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CONCRETE BRIDGE DEVELOPMENT GROUP

AN INTRODUCTION TO I , ,

CONCRETE BRIDGES

The Concrere Centre

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CONCRETE 0RlDGE DEVELOPMENT GROUP

AN INTRODUCTION
TO CONCRETE
BRIDGES

The Concrete Centre’”

An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

First published 2006

Q Concrete Bridge Development Group

ISBN 1 904482 26 0

Publishedfor and on behalf of the

Concrete Bridge Development Group by

The Concrete Society

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Surrey GU17 9AB
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Printed by Cromwell Press,Trowbridge, UK.

 An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

CONTENTS
1. ......................................... 5
2. .............................................................................................. 5
3. Aesthetics...................................................................................................................

4. Bridge decks...................................................................................

5. Loading...................................................................

6. ................................................................... 10

7.
8. Material selection.... ................................................................. 14

9.
10. Precast concrete in bridge construction................................................................ 18

11. History of pre-tensioned concrete be

12. Durability and detailing................................ ....................................... 21

13. Construction planning........

14. Inspection and maintenance......................................................................................... 26

15. Health and safety.........................................................................

16. Future t r ~ n d.......................................................

s

17. Further r ....... ...................................................................... 28

Acknowledgement

This publication was kindly supported by The Concrete Centre. Please visit them
a t www.concretecentre.com for further information
An Introduction to Concrete Bridges
 An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

1. INTRODUCTION
Concrete will be found somewhere in all bridges- in thefoundations,
abutments, piers, retaining walls and deck. For a bridge deck's main
supporting members, there may be a choice berween in-situ or
precast concrete, structural steel beams or a combination ofthe two
materials - known as composite construction.

Concrete isversatile.ltcan be cast toany shapesodifficultgeometrical

requirements, such as a bridge with pronounced
can be easily satisfied. Concrete bridges can be d
span/depth ratios, so shallow decks are

2. BRIDGETYPES
There are several basic bridge types that are usually adopted for
the construction of concrete bridges with various combinations of
layout used for the superstructure (deck) and substructure (supports
and foundations).
2.1 Slab bridges
For short spans, the simplest form of bridge deck is a concrete slab.
Slab bridges can be cast in-situ in either reinforced or prestressed
concrete. In longer spans, the self-weight of the slab may be reduced
by using polystyrene void formers in the construction. Solid slab
bridges may also be constructed from precast prestressed concrete
beams - normally invertedT-shaped beams - with in-situ concrete
infill and topping.This form of construction is economical for spans
up to about 18m.
2.2 Beam and slab bridges
Beam and slab bridges are generally constructed of precast
prestressed concrete beams with an in-situ concrete slab. In-situ
beam and slab construction, known as a ribbed deck, is rarely used
now but can be found in older, existing bridges.
Beam and slab bridges are economical for spans from 12m to
36m, but the span may be limited by the length of beam that it is
permissible to transport. In the UK this is normally 30m. Beyond this
a special order is required from the Department for Transport,which
permits lengths up to 40m when the beams are transported to
motorway sites via the motorway network. Longer-span box beams
can be cast in-situ and post-tensioned.
A series of spans Over several piers can be constructed as an'integral'
bridge, without movement joints. In this type of bridge, either in-
situ concrete or precast concrete beams can be used, with the joints

.%;p
Figure 1: Slab bridge on A30, Bagshot, Surrey Figure 2: Beam and slab bridge at Oyster Creek, Gambia
An Introductionto Concrete Bridges
between the precast beams filled with in-situconcrete.The deck may
be supported by elastomeric bearings at the piers, and longitudinal
movements are resisted by dowels or anchors. Alternatively the
beams may be cast into the pier structure.This arrangement, without
any movement joints, has typically been used for bridge structures
with overall lengths of up to loom, although longer lengths are
possible. It has become popular because of the problems caused
by the penetration of water and de-icing salts through movement
joints in other forms of construction.
2.3 Framed bridges
Slabs and abutments are often connected monolithicallyto form a
portal-frame.This type of construction is usually cast in-situ and can
be used instead of slab, or beam and slab bridges. As with integral
bridges, there are advantages to be gained by avoiding movement
joints.
For short spans, a concrete culvert can be used as a simple form of
framed bridge. Box-shaped reinforced concrete culverts are suitable
for spans of up to 6m and the units can be precast.
2.4 Concrete arches
Arched solutions are ideally suited to utilise the principal qualities
of concrete working in compression as long as height clearance
considerations below can be fully satisfied. The behaviour of the
arch will depend on the rigidity of the foundations and the type
of backfill used. In-situ cancr poured on formwork is normally
used for longer-span monolithic arches, whereas precast concrete is
available for short-span two- or three-pinned arches from specialist
manufacturers. Arch bridges should be an aesthetically pleasing
solution where the site layout and foundation conditions permit.
Figure 3: Arch bridge - Scammonden. M62. Yorkshire
2.5 Integralbridgesand continuous construction
Concern over the durability of bridges constructed using movement
joints has encouraged the use of integral bridges, especially for
highway structures.These are bridges built without movement joints
in the carriageway surface and may also avoid the need for bearings.
In the UK all highway bridges less than 60m in overall length and
less than 30"skew must be built using integral principles in order to
maximise their performance and durability (BA42/96 The Design of
10
will affect the substructures and vice versa, so a full appreciation of
their interactive behaviour needs to be understood.
Continuity is the structural connection of adjacent spans of a bridge
to eiiminate joints in the deck between spans. Continuity is usually
provided to carry imposed loads more efficiently and to avoid
maintenance problems associated with expansionjoints. All spans of
a bridge - not only at intermediate supports but also betweendecks
and aburments - are thus connected together longitudinally.
2.6 Long-span bridges
The use of a fully supported soffit using formwork for long-span in-
situ concrete bridges is expensive, and may also be difficult. These
bridgesareoftenconstructed incrementallyusingtravelling formwork
or concrete sections cast on stationary formwork, with the bridge
pushed out from the abutments - a system known as'incremental
launching'.These bridges are frequently post-tensioned.
Segmental bridges are made from precast concrete units, stressed
together with strands or bars. The units are normally counter-cast
against each other to ensure a good fit, then glued together in-
situ. Spans can be built out from the abutments and from the piers.
When building out from a pier, rhe deck is often cantilevered in both
directions so that the sections under construction balance each
other. The n is usually cellular or box shaped, with the
deck slab c out transversely on either side.
Bridges with spans of over 250m may be designed as arches, or
as suspension or cable-stayed bridges. Arches have been used
successfully for spans of up to 400m.
Suspension and cable-aayed bridges may have concrete decks,
either of in-situ concrete - constructed using travelling formwork
- or precast concrete segments stressed together. In these bridges
the primary means of deck support is achieved using suspension
cables and hangers.
 An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

3. AESTHETICS
Bridge appearance is as important as economical and efficient expressed in the deck support structure (bankseats, abutments, piers
design. Concrete is a very versatile material that can be moulded and and crossheads), the edge of deck treatment and in the combined
finished in a variety of forms to give the desired effect. Bridges are overall effect of structure with landscape.
often designed to last 100 years or more, so it is essential that they
are integrated into the environment in a manner that complements Visual effects can be created, contrasting deck edges with shadow
and enhances the surroundings. lines or by varying the ratio of deck-edge cantilever or string-course
depth to overall deck thickness. Continuous decks can be designed
Overall appearance can be subjective but general advice is available with shallower elevations that are pleasing to the eye. Special
in documents such as BD41 The Design and Appearance ofBridges concrete finishes and textures are also possible, especiallywhere the
published by the Highways Agency, which encourages designers to public will pass close to the structure.
aim for slender decks in relation to the headroom, balanced span
openings and minimisingthe bulk of the end supports.
Even with standard prestressed bridge beams, there is ample
opportunity for the designer to influence the appearance of
bridges utilising precast concrete components. Individualitycan be

4. BRIDGE DECKS
In the great majority of modern bridges a concrete deck slab
provides the structural support for the asphalt running surface. The
thickness of the concrete slab will vary, depending upon the form of
bridge deck that supports it.The deck is defined as that part of the
superstructure that spans longitudinallybetween supports.

