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• A scalar field is a physical quantity having a value but no direction at every point in
space. Examples are pressure and temperature.
• A vector field is a physical quantity having both direction and magnitude at every
point in space. Examples include velocity, force, and electric and magnetic fields.
A lot of physics depends upon the properties of fields. In particular, we often need to
integrate fields over lines or regions, which is what we will look at in this chapter.
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2.2 Line integrals
2.2.1 Mathematical concept
If we have a vector field G(r), then we can define a line integral
Z
I= G(r) · dr
C
R
Figure 2.2: Illustration of the line integral I = C
G(r) · dr.
• The result of a line integral is a scalar, not a vector; this is because the line integral
contains a scalar product G·dr of the vector filed G and the infinitesimal displacement
vector dr.
• The notation for a line integral includes a specification of the path C, which is written
as a subscript on the integral sign. In general, a line integral depends on the initial
and final points rA and rB and on the choice of path running from rA to rB .
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Now suppose that we repeat this process a large number of times to move the particle
along a given path C from an initial position rA to a final position rB . The total work
done is then given by the sum of all the small contributions dW . As stated above, this the
definition of a line integral,
Z Z
C
WA!B = dW = F(r) · dr. (2.2)
C C
with ✓ ◆
xy
G(r) = G(x, y) = = xy êx y 2 êy (2.3)
y2
for two di↵erent paths:
(a) the straight-line from the initial point rA = (0, 0) to the final point rB = (2, 1);
The crucial step is to choose a parameter to specify the position on the path. If the path
is determined by a function y = f (x) for x 2 [a, b], it is convenient to use the x coordinate.
(a) The straight line from (0, 0) to (2, 1) is parametrised by y = 12 x for x 2 [0, 2]. Using
this relation between x and y we can eliminate y and write the vector field as a
function of x only. Using that dy = 12 dx, the displacement along the path can be
written as dr = dx êx + dy êy = dx êx + 12 dx êy . We then obtain
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Z
I = G(r) · dr
ZC
= (xy êx y 2 êy ) · (dx êx + dy êy )
ZC ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 1 2 1
= x êx x êy · dx êx + dx êy
C 2 4 2
Z 2✓ ◆
1 2 1 2
= x x dx
0 2 8
Z 2 2
3 2 1
= x dx = x3 = 1.
0 8 8 0
Note that even though the two paths we have just considered run from the same initial
point (0, 0) to the same final point (2, 1), the numerical values of the line integrals are not
the same. This tells us that the vector field G is not conservative.
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2.2.5 Worked example
R p
Calculate the line integral I = C G(r) · dr along the contour y = x from the initial point
(0, 0) to the final point (1, 1), where the vector field is given by
✓ ◆
y
G(r) = .
x
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2.3 Area integrals
2.3.1 Mathematical concept
For any scalar field f (r) of the 2-dimensional position r, we can define an area integral
Z
I= f (r) dA, (2.4)
A
where the integral goes over a specified 2-dimensional region A. It is defined conceptually
in a similar way to the line integral: the region is divided up into area elements dA, in each
of which the function has some value f (r). We add up all the elementary contributions
f (r) dA and take the limit that the area elements become infinitesimally small.
Figure 2.3: Division of a 2-dimensional area A into infinitesimal area elements dA.
An area integral is a double integral, because we have to perform integrals over both the x
and y variables. When integrating over one variable, the other is held constant.
Note that an important
R special case is f (r) ⌘ 1. In this case, the area integral is equal to
the total area, A = A dA.
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We’d like to calculate the total charge Q on the plate, given by the area integral
Z Z x=a Z y=b Z a Z b
Q= (r)dA = (x, y) dxdy = dx dy (x, y). (2.5)
A x=0 y=0 0 0
Note that the latter notation for the double integral is commonly used for brevity.
Example 1: charge is spread evenly, so that charge density is uniform everywhere on the
plate. This means that is a constant (no dependence on x and y). We obtain
Z a Z b
Q= dx dy = ab = A.
0 0
Of course, in this simple case the homogeneous charge density is equal to the total charge
divided by the total area, = Q/A.
Example 2: the charge density is non-uniform and given by the function (x, y) = xy + y 2 .
We could first calculate the y-integral, keeping x constant,
Z a Z b Z a y=b Z a ✓ ◆
2 1 1 1 2 1 3
Q= dx dy xy + y = dx xy 2 + y 3 = dx b x+ b .
0 0 0 2 3 y=0 0 2 3
This one-dimensional integral has a simple interpretation. It is equal to the sum of the
charges on strips of infinitesimal thickness dx, running parallel to the y-axis. After per-
forming the remaining x integral we obtain
x=a
1 2 2 1 3 1 1
Q= b x + b x = a2 b2 + ab3 .
