 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 4.71 for only four modes.
Fig. 4.71
Mode 3F becomes unstable at 3146 rpm, where the damping ratio
becomes negative. This can also be seen in the stability diagram from Fig. 4.72,
where curve 3F crosses the zero ordinate line at 3146 rpm.
Fig. 4.72
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 265
The shapes of the first six modes of precession at 10000 rpm are shown
in Fig. 4.73.
a b
c d
e f
Fig. 4.73
a b
Fig. 4.74
The root locus diagram for the first six modes is presented in Fig. 4.75, a.
Modes 1F and 2F are highly damped. The root locus diagram for selected four
modes is presented in Fig. 4.75, b. Mode 3F becomes unstable at the point marked
by a circle.
a b
Fig. 4.75
Example 4.9 a
Consider the rotor with three discs from Fig. 4.76 carried by journal
bearings at the ends. The uniform shaft of diameter 80 mm has lengths
l1 = l 3 = 0.3 m , l 2 = l 4 = 0.2 m , Young’s modulus 2 ⋅ 1011 N m 2 and mass
density 8000 kg m 3 . The three identical discs have the following mass and mass
moments of inertia: m = 15 kg, J T = 0.05 kg m 2 , J P = 0.1 kg m 2 .
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 267
Fig. 4.76
a b
Fig. 4.77
The Campbell diagram for the first four natural modes is shown in Fig.
4.78. Curves 1F and 2F start along the synchronous excitation line. Curves 1F and
3F merge at a speed about 2700 rpm, where there is an apparent switching. This is
due to the short bearing approximation and will be explained in Example 4.9 b.
The damping ratio diagram is presented in Fig. 4.79. The curves 1F and
3F cross each other at the speed where their corresponding pairs merge in the
Campbell diagram. The damping ratio of mode 1F becomes negative at 7964 rpm,
268 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
Fig. 4.78
Fig. 4.79
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 269
Fig. 4.80
The stability diagram is shown in Fig. 4.80. The onset speed of instability
is marked at 7964 rpm, where the damping constant becomes positive.
Fig. 4.81
270 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The root locus diagram is shown in Fig. 4.81 for speeds up to 10000 rpm.
Curve 1F crosses the zero damping vertical at the onset speed of instability.
a b c
d e f
Fig. 4.82
Six precession mode shapes at 3000 rpm are shown in Fig. 4.82. Modes
1F and 3F are compounded cylindrical and two-node forward. Mode 2F is
‘conical’. Mode 3B is ‘two-node’ backward. Modes 4B and 4F are three-node
flexural.
a b
Fig. 4.83
Example 4.9 b
Consider the rotor of Example 4.9 a and use Moes’ impedance model [8]
for the calculation of bearing stiffness and damping coefficients.
Fig. 4.84
The Campbell diagram for the first four natural modes is shown in Fig.
4.84. Note that the curves 1F and 3F∗ are clearly separated now.
Fig. 4.85
272 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The damping ratio diagram is shown in Fig. 4.85. Curves 1F and 3F∗ are
crossing each other. Curve 1F crosses the zero damping line at 7826 rpm.
Fig. 4.86
The stability diagram is shown in Fig. 4.86. The onset speed of instability
is marked at 7826 rpm, where the damping exponent of mode 1F becomes positive.
Fig. 4.87
The root locus diagram is shown in Fig. 4.87 for speeds up to 10000 rpm.
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 273
{ x } = {Φ } eiωt
where (3.160)
⎧{ y } − i { ys }⎫
{Φ } = ⎨ c
⎧ { yc } ⎫
= ( 1 + iβ ) ⎨ iγ ⎧ { }
ay ⎫
⎬ ⎬ =e ⎨ ⎬.
⎩ { zc } − i { z s }⎭ ⎩− i { z s }⎭ ⎩− i { a z }⎭
The above equation shows that, with appropriate scaling, the elements of
vectors { Φ } become real in the xOy plane and pure imaginary in the xOz plane,
hence the precession modes are planar.
274 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
The rotor deflected line in the xOy plane has a + 900 or − 900 phase shift
with respect to the deflected line in the xOz plane, which corresponds to a quarter
of rotation of the rotor. This implies that, as a phasor, − i { a z } has a 900 phase lag
{ }
with respect to a y . The orbits of the rotor stations are ellipses with axes
coincident with the y-z axes. The inclination angle is either 00 or 900 . By proper
scaling of eigenvectors, the ellipse points at the reference time t = 0 are on the y-
axis, where the phase angle γ = 0 .