Reinforcedconcrete Voided slab Precast beam and

solid slab in-situ slab deck

Multi cell Single cell

box section box section

Figure 5: Typical deck sections

11
 -
An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

4.1 Deck types

For short spans a solid reinforced concrete slab, cast in-situ, is the
simplest and most cost-effective solution.The flat soffit of the in-situ
reinforced concrete makes the formwork, fixing of reinforcement
and concreting very simple with a corresponding reduction in cost.

pans increase, there will be a need to increase the reinforcement

introduce some prestressing; the deadweight of the deck
itself can be reduced by introducing voids within the slab using
polystyreneformers.They are usually of circular section to enable the
concrete to flow under them to the deck soffit. It is
however,that thesevoidformers are firmly held in po
flotation and that the concrete under the voids is well compacted.
Figure 6: Medway Bridge - In-situ balanced cantilever bridge
Reinforced concrete voided slabs are more economical than the
prestressed concrete alternative up to about 25m span. The exact
change-over point depends on comparative costs of reinforcement
and prestressingat the time of construction.

If the location of the bridge does not suit in-situ slab construction
then precast pre-tensioned concrete beams may be used. Inverted
T-beams placed side by side and infilled with concrete provide an
alternative to the in-situ reinforced concrete slab.

For longer spans, beams and slab construction is used with a 200- I
250mm concrete deck slab supported on precast pre-tensioned
beams spaced at 1.0-2.0m centres.
Precast beam construction utilises high quality, factory-made
components that can be quickly erected on
Figure 7: Launched deck,Taiwan High Speed Rail
particularly useful when bridging over live
waterways where interruptions to traffic must be minimised. The
standard beams currently in use are the M, U, Y and super Y beams
which can be used for spans up to 40m. Detailed information may
be obtained from the Prestressed Concrete Association (see www.
britishprecast.org) or its member companies. 1

4.2 Construction methods for longer spans

The span-by-span method of construction is used in multi-span
viaducts with individualspans of up to 80m.A span plus a cantilever
of about one-quarter the next span is first constructed.This is then
tressed and the falsework is moved forward and a full span
length is then formed and stressed back to the previous cantilever.
In-situconstruction is used for smaller spans.
As the spans increase, the cost of falsework also increases. To Figure 8: Segmental construction
minimise this, the weight of the concrete to be supported at any
one time IS reduced by dividing the deck into transverse segments.
These segments, which can be in-situ or precast, are normally
erected on either side of each pier to form balanced cantilevers and
then stressed together. Further segments are then added, extending
the cantilever to midspan where a small closure is formed of in-situ
constructionto make the spans continuous. In precast construction,
the segments are match-cast against one another and jointed with
epoxy resin before being stressed together.

Straight or curved bridges of single radius and of constant cross-

section may be built in short lengths from one end and incrementally
launched. Completed sections are pushed off the casting bed, with
the whole deck travelling forward and propelling the leading face
towards the next support.

Cable-stayed bridges are normally built using a form of precast

segmental cantilever construction, successively building out from
the support towers. Figure 9: Span by span construction - A16, Brebant, Holland

12
 An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

p
ll $:
a
Figure 10 Incremental launch - Ceirog Viaduct, N o r t h Wales
7
-
Figure 11: Incremental launch Pushing ram, Medway Bridge

1 4.3 Span ranges for concrete bridges

Figure 13 below illustrates the range of spans that may be achieved
using various types of concrete construction.

t I

Figure 13: Span ranges for concrete bridges

IN SITU RC solid slab

I
RC voided slab

Prestressed voided slab

(Internalbonded)

Incremental launching

Span by span
(Supported on launching truss)

Span by span
(Supported on scaffolding)

Segmental balanced cantilever

Arches

Inverted T beams cast into slab

PRECAST
M, U and Y beams with deck slab

-
Segmental balanced cantilever
(erected by Crane)

Segmental balanced cantilever

(erected by liftinggantry)

Cable stayed bridges by

1 I
balanced cantilever I I I I 1 I
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

- Definite range - Possible range extension

13
An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

5. LOADING
Whether the bridge is carrying a road, railway, waterway or just
pedestrians the deck will be subjected to various types of load:

rnSelf-weight
W Environmental,e.g. wind, snow, temperature effects
rn Traffic
rn Accidental loads, e.g. impact
rn Temporary loads, e.g. during construction or maintenance.

Bridges in the UK are generally designed in accordance with British

Standard BS 5400, which gives details of the load combinations to
be used for various bridge applications. Additional standards are
published by the HighwaysAgency and Network Rail to supplement
British Standards Many of these standards are being upgraded to
Eurocodes and in time these will state the basic requirements for
bridges in the UK and other European member states. Specific
requirements will be incorporated into a National Annex.

6. ANALYSIS
The analysis of a bridge should be undertaken by a designer who
has received sufficient training and experience. The method of
analysis selected should be appropriate to the type of bridge being
considered. On many concrete bridges the bending moments and
shears resulting from the application of traffic load on a bridge
deck are not necessarily carried by just the portion of bridge deck
immediately under the load. When the affected area deflects, the
deck bends transversely and twists, thereby spreading load to either
side.The assessment of load that is shared in this way and the extent
to which it is spread across the deck depends on the bending, torsion
and shear stiffness of the deck in both longitudinal and transverse
directions. Computer methods are generally used to analyse the load
effects.The most versatile of these is the grillage analysis, which treats
the deck as a two-dimensional series of beam elements in both the
longitudinal and transverse directions.This method can be used for
slab, beam and slab-and-voidedslab decks where the cross-sectional
area of voids does not exceed 60% of the area of the deck.

Box girders are now generally designed as one or two cells without
any transverse diaphragms.These are usually quite stiff torsionally but
can distort under load giving rise to distortionaland warping stresses
in the walls and slabs of the box. It is then necessary to use three-
dimensional analytical methods such as 3D space frame, folded plate
(for decks of uniform cross-section)or a 3D finite element method.