4 3 x=0 4 3
Note that we could also perform the x and y integrals in the opposite order, starting with
the x integral,
Z b Z a Z b x=a Z b ✓ ◆
2 1 2 2 1 2 2
Q= dy dx xy + y = dy x y + xy = dy a y + ay .
0 0 0 2 x=0 0 2
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2.3.3 Non-rectangular regions
The region A in the plane over which we integrate does not have to be a rectangle. Let’s
for example integrate the function f (x, y) = x2 + 2xy over the interior of a triangle whose
corners are at the points (0, 0), (1, 0), and (0, 1).
To do this, we can imagine that we divide the triangular region into strips running parallel
to the y-axis. Because the region is a triangle, the strips have di↵erent lengths: the strip
at position x 2 [0, 1] runs from y = 0 to y = 1 x. So we can write the area integral as
the double integral
Z 1 Z 1 x
I= dx dy x2 + 2xy . (2.6)
0 0
This says: integrate first over y with x held constant, the limits on y being [0, 1 x]. Then
integrate over x, with limits [0, 1]. Let’s perform these integrations:
Z 1 h iy=1 x
I = dx x2 y + xy 2
y=0
Z0 1
⇥ ⇤
= dx x2 (1 x) + x(1 x)2
Z0 1
= dx (x x2 )
0
x=1
1 2 1 3 1 1 1
= x x = = .
2 3 x=0 2 3 6
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2.3.4 Worked example
R
Perform the are integral I = A x2 y dA over an area A that is given by the shaded region
compose of a rectangle and a half circle.
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2.3.5 Polar coordinates
In many applied problems it is often more convenient to use other coordinate systems that
better reflect the symmetries of the problem. While the results of line, area, or volume
integrals do not depend on the choice of the coordinate system, the integrations can become
much simpler using more appropriate coordinates.
So far, we have used rectangular or cartesian coordinates x and y. In theses coordinates,
the line and area elements are given by dr = êx dx + êy dy and dA = dx dy, respectively.
In many cases we use polar coordinates to specify the position of every point in the 2-
dimensional x-y plane. The position of the point r is uniquely defined by the distance r of
the point3.4
to theOther coordinate
origin (the length of thesystems
vector r) and the angle the vector r encloses with
the x axis.
3.4.1 Plane-polar coordinates
rdrδθ er
e
dA
dr
δr
yy
dδθ
r
r
θ
x
x
Plane-polar coordinates:
x = r cos ✓,
Figure 2.5: Illustration of polar coordinates.
y = r sin ✓,
Area
Since x, y, and r are the sides of a element dA = dr triangle,
right-angled r d✓. we obtain cos = x/r and
sin = y/r. The cartesian coordinatesdr = ê(x,
r dr y)
+ ê can
✓ rd✓ therefore be expressed by the polar
coordinates (r, ) as
where êr , ê✓ are the unit vectors in direction of increasing r and ✓ (just as î and ĵ are the
unit vectors in direction of increasingx x and= yr cos ,
for cartesians). That is, using the notation (2.7a)
of the previous chapter, ê1 = êr and yê2 = ê .
= r sin .
✓ (2.7b)
This is an example of a coordinate transformation. What are the line and area elements
in polar coordinates? The line element can be easily calculated using the transformation
(2.7),
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
dx dr cos r sin d
dr = =
dy dr sin + r cos d
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
cos sin
= dr + rd
sin cos
= êr dr + ê rd . (2.8)
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◆ ✓ ✓ ◆
cos sin
In the last step, we have defined the unit vectors êr = and ê = .
sin cos
It is easy to check that êr · ê = 0, implying that the two vectors are orthogonal. êr points
along the direction of r. To find the area element we change both polar coordinates by
an infinitesimal amount dr and d , respectively. As illustrated in Fig. 2.5, this defines an
infinitesimally small rectangular area element with side lengths dr and r tan(d ) ⇡ rd .
Note that the latter approximation becomes exact in the limit d ! 0. The area element
in polar coordinates is therefore given by
dA = dr · rd = rdrd . (2.9)
To illustrate the advantage of polar coordinates in certain cases, let us calculate the area
of a half circle of radius R, using both cartesian and polar coordinates.
y
R p
y= R2 x2
R R x
This integral is already not so nice. We can make a substitution, x = R sin t. Using that
dx = R cos t dt, we obtain
Z ⇡/2
2
A=R dt cos2 t.
⇡/2
2
To determine the integral of cos t, we use partial integration,
Z Z Z
2 2
dt cos t = cos t sin t + dt sin
| {z }t = cos t sin t + t dt cos2 t.