{ y } ⎫ ⎧ {a y } ⎫ iγ
{ X } = ⎧⎨ ⎬=⎨ ⎬e . (4.24)
⎩ { z } ⎭ ⎩− i { a z }⎭
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 275
( [ BR (Ω ) ] + i [ BI (Ω ) ] ){ q }eiγ = { f }, (4.26)
Both the eigenvalues λr and the modal vectors {Φ r } are real and speed
dependent. Vectors {Φ r } , referred to as planar response modal vectors, represent
a specific type of precession, in which all stations execute synchronous motions
along elliptical orbits, having the same phase shift γ r with respect to a reference
unbalance plane. Their spatial shape varies with the speed. They are produced only
by the external forcing defined by the planar excitation modal vectors { Fr }
derived from equation (4.27, a):
{ Fr } = 1+ λ2r [ BI ] {Φ r }. (4.30)
{Φ s }T [ BI ] {Φ r } = 0, (r ≠ s ) (4.31)
276 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
{Φ s }T [ BR ] {Φ r } = 0, {Φ s }T { Fr } = 0 .
They can be conveniently normalized so that
{Φ r }T [ BI ] {Φ r } = −sin γ r , (4.32)
{Φ r }T [ BR ] {Φ r } = cosγ r , {Φ r }T { Fr } = 1.
The coordinate transformation
4n
{ q } = ∑ {Φ r } ν r (4.33)
r =1
response; and c) a characteristic phase angle, the same at all stations, between the
response plane and the unbalance plane.
A planar response mode is shown in Fig. 4.88. The orbit axes are along
the coordinate axes. The phase angle γ is measured in the positive direction of
rotational speed Ω , between the point in the plane of unbalance and the point at
t = 0 on the major generating circle. The construction presented in the next section
helps understanding the physical meaning of the characteristic phase angle.
Fig. 4.88
The rotor finite element model has 4n degrees of freedom and is excited
by planar unbalance forces applied at the n rotor stations. At any rotational speed
Ω , there exist 2n independent sets of unbalance distributions, each of which
excites the corresponding planar precession response, in which all points have the
same phase lag with respect to the unbalance plane. The phase angle between the
unbalance and the generating radius is different for each mode. As the rotor speed
changes, so do the characteristic phase angles, planar response vectors and planar
forcing vectors.
At an undamped critical speed, one of the characteristic phase angles
becomes − 900 and the corresponding planar response mode coincides with the
undamped normal mode of precession.
Consider an ellipse with semiaxes a and b, and the angle α between the
major semiaxis and the y-axis. The y1Oz1 coordinate system has the axes along the
ellipse axes.
Fig. 4.89
First, two circles are drawn, with the centre at the origin of the coordinate
system y1Oz1 and radii equal to the ellipse semiaxes. Second, the circles are
intersected with a line O M passing through the origin and which rotates
anticlockwise with an angular speed Ω , equal to the rotor speed.
From the crossing point with the small circle, P1 or P2 , a line is drawn
perpendicular to the Oz1 axis. From the crossing point with the large circle, M, a
line is drawn perpendicular to the Oy1 axis. These two orthogonal lines cross each
other at a point on the ellipse, C1 or C2 .
When the crossing points M and P1 are on the same side of the origin,
point C1 moves along the ellipse in a forward precession. When the crossing points
M and P2 are on both sides of the origin, point C2 has a retrograde motion called
backward precession.
In principal coordinates y1Oz1 , the ellipse is defined by the parametric
equations (3.35). If O D1 is the ellipse vector radius at the reference time t = 0 ,
4. ROTORDYNAMIC ANALYSIS 279
then the phase angle γ 1 defines the position of the generating line ON1 , at t = 0 ,
for forward precession. The phase angle γ 2 defines the position of the generating
line ON 2 , at t = 0 , for backward precession.
Note that the angular frequency of the precession motion is equal to the
angular speed of the generating points M and P1 or P2 on the two circles, and not
to the angular speed of the ellipse vector radius, which is not constant.
Example 4.10
Precession mode shapes at the first six undamped critical speeds are
illustrated in Fig. 4.92. They have been determined from the monophase modal
vectors calculated at the corresponding natural frequency.
References
1. Jackson, Ch., and Leader, M. E., Turbomachines: How to avoid operating
problems, Hydrocarbon Processing, Nov. 1979.