14
 An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

7. SUBSTRUCTURES AND FOUNDATIONS

IL Y

Figure 14: Substructures - MZO, Maidstone, Kent

A bridge is supported a t the ends on abutments and may have
intermediate piers. Both abutments and piers are usually constructed
from reinforced concrete. The positions of the supports and the
lengthsofthe spansaredetermined bythe topographyoftheground
and the need to ensure unimpeded traffic under the bridge.
Piers and abutments carry high loads, and their foundations
may require piling. The design and method of construction of
the foundation will depend upon the ground and groundwater
conditions.
The effects of the construction of the bridge on the progress of
other parts of the work, such as earth moving, must also be taken
into account. The substructure must be designed so that it can be
constructed as quickly and easily as possible: the emphasis should
be on simplicity and 'buildability: which will invariably contribute
to economy. A t the same time, the substructure must have an
attractive appearance which is in keeping with the bridge and its
surroundings.

The substructure of a bridge is particularly a t risk from damage

caused by flooding, overflows from blocked drains, freezing and
7.1 Thesite
thawing weather conditions, and exposure to de-icing salts from On restricted sites the choice of substructure is often controlled by
sprayed or leaking water.The concrete in the substructure must be the space available and the plant that can be used. In particular,
capable of resisting all forms of attack. Design for durability is vital. large-bored piles and raking piles require a considerable amount of
space. Overhead power lines can seriously restrict the use of plant.
The design of the substructure and foundation requires an
The interaction of construction with existing traffic is an essential
understanding of the interaction between the substructure and the
factor in the design of the work. If it is possible to acquire additional
ground on which it is to be built and the structure to be supported. A
land for construction, this may be cheaper than the cost of delay
thorough site investigationshould be carried out. However, it may not
caused by extending the programme.
be possible to obtain precise information about the soil conditions,
in which case the designer must make sound judgements based on Groundwater conditions will affect the design: for example, it may
the data that can be obtained. not be possible to lower the water table due to the effect it might
have on the stability of neighbouring structures. In this case it will
The cost of the substructure is often greater than that of the
be necessary to construct the foundation under water, and this may
superstructure, and it is important to carry out the bridge design
require the design to be in mass concrete rather than reinforced
as a whole rather than allow the design of the deck to impose
concrete.
unnecessary restraints on the design of the substructure. Many
bridges are designed to be continuous structures that are integral
with the abutments: for such bridges the deck and the substructure
have to be designed together.

15
An Introduction to Concrete Bridges
\I \ \
Figure 15: Boring rig
7.2 Site investigation
The purpose of the site investigation is to provide informationabout
the soil profile and groundwater conditions across the site. The
extent of the investigation will depend upon the nature of the site
and the type of structure to be built. Trial pits and deep boreholes
will provide a general picture of the ground and groundwater
conditions. A more detailed study of samples from boreholes and
in-situ tests in trial pits will give further information, but it should be
borne in mind that the precise position of the foundations may not
be known at the time the survey is carried out. All ofthe information
obtained must be carefully examined and interpretedinto data to be
used for the design.
7.3 Foundations
The choice of foundation for an abutment or a pier is normally
between a spread footing and piling. Where ground conditions
permit, the spread footing will provide a simple and economic
solution. Excavations for foundations should be left open for as short
a time as possible before the concrete is placed in order to limit
ground disturbance.
Piling will be needed where the ground conditions are poor
and cannot be improved, the bridge is over a river or estuary, the
water table is high or site restrictions prevent the construction of a
spread footing. It is sometimes possible to improve the ground by
consolidating, grouting or applying a surcharge by constructingthe
embankments well in advance of the bridge structure.
Differential settlement of foundations needs to be controlled, and
the construction sequence will have an effect on settlements. In the
early stages of construction, abutments may settle more than piers
but piers will settle later when the deck is constructed.
7.4 Abutments
The overall appearance ofa bridgestructure is very much dependent
on the abutments and piers.
The structural design of the abutments is closely related to that
of the bridge deck, and for an integral bridge the structure must
16
be designed as a whole. Abutments are usually constructed of
reinforced concrete but, in suitable circumstances, mass concrete
without reinforcement may provide a simple and durable form of
construction.
If the deck is constructed before the main excavation is carried out,
contiguous bored piles or diaphragm walling can be used to form
an abutment wall.The cost of this type of wall construction is high,
but can be offset against savings in the amount of land required, the
construction time, the cost of temporary works and by minimising
the disruption to traffic. A facing of in-situ or precast concrete or
blockwork will normally be required after exca
earth construction may be suitable where there is an embankment
behindthe abutment,and here precastconcrete facing is often used.
Replacement of the ties during the life of the structure is difficult so
the selection of appropriate ties and fixings is very important.
Where a bridge is constructed over a cutting it is usually possible to
form a bankseat abutment on firm undisturbedground.Alternatively,
bankseats may be constructed on piledfoundations. However,where
bridges over motorwaysare designed to allow for future widening of
the carriageway, the abutment may be taken down t
that it can be exposed at a later date when the widening is carried
out.
Figure 16: Skelton Bridge 12A, Cleveland, showing abutments and
wingwalls
7.5 Wingwalls
The design of wingwalls is determined by the topography of the
site and can have a major effect on the appearance of the bridge.
Wingwalls are often taken back at an angle from the face of the
abutment for both economy and appearance.
On integral bridges wingwalls should be aligned parallel with the
span direction and this has the benefit of minimisingsoil pressures.
In-situ concrete is normally used, but precast concrete retaining wall
units are available from precast concrete manufacturers. Concrete
crib walling is also used for the construction of wingwalls and its
appearance makes it particularly suitable for rural situations. Filling
ted carefully to ensure that it does not flow
out, and the fill must be properly drained.
It is important to limit the differential settlement between the
abutment and the wingwalls. This problem can be overcome by
cantilevering wingwalls from the abutment or by supporting the
whole structure on one foundation. If movement joints are selected
then detailing should either include some form of shear connection
or incorporate some means of disguising relative movement.

Figure 17: Piers - Docklands Light Railway, London
7.6 Piers
The simplest and most economic bridge pier is a vertical member
or group of members with a uniform cross-section Sections can
be recrangular, square, circular or elliptical The shaping of piers
hetically pleasing but complex shapes will
increase the cost unless considerable re-use of forms is possible
Standardisation of shapes and sizes for several bridges in the same
contract leads to economy The durability of concrete in the piers will
be helped if the design is simple, the detailing good and the deck
overhangs the pier
Raking piers and abutments may help to reduce the span for high
ges but they do require expensive temporary propping and
support structures This complicates the construction pro
considerably increases costs
7.7 Design considerations for substructures
The design of the substructure, as for any structure, must ensure
stability, structural safety and serviceability
It usual to assume that an acceptable amount of movement of
is
an abutment or wingwall will occur, and this is taken into account
in the design. Normally the backfill is a free-draining material and
the wall has a satisfactory drainage system built inro the structure
if these conditions are not satisfied then higher design pressures
An Introduction to Concrete Bridges
must be used If fill is to be compacted behind the abutment then
due allowance must be made for the pressure due to compaction
Traffic loading and vibration caused by traffic must also be taken
into account If bankseat abutments are used, their stability against
slipping must be checked carefully The calculated resistance in
front of the toe of a wall should be ignored if there i s a possibility of
excavation in this area for drainage or utilities
Creep, shrinkage and temperature movements in the bridge
superstructure can create for the abutments, and these must
be determined Differential s ent is a factor to be considered
Piers and, to a lesser extent, abutments are vulnerable to impact
loads from vehicles or shipping and must be designed ro resist
impact or be protected from it Substructuresof bridges over rivers
and estuaries are subjected to scour and lateral forces due to water
flow, unless properly protected
It is difficult to accurately predict bridge settlement by calculation
and any predictions uld be compared with a study of case
histories of structures on similar ground The design of a bridge to
control differential settlement may the foundations being
larger than those required solely for
The durability of the substructure will be improved by proper
considerationbeing given to all aspects of its design and construction
Careful selection of materials and mixes for the concrete, the design
and detailing of the structure to prevent damage due to water and
de-icing salts, and supervision and control of the qualrty of the work
are all essential for durability
17
An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