=1 cos2 t
The integral we want to compute appears on the r.h.s. as well. Re-arranging this equation
we obtain Z
1 1
cos2 t dt = t + cos t sin t,
2 2
and therefore t=⇡/2
2 1 1 1
A=R t + cos t sin t = ⇡R2 .
2 2 t= ⇡/2 2
In polar coordinates, the are integral becomes trivial,
Z Z ⇡ Z R r=R
1 1
A = dA = d r dr = ⇡ r2 = ⇡R2 .
0 0 2 r=0 2
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Note: the most important things when choosing the easiest coordinate system for an
integral are the limits of integration, not the function being integrated.
over the vector field G(r) = yêx + xêy around the circle of radius R lying in the x-y plane
and centred at the origin. The path is to be followed in the anti-clockwise direction.
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(2) By using polar coordinates, calculate the value of the area integral
Z
I= f (r) dA,
A
over the area A given by a circle of radius 2 centred at the origin for the functions
x2
(a) f (r) = x2 , (b) f (r) = , and (c) f (r) = r.
x2 + y 2
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2.4 Volume integrals
The concept of an area integral can be extended to volume integrals. The integration
region is now a volume having some shape. The integration region is divided up into
volume elements dV , and the function to be integrated f (r) has a value in each element.
Conceptually, the integral is the sum of all the contributions f (r) dV over all the elements,
in the limit where the volume elements become infinitesimally small.
In Cartesian coordinates, the volume element is simply dV = dx dy dz, and the volume
integral can be expressed as a triple integral over x, y and z,
Z ZZZ
I = f (r) dV = f (x, y, z) dx dy dz. (2.10)
Do z-integral first:
Z 1 Z 1 z=1
1 1
I = dx dy x2 z + y 2 z + z 3
2 1 1 3 z= 1
Z 1 Z 1 ✓ ◆
1
= dx dy x2 + y 2 + .
1 1 3
Now do y-integral:
Z 1 y=1
1 1
I = dx x2 y + y 3 + y
1 3 3 y= 1
Z 1 ✓ ◆
2
= 2 dx x2 + .
1 3
As in the case of area integrals, the concept of volume integrals can be applied to integration
regions of arbitrary shape. Depending on the shape, the integrations could be much simpler
in other coordinate systems such as cylindrical or spherical coordinates.
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2.4.1 Cylindrical coordinates
3.4.2 Cylindrical polar coordinates
z
dz
dV
dr
d dr d θ
z
z
y y
x θ
x r
x = r cos ✓,
x = ⇢ cos ,
dr = êr dr + ê✓ rd✓ + k̂dz (2.11a)
y = ⇢ sin , (2.11b)
z = z, (2.11c)
as illustrated in the figure above. Note that instead of ⇢ some books use r. We avoid this
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notation to make clear that ⇢p is di↵erent from the distance of the point r = (x, y, z) from
the origin, which is r = |r| = ⇢2 + z 2 .
From the transformation (2.11), it is straightforward to calculate the line element
0 1 0 1
dx d⇢ cos ⇢ sin d
dr = @ dy A = @ d⇢ sin + ⇢ cos d A
dz dz
0 1 0 1 0 1
cos sin 0
= @ sin A d⇢ + @ cos A ⇢d + @ 0 A dz
0 0 1
=: ê⇢ d⇢ + ê ⇢d + êz dz. (2.12)
It is easy to check that ê⇢ , ê and êz are unit vectors that are orthogonal to one another.
Changing the coordinates by infinitesimal amounts d⇢, d and dz defines an infinitesimal
volume element
dV = d⇢ · ⇢d · dz = ⇢ d⇢ d dz. (2.13)
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As an example, we calculate the volume of a cylinder with radius R and height H,
Z Z R Z H Z 2⇡
1
V = dV = ⇢ d⇢ dz d = R2 · H · 2⇡ = ⇡R2 H.
0 0 0 2
r
θ r z
rs y y
in
x
φ
x
x = r sin ✓ cos ,
Each point r = (x, y, z) is uniquely determined by its distance r from the origin, the angle ✓
y = r sin ✓ sin ,
the vector r forms with the z-axis, and the angle z = r cos ✓,
between the projection of r into the x-y-
plane and the x-axis (see above figure).
volume elementdv = r2 sin ✓ dr d✓ d . between spherical coordinates
The transformation
(r, ✓, ) and cartesian coordinates (x,dry,= z)
êr dris
+ êgiven by
✓ rd✓ + ê r sin ✓d
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The vectors êr , ê✓ and ê form a set of orthogonal unit vectors. As illustrated in the figure,
the volume element in spherical coordinates is given by
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2.4.3 Worked examples
(1) Use spherical coordinates to evaluate the volume integral
Z
I = (x2 + y 2 ) dV
(2) Use cylindrical coordinates to calculate the value of the volume integral
Z
I = (x2 + y 2 )z 2 dV,
where the integration region is the interior of the cylinder of radius 1 and length 2
centred on the origin, and the axis of the cylinder coincides with the z-axis.