2. Meyer, A., Schweickardt, H., and Strozzi, P., The converter-fed synchronous
motor as a variable-speed drive system, Brown Boveri Rev., Vol.69, No.415,
pp.151-156, 1982.
3. Kellenberger, W., Weber, H., and Meyer, H., Overspeed testing and balancing
of large rotors, Brown Boveri Rev., Vol.63, No.6, pp.399-411, 1976.
4. Hohn, A., The mechanical design of steam turbosets, Brown Boveri Rev.,
Vol.63, No.6, pp.379-391, 1976.
5. API Standard 617, Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas
Industry Services, 1995.
6. API Standard 613, Special-Purpose Gear Units for Refinery Services, 1979.
7. API Standard 612, Special Purpose Steam Turbines for Petroleum, Chemical
and Gas Industry Services, 1995.
8. Childs, D., Moes, H., and van Leeuwen, H., Journal bearing impedance
descriptions for rotordynamic applications, J of Lubrication Technology,
pp.198-219, 1977.
9. Ocvirk, F., Short bearing approximation for full journal bearings, NACA TN
20808, 1952.
10. Someya, T., (ed.), Journal-Bearing Databook, Springer, Berlin, 1988.
11. ISO 1940, Balance Quality of Rotating Rigid Bodies, 1973.
12. Busse, L., and Heiberger, D., Aspects of shaft dynamics for industrial turbines,
Brown Boveri Rev., Vol.67, No.5, pp 292-299, 1980.
13. ISO 7919-2, Mechanical Vibration of Non-Reciprocating Machines -
Measurements on Rotating Shafts and Evaluation Criteria - Part 2: Large Land-
Based Steam Generator Sets, 1996.
14. Scarlat, G., Predicţia stabilităţii rotorilor în diferite tipuri de lagăre
hidrodinamice cu ajutorul analizei modale, Buletinul Conferinţei Naţionale de
Dinamica Maşinilor CDM97, Braşov, 29-31 mai 1997.
282 DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY
15. Lalanne, M., and Ferraris, G., Rotordynamics Prediction in Engineering, 2nd
ed, Wiley, Chichester, 1998, p.125.
16. Radeş, M., Mixed precession modes of rotor-bearing systems, Schwingungen in
rotierenden Maschinen III, (Irretier, H., Nordmann, R. and Springer, H., eds.),
Vieweg, Braunschweig, pp. 153-164, 1995.
17. Nelson, H. D., and Meacham, W. L., Transient analysis of rotor-bearing
systems using component mode synthesis, ASME Paper No.81-GT-110, 1981.
18. Chen, W. J., Rajan, M., Rajan, S. D., and Nelson, H. D., The optimal design of
squeeze film dampers for flexible rotor systems, ASME J. of Mechanism,
Transmission and Automation in Design, Vol.110, pp.166-174, 1988.
19. Lund, J. W., Stability and damped critical speeds of a flexible rotor in fluid-
film bearings, ASME J. of Engineering for Industry, Series B, Vol.96, No.2,
pp.509-517, 1974.
20. Radeş, M., Analiza modală a rotorilor elastici în lagăre cu alunecare, Bul.
Conf. Naţ. Dinamica Maşinilor CDM94, Braşov, 24-25 Nov 1994, pp 17-24.
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Technique et Documentation, Paris, p.40, 1980.
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critical speeds for rotating machines with speed dependent bearing properties,
J. Sound Vib., Vol.213, No.1, pp.139-158, 1998.
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unbalance identification, Proc. 16th Int. Modal Analysis Conf., Santa Barbara,
California, pp.1533-1539, 1998.
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eds.), Vieweg, Braunschweig, pp.105-112, 1997.
Index
Reference frames 69
Rotor 6
− asymmetric 145
− rigid 26
− symmetric 101
Rotor bearing dynamics 22
Routh-Hourwitz criterion 63, 118
Rigid body modes 208
Rotating damping 54
Shaft 26
− bow 66
− mass 131
Sommerfeld number 228
Spiral 48
Spot, heavy 53
− high 53
Stability 59, 142, 227
Stator inertia 217
Steady state precession 49
− response 43
Stiffness coefficients 40
− matrix 59, 75
Symmetric rotors 101
− damped 46
− in flexible bearings 101
− in fluid film bearings 136
− in rigid bearings 40
− undamped 40
Synchronous excitation 88
− precession 44, 52
Threshold speed 113
Turbo-generators 18
Unbalance response 104, 121, 134, 152
− diagrams 50, 225
Undamped critical speed 45, 207
− natural frequency 47
Undamped rotors 40