8. MATERIAL SELECTION

8.1 Ready-mixed concrete 8.2 Why use ready-mixed concrete?

Concrete has been a major construction material since Roman times
and remains so today Originally,all the ingredients (cement,fine and
coarse aggregates and water) were mixed on the building site In
the 193Os, however, the idea of mixing a t a dedicated off-site plant
and delivering to local sites was first originated It was the birth of
an industry that developed rapidly and soon became recognised
throughout the world
Established in the UK since the 19505, the ready mixed concrete
industry offers nationwide coverage from approximately 1,200
batching plants All major suppliers are certified with organisations
such as the Quality Scheme for Ready Mixed Concrete (QSRMC),an
independent assessment organisation approved by the National
Accreditation for Certification Bodies (NACB) This ensures that the
customer will receive a consistent, quality product that will meet the
specification and be fit for the purpose intended, providing that it is
placed, compacted, cured and protected to the required standards
-l
Concrete is a basic construction material consisting mainly of
naturally occurring materials but i t s production in large volumes to
meet rigorous modern specifications requires considerableexpertise
and experience While it is possible to mix it on site, ready-mixed
concrete is now used in all but exceptional circumstances for the
following reasons
Design options enhanced
Pre-sales advice on mix design and the concreting operation
Production and technical support under the control of
dedicated and experienced professionals
Independent verification provides external assurance that the
quality of concrete supplied conforms with that ordered
w Coordinated and flexible supply in terms of quantity, rate and
back-up facilities, normally via a central despatch office that
coordinates all deliveries in a defined area
w Increased site space
Availability of up-to-date technology, materials and plant
Increased speed of construction.

Figure 18: Typical pour

I -711
-
U
II I

/
1

_-M
I
Figure 19: Modern ready-mixed concrete plant tigure LU: lypical ready-mixed concrete delivery truck

18
 An Introductiont o Concrete Bridges

Foundations

Figure 21: Diagram of main bridge components

of paramount importance. The high compressive strength, the

8.3 Ready-mixed concrete in bridges
More than one million cubic metres of ready-mixed concrete are
used every year in bridge constru n throughout the UK. They
are usually high-profile structures and are very visible in many
landscapes.
The aesthetic qualities of a bridge are of environmental significance
both in terms of its design and the appearance of the large areas
of concrete that are normally visible. Such considerations are very
much in the minds of approval bodies and local planning offices
when bridges are first planned and then designed. The use of
concrete offers many alternatives in shape, form, colour and type of
surface finish.
The use of ready-mixed concrete guarantees that these high
resistance to fire and impact, the adaptability to meet various
structural and environmental demands by using specialist materials
and mix designs, are all typical examples of h
contribute tothe longevity ofa bridge structure.Th
can also be used to good effect, when necessary, in the repair and
maintenance of a bridge over its lifetime.
8.4 Specification of concrete mix
The flexibility that it offers both designer and contractor is an
important factor in meeting these demands. A typical mix for use
throughout bridge construction (refer to BS 8500) could be C40/50
- a design mix which gives a compressive cylinder strength of

standards can be achieved and that is why it plays such a prominent
role. It has been used in all modern bridges including major structures
such as Second Severn Crossing, Skye Bridge, the Dee Crossing and
the new Medway Bridges on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link and A2/
M2 Motorway improvement.
Bridge exposure to all weather conditions and heavy traffic usage is
the ultimate test for concrete performance. The consistent quality
of ready-mixed concrete helps to provide the best solution to the
variety of demands placed upon it.
Bridges are normally designed for a 120-year lifespan and the
durability of the structure and all of its components are therefore
40N/mm2 and a compressive cube strength of 50N/mrn2 after
28 days. Nevertheless, different components of the bridge may
need individual variations to aid placement, or to meet end-use
requirements,while still meeting the specified strength, e.g.:
Piles - higher workability is required
W Deck - the use of an air-entraining agent may be required to
increase frost resistance.
All of these mix variations can be easily accommodated by a ready-
mixed concrete supplier.

concrete type uses in wage construction I

I
HIGH STRENGTH b6ONIMM’) Significantly increased span-to-depthratio allowing thinner beam I
I sections I
I I
SELF-COMPACTING To provide increased”flow”characteristics to ease placement in areas of dense I
reinforcement or difficult access, e.g. voided deck-slab, whilst producing
dense uniform concrete without any need for compaction

~
I
LIGHTWEIGHT The use of lighter fly-ash aggregates for superstructure concrete produces
less loadina. and therefore smaller foundation are needed
~~ ~~~ ~

LOW DENSITY E.G. FOAMED, Free-flowing concrete for non-structural uses, e.g.backfill for abutments and
I
HIGHLY AIR-ENTRAINED retailing walls
MASS Normally low cement-content for large foundations and bases or backfill

PUMPED Designed mix normally with increased fines to allow concrete to be placed
by a specialist pump

19
An Introductionto Concrete Bridges
~ ~ ~~

8.5 Grouts
Specially designed grouts are used within ducts in post-tensioned
bridges to protect the steel strand from corrosion. These should
comply with The Concrete Society Technical Report 47 (see Further
Reading). The use of pre-measured and mixed materials should be
the first choice for quality, but this does not exclude combinations of
controlled materials on the basis that the quality of the end product
is the important factor to ensure adequate protection of prestressing
tendons.