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2.5 Surface integrals
In Sec. 2.3, we have introduced the area integral over two-dimensional regions in the x-y
plane. Here we will generalise this to integrals over (curved) surfaces S embedded in three-
dimensional space. For any scalar field f (r) = f (x, y, z) that is defined on all the points of
the surface S we can define the surface integral by by dividing S into infinitesimally small
surface area elements dS and summing all the individual contributions f (r) dS in the limit
that dS ! 0, Z
I1 = f (r) dS. (2.17)
S
We would have to compute such an integral if we wanted to calculate the total charge of a
curved surface for a given charge density. In physics we often need to calculate the total
flux of a vector field G(r) through a surface. For example, G(r) could be a current density
and we would like to compute the total current through S. The idea is to decompose G
into the components parallel and perpendicular to S. Only the perpendicular component
contributes to the flux. It can be written as G? = G · n̂, where n̂ is a unit vector normal
(orthogonal) to the surface. The total flux is therefore given by the surface integral
Z Z
I2 = (G · n̂) dS = G · dS, (2.18)
S S
where in the last step we have defined the vectorial surface element dS = n̂ dS normal to
S, as illustrated below.
In order to calculate such surface integrals we first need to parametrise the surface. As
for the line integral, the result of a surface integral does not depend on the choice of the
parametrisation. Since surfaces are two-dimensional objects, surface integrals are double
integrals. Let us first derive general expressions for surface integrals of the form (2.17)
or (2.18), assuming that S is parametrised by r = r(s, t) with s 2 [smin , smax ] and t 2
[tmin , tmax ]. We can easily express the vector fields as functions of s and t, using that
r = r(s, t). But how to calculate dS and dS?
To obtain the surface area element we need to calculate the infinitesimal changes of the
vector r(s, t) as we change the coordinates s and t by infinitesimal amounts ds and dt,
respectively. This defines infinitesimally small vectors
@r @r
du = ds and dv = dt
@s @t
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tangential to the surface S. The surface area element dS is equal to the area of the
parallelogram formed by the two vectors du and bv. dS is the vector of length dS that
is perpendicular to the two tangential vectors du and dv. We can therefore calculate the
vectorial surface-area element form the vector product (cross product)
✓ ◆
@r @r
dS = du ⇥ dv = ⇥ ds dt, (2.19)
@s @t
Figure 2.6: Illustration and definition of the vector or cross product a ⇥ b. The resulting
vector is perpendicular to a and b and its length |a ⇥ b| is equal to the area of the
parallelogram formed by a and b.
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2.5.1 Surface integrals in spherical coordinates
If the surface is part of a sphere of a fixed radius R the natural choice is to use spherical
coordinates and to parametrise the surface by the angles (✓, ),
0 1
sin ✓ cos
r = r(✓, ) = R @ sin ✓ sin A . (2.21)
cos ✓
We already know that
dS = R2 sin ✓ d✓ d êr , (2.22)
since dV = dS dr and since êr is the unit vector normal to the sphere. However, let’s
calculate the area element from the general expression (2.19),
✓ ◆
@r @r
dS = ⇥ d✓ d
@✓ @
0 1 0 1
cos ✓ cos sin ✓ sin
= R2 @ cos ✓ sin A ⇥ @ sin ✓ cos A d✓ d
sin ✓ 0
0 2
1
sin ✓ cos
= R2 @ sin2 ✓ sin A d✓ d
sin ✓ cos ✓
= R2 sin ✓ d✓ d êr .
0 1 0 1 0 1
✓ ◆ 1 0 @g/@x
@r @r
dS = ⇥ dx dy = @ 0 A ⇥ @ 1 A dx dy = @ @g/@y A dx dy.
@x @y
@g/@x @g/@y 1
(2.24)
s ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
@g @g
dS = 1+ + dx dy. (2.25)
@x @y
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2.5.3 Worked examples
R
(1) Calculate the surface integral I = S G(r) · dS for the vector field G(r) = zêx + xêz
and the surface that is determined by z = x2 + y for x 2 [0, 1] and y 2 [0, 1].
(2) Use cylindrical coordinates to calculate the area of the surface given by z = 1 x2 y 2
for x2 + y 2 1.
(3) Given is the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 4 and the plane z = 1 parallel to the xy-plane.
(a) Calculate the surface area of the cap of the sphere that is above the plane (z > 1).
(b) Use spherical coordinates to calculate the volume of the part of the sphere that
is above the plane.
(c) Calculate the same volume using cylindrical coordinates.
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