8.6 Admixtures
A variety of chemical admixtures can be included in concrete mixes
to provide buildability benefits and to meet specific demands, for
example:

Air-entraining agent - increased frost resistance

Plasticiser - improved flow characteristics(easier placement)
W Accelerator - early high strength (to counter time constraints)

Colouring pigments and special aggregatescan be used for aesthetic Figure 23: Reinforcement River Leen Bridge, Nottingham
purposes

8.7 Reinforcement
Most structural concrete is reinforced, normally with steel bars or
fabric It is essential to ensure that such reinforcement is adequately
protected by a minimum cover of good quality concrete to counter
the varied climatic conditions experienced in the UK

A new generation of non-ferrous products is becoming available to

replace steel with the aim of increasing the durability of concrete
structures Because of their exposure to climate and de-icing
salts, bridge design and construction is a t the forefront of such
technology

Without adequate protection, steel in bridges may corrode,

particularly in countries like the UK where de-icing salts are used
during the winter months Hence, careful consideration must be
given to the protection of reinforcement and prestressing tendons Figure 2 4 Non -ferrous reinforcement
The type of concrete must be correctly selected and the degree
of exposure may demand the use of stainless steel reinforcement,
especiallyon parapetedge beamsor in thevicinityofdeck movement
joints Prestressing tendons may be galvanised in addition to other
layers of corrosion protection

20
 An Introduction to Concrete Bridges

9. PRE-TENSIONED AND POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE

There are two main types of prestressed concrete
9.1 Pre-tensioned concrete
Steel tendons are stressed by jacks anchored to fixed blocks in the
casting yard. Concrete is then placed in moulds or casting beds
tendons When the concrete has hardened sufficiently,
the tendons are released. As they try to returnto their original length,
large compressive forces are applied to the concrete.
This process is nearly always carried out in a factory environment
and is the usual way of manufacturing precast prestressed bridge
beams.
Traditionally, post-tensioned bonded tendons have relied on
cement grouting for protection. However, inadequate detailing
and workmanship in the past have led to corrosion of tendons,
the condition of which cannot be monitored. Th
internal unbonded tendons or external tendons, the condition of
which can be monitored ny time, are currently preferred to the
bonded type.
Unbonded tendons are normally protected by placing them in
ducts, which are subsequently filled with grease or wax. Alternatively,
external tendons can be left exposed, but cted by galvanising
or epoxy coating.

9.2 Post-tensioned concrete

For this type of construction, normally associated with in-situ
concrete, the tensioning forces are applied to the tendons after
the concrete is placed and hardened. Ducts are incorporated into
the formwork and the concrete is placed around them. After the
concrete has hardened, the stressing tendons are threaded through
the ducts and are stressed using jacks. A special grout is injected into
the ducts around the tendons to provide bond and protection from
corrosion Post-tensioning is mainly carried out on site although it
has been used for special precast beams.

Stage 1 -Concrete cast with tendons in duct

Staae 1 -Tendons are tensioned and anchored

I
I
Stage 2 -Tendons tensioned after concrete has hardened
Stage 2 -Concrete is placed I

Stage 3 - Tendons are released and force is Stage 3 -Tendons secured at anchorages
transferred to concrete x

Prestressing using pre-tensioned Prestressing using post-tensioned

tendons internal tendons

I
Figure 25: Pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete

21
4n Introductionto Concrete Bridges
10. PRECAST CONCRETE IN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
The use of precast concrete is both widespread and effective in
modern bridge construction Many modern bridges are constructed
with both in-situ and precast concrete.
10.1 What is precast concrete?
Precast concrete IS manufactured away from the construction site, In
an efficient factory environment to very high standards and without
any concerns about adverse weather The quality ofthe concrete can
be tightly controlled and the formwork and steel reinforcement or
prestressing tendons can be prepared and positioned to extremely
high tolerances. After it has been poured, the concrete can be
cured effectively, again without interference from the weather, to
maximise its performance (especially its durability) and appearance.
Importantly, it can be stored and delivered to site a t precisely the
right time in the construction programme
10.2 Why use precast concrete?
Guarantee of high-quality concrete and durability
Exceptionalstandards of dimensional tolerance
Excellent surface finishes
Rapid construction
w More space on site
Avoidance of falsework
10.3 Where can precast concrete be used?
Precast concrete can be used in almost all parts of a bridge structure.
The use of precast piles is quite common and demand is growing for
precast units in abutments but its most widespread use is in the deck
support structure, in the form of prestressed beams, and as parapets
and string courses.
~~
Figure 2 6 Precast beams in position
22
10.4 Durability of prestressed bridge beams
Joints in decks area common cause of problems in all types of bridge.
A survey of 200 concrete highway bridges commissioned by the
Department ofTransport highlighted the problems of reinforcement
corrosion by water carrying de-icing salts leaking through joints or
being splashed onto the reinforced concrete elements of decks and
substructures.
The survey showed that the prestres
comparison, had performed extremely we1
w Quality of construction (the required cover to reinforcement IS
more easily achieved in prestressed concrete and so there is less
chance of corrosion)
Prestressed beams are constructed with high-strength concrete
(60-80Nlmm2 at 28 days) with low waterkement ratios. The
waterkement ratio is generally specified to be less than 0.45,
but values below 0.4 are frequently achieved through the use of
efficient plasticisers and water-reducing agents
10.5 Handling and transportation of beams
Great care must be taken to ensure the prestressed concrete beams
are stable during handling, transportation, storage and erection.
Transporting long-span beams by road from factory to sire is a
routine operation although careful planning is essential.
It is advisable to strengthen the longer SY beams and provide a
supporting frame to enhance safety and stability during erection
and transportation. Manufacturers will generally offer full support
and advice
Figure 2 7 Delivery of a precast beam
 An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

10.6 Deck edges and parapets 10.8 Replacement rail bridges

The edges of decks require special beams to provide a vertical or
inclined edge face and to support steel or aluminium parapets.
These beams are manufactured in precast concrete to match the
beams used for the deck, for example UM beams.
Parapets are often manufactured in precast concrete and the high
containment situation is a common requirement for railway bridges.
The vertical faces can also be given an architectural appearance by
using a variety of treatments and surface finishes.
Replacement bridges spanning over or carrying railway lines are
ideally suited for the use of precast concrete due to the limited
railway possession time available. Site operations can be reduced
to a minimum as a trial erection can be carried out off site and the
major components marked with guide-lines to facilitate the actual
site erection.

10.7 Culverts and arches

Precast concrete culverts and arches can be used to replace
underbridges carrying minor roads, services and rivers. They can be
installed speedily and economically to provide a durable option.

I?
i
I

1.

Figure 28: Precast box culvert section

L
Figure 29: Precast arch sections

23
An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

11. HISTORY OF PRE-TENSIONED CONCRETE BEAMS IN BRIDGES

The first pre-tensioned beams for use in the UK were manufactured
in 1940 to meet the demand for emergency bridge construction
during the Second World In the mid 19505, at the start of the
major road building programme, the precast industry really began
to develop, mainly through the work of the Cement and Concrete
Association (C&CA) and the Prestressed Concrete Development
Group.
I constructionor, more simply, in beam-and-slab construction.
MY BEAMS M BEAMS
A major innovation was the range of prestressed invertedT-beams
for 7-1 5m spans.These were often used with an in-situ concrete infill
to form a solid, composite deck slab.
s, demand for longer-span bridges over two- and three-
lane carriageways, spanning 15m-26m and 26m-35n-1, respectively,
led to the introduction of I-beams and box sections. There were
technical deficiencies with these and a clear need was identified
for a standard beam for use in the 15m-29m span range. In 1969,
following work by the C K A and the Ministry of Transport, the M-
beam was born and it e the flagship for the next 20 years.
M-beams were often U 1.0m centres in either pseudo box
Further developments in rhe mid 197Os,saw the introduction of the
U-beam, which was especiallysuitable for skew decks, the UM beam,

TEE
U UM

BEAMS
ge beam on M-beam decks, and the wide box beam.

These new beams catered for the increasing demand through to the
Between 1965 and 1982, nearly 7,000 road bridges
of which were in e and more than half of
the benefits of economy

1 U
and ease-of-use of standard precast beams.

At the end of the 198

reinforcement in the re
Y BEAMS U BEAMS
beams due to ingress of
(PCA), an association
addressed this problem and, in 1991, unveiled the Y beam. Not only
did it cater for the same span range (15m-29m) but it also proved
in modern integral, or jointless, bridges.The YE beam
o serve as an edge beam for Y-beam bridge decks.
Development continuedwith the SY beam cateringforthe motorway
widening programme in the 199Os, which required spans of over
35m in some cases. The TY replaced the invertedT beam as it
offered technical advantages such as improved shear capacity and
thicker concrete cover to the reinforcement.

Figure 3 0 Typical beam sections

I
Figure 31: Typical deck section

24
 An Introductionto Concrete Bridqes

12. DURABILITY AND DETAILING

The speed and cost of construction and the durability of any bridge
are greatly affected by the attention paid to details. Details that are
determined solely by the desire to reduce quantities of materials
used, often by small amounts, may result in disproportionately large
increases in construction costs and may have an adverse effect on
durability.
Simplicity and standardisation are the keys to success. One example
of a situation where simplicity of construction is preferred is in the
use of a wider base on a level formation, to provide stability against
sliding, rather than inclining the formation or providing a shear key.
The excavation for a shear key or an inclined formation will increase
the cost of construction and, in the case of the shear key, may well
disturb the ground that is required to resist the sliding action.
Walls must be designed to allow access for concreting: details such
as inclines to the faces, curvature on plan and heights that change
along the length, will make it more difficult to place the concrete
and achieve a good finish. Attractive concrete surfaces are often
difficult to form in-situ, and the use of precast facings may provide a
better quality finish.
Restrictions on sizes of pour and position of construction joints can
adversely affect the programme for concreting. Such restrictions may
be necessary to control movements ofthe concrete but they should
suit the sizes of formwork panel and the construction proceduresto
be employed.
Bearing shelves at the top of abutments must be detailed with
adequate drainage, on the assumption that water will get in.
Drainage channels and down pipes must be accessible for cleaning,
and many designers locate the drainage channels in front of the
bearings for ease of access. Drainage of the backfill behind an
abutment requires careful attention to detailing of the drainage
system Free-draining granular material is not always available for
backfill and less permeable materials may have to be used. The
effects on earth pressures must be taken into account in the design,
and the drainage system must be planned to suit.
Good design detailing will make construction easier, enhance
durability and also permit easier inspection and maintenance.Typical
examples are:
12.1 Bridge bearings
Bearings transfer the loads from an independent deck to its supports.
All bridge decks deflect under load, so the bearings must be able to
accommodate the small rotations at the supports. They must also
accommodate the horizontal movements of the bridge deck caused
by temperature changes, shrinkage and creep, and the shortening
caused by prestress. Some bearings allow horizontal movement in
one direction only and are restrained in th her, while others allow
movement in any direction.
Elastomeric bearings, consisting of layers of steel plate embedded in
rubber, can accommodate small horizontal shear movements. PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene) bearings can be designed for unlimited
free sliding between the low-friction PTFE surface and a steel plate.
Pot bearings incorporate rubber discs that permit small rotations,
while spherical bearings, moving on a PTFE surface, will permit larger
rotations.
Mechanical bearings, such as rockers and rollers, provide either
longitudinal fixity or resistance to lateral forces. Pot bearings, special
guide bearings or pin bearings are often used for this purpose.
Bearingsneedtobeinspected regularlyandmay requiremaintenance
or replacement during the lifetime of the bridge.This can be difficult
and expensive, so it is important that the structure is designed to
make inspection, maintenance and replacement possible.
Where access is difficult, the bearing should have the same design
life as the rest of the structure.

Positive drainage of all surface water

m Provision of chamfers, fillets, drips in overhangs and chases for
tucking in waterproofing
Use of standard details wherever possible, particularly in precast
beams
Use for bonded tendons of air-tight, non-metallic ducts;
anchorage protection with end caps and provision for grouting
anchorage recesses
Provision of abutment chambers for inspection
Provision for easy access into and along large and long box
girders

Figure 32: Bearings on pier - Mollington Footbridge, M40

25
An Introduction to Concrete Bridges
12.2 Expansion joints
Expansionjoints must allow free movement of the bridge, including
movements in kerbs, verges and parapets, as well as those in the
main deck, but they should not have too serious an effect on riding
quality.
Leakage at joints leads to reduced durability and disfiguration of
the structure below, so joints need to be waterproof or designed to
allow for drainage.Joints should also be designed to require minimal
maintenance during their lifetime. However, joints may not last the
life of the structure, so they should be replaceable.
Small movements at expansion joints can be accommodated by
compressible materials such as neoprene or rubber. These joints
can be buried and covered by the surfacing, giving an undisturbed
riding surface. Buried or'run-over'joints may consist simply of a gap,
sufficient to accommodate the movement, covered by a galvanised
Road sutfacing Flexible material
gure 3 3 Typical section of asphaltic plugjoint
26
steel plate and a band of rubberised bitumen flexible binder to
replace part of the surfacing. This type of joint is known as an
'asphaltic plug:
require a flexible sealing element supported by
beams. Mechanical joints based on interlocking
can be used for very large movements. Drainage
must be provided for such joints.
Whatever type of expa is used, it is likely to interrupt the
surface and give rise t
design for long lengt
joints a t frequent intervals. Longer lengths will result in larger
movements at the joints, but will preserve riding quality and reduce
maintenance. Integral bridges - constructed with joint-free decks
- have been referred to earlier.
Tinted sand asphatt
protective layer
 An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

NOSINGS (N)
(HA Qpes 3 and 4

Extruded compression sed (Qpe 4)

or sealant (Qpe 3)

n
Wearing course Wearing course

IBase course
Nosing
material Basecourse

1 Waterproofing and
protection layer
Abutment

Monolithic concrete
plinths

NEW W O W REFURBISHMENT
Nominal resin Full depth resin
nosine nosings

Description
In-situ rdsins or modified cementitious misturns placed either side of the bridge deck air gap to pmduce
firm edges and protect the surfacing. Complete with watertight extended compmsion seal or sealant.

Movemtntr
Up to 50mm with pdormed seals
Up to 12mm with poured sealant to Bs5212
Thia drawing is indicative only and does not rppresent in MY
way any partkYLrdedgn nor can It be used fora design of
permanent works. It is copyright of the Bridge Joint Association
and can only be mpresented with theirwritten pemidon

Figure 34a: Typical section of mechanicaljoint

27
An Introductionto Concrete Bridqes

REINFORCED ELASTOMERIC (RE)

(HA Type 5 )
Elastic carpet reinforced integrally
Transition strip with metal plates

!
!

I 2
i \ Beddingdepth iacmased
I to suit
!- Length of studs increase
to suit extra bedding

\
Waterproofing and
New Works
Secondary drainage
membrane
Refurbishment w o w

protective layer

Description
A joint prefabricated to exact widths and lengths, comprising of rubber surrounding metal elements,
bearing plates and reinforcement. Placed onto flat beds with resin transition strips either side as pmtection
and to provide a smoth running surface. Bolted directly to the structural concrete.

Movement Range
Up to 3SOmm. Different widths of carpet impose limitations on movement accommodation. Consult
supplier.
This drawing is indicative only and does not represent in any
way any particulardes@ nor can it be used for a design of
permanent w o r k It is copyright of the Bridge Joint A d h n
and can only be represented with their written permission
I
Figure 34b Typical section of mechanicaljoint

12.3 Waterproofing bridge decks

It is a current UKrequirementthat bridge decks are waterproofed with
an approved system, which may be sheet, board or spray-applied
liquid. The deck detailing should allow continuity of waterproofing
‘across’ central reservations, verges, service bays and under kerbs.
Arrises (external corners) should be chamfered and fillets should
be formed at internal angles. All waterproofing systems must be
protected using a tinted asphalt layer before the final surface is laid.

Exposed surfaces, such as deck soffits, fascias, concrete parapets and

parapet plinths may be contaminated with salt water carried by wind
or from traffic spray. Impregnation, when new, with silane or a similar 1
product can give protection for a limited period. However, factory-
made precast pre-tensioned beams have an excellent durability
1
record even without any such treatment. __

Figure 35: Spray applicationof waterproofing membrane

28
 An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

Inthepast,masticasphaIthasbeenusedextensivelyforwaterproofing
bridge decks, but it requiresgood weather conditions if it is to be laid
satisfactorily, so is rarely used now. Preformed bituminous sheeting
is less sensitive to laying conditions, but moisture trapped below the
sheeting may cause subsequent lifting.
Some bridges have relied upon the use of a dense, high-quality
concrete to resist the penetration of water without an applied
waterproofing layer. It can be advantageousto include silica fume or
other veryfine powdered addition in the concrete.

Hot-bonded heavy-duty reinforced sheet membranes, if properly

laid, provide a completely watertight layer. These sheets are made
in thicknesses of 3-4mm and have good puncture resistance, so it
is not necessary to protect the sheet membrane from asphalt laid
on top.

Sprayed acrylic and polyurethane waterproofing membranes are

also used. These bond to the concrete deck surface with little or
no risk of blowing or lifting. A tack coat must be applied over the
membrane, and a protective asphalt layer is laid before the final
surfacing is carried out.

13. CONSTRUCTION PLANNING

Communication is the key to success. It is important that the main
and/or specialist concrete contractor(s) form a close relationship
with the ready-mixed concrete supplier from an early stage. Regular
liaison and progress meetings should be held both before and
during the concreting programme to ensure a smooth and effective
operation.
I A concrete pump may be used for the more inaccessible bridge
sections and the larger pours; the mix design will probably
need some adjustment to ensure the concrete can be pumped
efficiently

13.1 Concrete specifications

A complete understanding of the specification is necessary to
establish criteria such as compressive strength, size and type of
aggregate, admixtures and workability.The requirements of BS 8500
must be followed. Also, knowledge of the relevant bridge codes, e.g.
BS 5400 Part 4 and Highways Agency design standards for bridges
such as BD24 and BD57 will be particularly relevant.
BS 8500 requires that the cover to reinforcement be increased by
15mm for cast in-situ reinforced concrete members to give the
desired durability for 120 years. Precast prestressed beams also need
extra cover but only 5mm.

13.2 Formwork and reinforcement Figure 36: Concrete pumped into position
To ensure that the concrete i5 poured with the minimum of difficulty
the size, type and position of formwork needs to be assessed
together with the density of reinforcing steel (or other materials) and
the depth of cover specified. This will ensure easier placement and
13.3 Size of pour and rate of supply
compaction and will maximise durability. Plant, transport and labour requirements to meet the demandsofthe
operation need to be established.This will be particularly important
How the concrete is to be placed into the formwork is a crucial factor
on the larger pours that may be required for the construction of a
to the ready-mixed supplier, for example:
bridge, e.g. mass foundations, bridge deck.
W Small barrows or skips invariably mean longer discharge times
Contingency plans need to be agreed to safeguard continuity of
and possible disruption to deliveries
supply in the event of plant or transport failure.This will be especially
An introduction to Concrete Bridges

important when structural elements such as piers constructed as

'cold'joints would not be acceptable in such components. 13.4 Weather conditions
Routes for the ready-mixed trucks to the Site and the provision of Agreement should be reachedwith site management on acceptable
safe, sound on should be cleared with the appropriate weather conditionsfor the placement of concrete and the measures
authorities and site management. necessary to counter the extreme conditions which may be
experienced on a bridge in exposed locations, e.g. wind, ice.

13.5 Testing and curing

It is in everybody's interests to ensure that qualified personnel are
available to carry out the standard testing procedures to British
Standards.
Freshly placed concrete must be given adequate protection from
rapid surface drying or temperature variations for as long as possible
to maximise its performance and appearance. This is an important
I factor in achieving the high standards of durability required for a
bridge.

L
Figure 3 7 Ready-mixed concrete being delivered
-"_1

14. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

All bridges should be inspected regularly,to ensure that they are in a
satisfactory condition and to locate any potential sources of trouble.
Detailed inspections, called Principal Inspections, are normally
required every six years with general inspections at more frequent
intervals.
Proper attention to waterproofing, joint design and detailing, and
drainage from the deck, can prevent many of the problems that
have caused deteriorationof concrete bridges in the past. Adequate
cover to reinforcement is vital, so care must be taken during design,
specification and construction, to ensure that sufficient cover is
provided.
Other methods are available for improving the corrosion resistance
of reinforcement, and the finished concrete can be treated with
sealing compounds to reduce the penetrationof water and de-icing
salts.
Bridges are normally designed to require minimal maintenance.
However, it will be necessary to carry out routine inspections of
drainage channels and down pipes, joints and bearings. Check
on the movement of abutments, piers and walls should be made
regularly, and foundations in water courses must be inspected for
damage due to scour. Such inspections require access, and this
must be anticipated in the design and detailing of the structure. A
programme of inspections at regular intervals should be planned
and any defects revealed must be attended to without delay.

30
 An Introductionto Concrete Bridges

15. HEALTH AND SAFETY

All bridges should be designed so that they perform safely and can
be built in a manner that minimises risk to both the construction
team and the public.

Safety factors are built into the design code requirements to cover
the variabitrty of loading and material properties for in-service and
ultimate conditions.

The Construction Design and Management (CDM) Regulations are a

legal obligation for all organisations involved with the construction
process: client, designer, contractors and suppliers. A Planning
Supervisor needs to be appointed and a Health and Safety file
provides essential information for each Organisation throughout
the construction process and during the maintenance life of the
structure

16. FUTURETRENDS
Today’s requirements for durable, continuous, integral bridges will
lead to increased use of precast concrete in bridge structures. The
bridge deck is one area that may be exploited by incorporating a
new range of prestressed concreteT or even double-T beams in the
design.With such decks, in-situ concrete would be required only as a
’topping’to stitch the beams together.

The trend towards private Design Build Finance and Operate (DBFO)
road contracts with pay-back periods of up to 25 years, underlines
the requirements for low-maintenance bridges. An examination of
the likely costs over the lifespan of a bridge (whole-life costing) is
now considered an essential part of the overall equation. The use
of precast concrete elements, with their advantages of quality,
speed and efficient construction, will have a considerable beneficial
imDact

31
An Introduction to Concrete Bridges
17. FURTHER READING
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE ACl 343R-88, Analysis and Design
of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures ACI, Detroit, 1988, 162 pp
ClRlA Report 155, Bridges - Design for lmproved Buildability CIRIA,
London, 1996
ClRlA RP490: Buildability of Bridges CIRIA, London, year
CLARK L A Concrete Bridge Design to BS 5400 Construction Press,
Longman, London, 1983
TECHNICAL GUIDES published by Concrete Bridge Development
Group TGI: lntegral Bridges (1997), TG2: Guide to Testing and
Monitoring TheDurability of Concrete Structures (2002), TG3:TheUse
of fibre Composites in Concrete Bridges (ZOOO), TG4: TheAesthetics of
Concrete Bridges (2001), TGS: fast Construction of Concrete Bridges
(ZOOS), TG6: Guide to the Use of High Strength Concrete in Bridges
(ZOOS), TG7: Guide to the Use ofself-Compacting Concrete in Bridges
(2005), TG8: Guide to the Use of Lightweight Concrete in Bridges
(2006)
Further tec hnicaI guides in preparation TG9:Assessment of Concrete
Bridges (2) (due 2006), TGIO: Design Example of Integral Bridges to
fC2 (due 2006)
CONCRETE SOCIETYKONCRETE BRIDGE DEVELOPMENT GROUP
Durable Post-tensioned Concrete Bridges, Technical Report 47
(Second Edition),The Concrete Society, Camberley, 2002,69 pp
The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations, SI
1994/3247,HMSO, London, 1994
HAMBLY, E C Bridge Deck Behaviour,2nd edn E & F Spon, London,
1991,313~~
HAMBLY, E C Bridge foundations and Substructures.HMSO, London,
1979,93 pp
HAMBLY, E C & NICHOLSON, B Prestressed Beam lntegral Bridges.
Prestressed Concrete Association, Leicester, 1991,29 pp
LEE, D J & RICHMOND, B Bridges. Civilfngineer’s ReferenceBook,Ed
L S Blake Chapter 18 Newnes-Butterworth,London, 1988,71 pp
LIEBENBERG, A C Bridges. Handbook of Structural Concrete, Eds F K
Kong et al Chapter 36 Pitman, London, 1983,168 pp
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE ASSOCIATION Precast Bridge Beams
- Product Information Sheets
PRITCHARD, B Bridge Design for Economy and Durability. Thomas
Telford, London, 1992, 192 pp
READY-MIXED CONCRETE BUREAU The Essential Ingredient British
Cement Association, Camberley, 1993-1 997
SOUBRY, MA ClRlA Report C543. Bridge Detailing Guide CIRIA,
London, 2001
TOMLINSON, M J foundation Design and Construction. Pitman
Publishing Limited, London, 1980,793 pp
32
WELTMAN, A.J. & HEAD, J.M. Site lnvestigation Manual. ClRlA Special
Publication 25. CIRIA, London, 1983,144 pp.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 6031: 1981. Code of Practice
for Earthworks. BSI, London, 1981,86 pp.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5400. Steel, Concrete and
Composite Bridges. Part 1: General Statement, Part 2: Specification
for Loads, Part 4 Code of Practice for Design of Concrete Bridges,
Part 5: Code offractice for Design of CompositeBridges. BSI, London,
1978-1990.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8500. Concrete -
Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1, Part 1: Method of
Specifying and Guidance for the Specifier, Part 2: Specification for
ConstituentMaterials and Concrete.BSI, London, 2002.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT. Manual of Contract Documents for
Highway Works.
Volume 1. Specification for Highway Works.
Volume 2. Notes for Guidance on the Specification for
Highway Works.
Volume 4. Bills of Quantities for Highway Works.DOT,
London.
HIGHWAYS AGENCY. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 1. Highway Structures- ApprovalProceduresand
General Design.
BA 41, TheDesign and Appearance of Bridges.
BA 42, TheDesign of Integral Bridges.
BD 24, The Design of Concrete Highway Bridges.
Use of BS 5400: Part 4: 1990.
BD 57, Design for Durability.
Many construction activities are potentially dangerous so care
is needed a t all times. Current legislation requires all persons to
consider the effects of their actions or lack of action on the health
and safety of themselvesand others. Advice on safety legislation may
be obtained from any of the area offices of the Health and Safety
Executive.
All advice or information from the Concrete Bridge Development
Group is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and
limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and
application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss
resulting from such advice or information is accepted. Readers
should note that all publications are subject to revision from time to
time and should, therefore, ensure that they are in possession of the
latest version.
 #
-
It's Int e g rat io n
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that Differentiates
SAM" 1
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I
Section and beam design
modules are used as input for the
analysis progam, which in turn
supplies results lhat enables Ihe
derion~pcoceed.
Influence surface technology is
used to determine optimum
loading patterns for thc
appmpriote d d g n code.
ad graphics mean that just Me
desired results are on view.
'Composite reuW make worklng
wllh FE models vwy eosy.

pb$mer the benefits of Integrated Bridge Design Software

,- us for more information.
+@,~onffi~l
/'A 1- 1

tbus, Adoms Hill, Knutsford, Cheshire WAl6 6DN. UK.

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+44 (0) 1565-654 300 Email: bridges@bestech.co.uk Web: www.bestech.co.uk
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Case Study: How simple design tools from SAM save money in the field.
Vhat are the factors that affect the cost of precast Example 2 -
re-tensioned bridge beams, and how easy is it to Which of the following 2 beams costs less, the Y4 beam
.esign according to an optimised cost criteria? Two in Example 1 , or the Y4 beam shown next?
xamples are presented here which demonstrate Again both beams are
hat the answers are not always what they may seem. designed for the same 20m
I
1 1 7 1 I
span. Both are Y4 beams, but
:xample 1 - 'I I the tirst has 25 tendons, and
Vhich of the following two beams costs less? the second has 27 tendons.
\ I
; i
The second is clearly more
I

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expensive. The difference
between the two beams

\ 'r -( * I. however is that the first

requires a concrete strength
at transfer 10N/mm? higher-than the second. The two
..
I 1

......
.... I
additional tendons could therefore enable a much lower
...
1i.: . . : . . . : 1 :............
: *. :. 1
occupancy time of the precasting bed, and consequent
improved efficiency in manufacture.
The tendon optimisation algorithm in SAM was used to
'he natural instinct of most bridge engineers would be generate and investigate both these examples in less
1 design for the minimum beam size. Both beams were than an hour. Such is the effectiveness that can be
esigned for a typical 20m span bridge with 30 units of achieved with the new simple and yet sophisticated
[B load allowed. The Y3 beam has 29 tendons, and the concrete bridge design tools within SAM.
'4 beam has 25 tendons with an additional 0.715m' of
oncrete. Distributors
Bestech Systems Ltd Australia
Vith no other considerations such as overall depth Station House. Adams Hill Malaysia
onstraints, the Y4 beam is likely to be more cost Knursford. WA 16 6DN New Zealand
ffective. Tel: +44 (0) 1565 654 300 Singapore
Web: www.bestech.co.uk UAE