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Basic Knowledge - Forgings - Significance, Design, Production, Application PDF
Basic Knowledge - Forgings - Significance, Design, Production, Application PDF
Basic Knowledge
Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application
Hagen, 01/04/2011
Dr. Stefan Witt
Chairman of the Board
Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V.
German Association of the Forging Industry
Water-powered iron hammer (ca. 1780) Steam hammer "Fritz" in Essen (ca.1860)
The smiths of those days used hammers driven by transmission shafts to produce a wide range of
forged parts for the railways, for the car industry and for agricultural machinery
View of the production area of the Schmiedag Range of products of the Schöneweiss
company in Hagen (ca.1910) drop-forging works (ca.1910)
Almost two-thirds of the total forging output comes from the drop-forging sector.
More than a third of all forged parts are exported. The automotive sector, together with system
producers (tier one suppliers) receives more than 80% of the total production.
Mechanical engineering
Others 5%
10%
Export 35%
System suppliers 36%
Domestic 65% Cars 34%
Trucks 15%
Germany is the number two producer world-wide. Production in 2008 was 3,000 000 tonnes.
All metals and metal alloys, with very few exceptions, are suitable for forging. There is a range of more
than 2,500 types of steel from which to choose to achieve the most economical production process.
Steel group Standard
Mild steels DIN EN 10222-1
DIN EN 10250-1/-2
Heat-treating steels DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3
Case-hardening steels DIN EN 10084
Nitriding steels DIN EN 10085
Steels for flame- and DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3
induction-hardening
Ball- and roller- DIN EN ISO 683-17
bearing steels
High-temperature DIN EN 10269
steels DIN EN 10222-1/-2
Tough-at-low- DIN EN 10269
temperature steels DIN EN 10222-1/-2/-3
Stainless steels DIN EN 10222-5
DIN EN 10250-1/-4
AFP-Steels DIN EN 10267
Forming characteristics of various material groups
Mild steels DIN EN 10222-1 Machine parts with low dynamic loading and tensile strength requirements
DIN EN 10250-1/-2
Heat-treating steels DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3 Machine parts and automotive components with higher dynamic or static loading
such as steering knuckles, crank shafts, drive shafts and safety critical parts for
automobiles and for use in cable cars and aerial ropeways.
Case-hardening steels DIN EN 10084 Case-hardened gearbox and drive-line components such as gears, shafts, toothed
Nitriding steels DIN EN 10085 parts and wear-resistant forming tooling.
Steels for flame- and DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3 Very high wear-resistance for chassis components, for tracked vehicles, conveyors
induction-hardening for the mining industry, very large roller bearings with hardened tracks
Ball- and roller-bearing DIN EN ISO 683-17 Special steels for hardened roller bearing rings and bodies. The steels achieve their
steels very high hardness values by good through-hardening.
High-temperature steels DIN EN 10269 High-alloyed steels for gas turbine engines, burners and industrial furnaces, forming
DIN EN 10222-1/-2 tooling and dies.
Tough-at-low- DIN EN 10269 Machine parts for use at sub-zero temperatures, automotive components for use in
temperature steels DIN EN 10222-1/-2/-3 extreme conditions, springs and applications with high dynamic loading.
Stainless steels DIN EN 10222-5 Fittings for the chemical and food industries, components for marine use, fittings for
DIN EN 10250-1/-4 the building industry, cutlery and household wares, screws and fasteners and wire
ropes for use in damp conditions.
AFP-Steels DIN EN 10267 Application as with heat-treated steels but more cost-effective for engine and
chassis components such as connecting rods, crankshafts, steering components,
drive shafts and axles.
For special applications, materials such as titanium, aluminium, nickel alloys and AFP-steels are also
forged.
Grain-flow takes place during rolling through the longitudinal alignment of segregations in the steel. In
an optimal forming process, this grain-flow is retained and runs parallel to the surface of the
component.
The grain-flow (with the segregated core of the raw material) runs from left to right through the
component. Grain-flow breaking out of the side would result in an undesirable stress-raising notch
effect.
Automobile gearbox shaft cold The gear profile is milled in the two collars. In the area of the
formed in two stages teeth, the grain-flow is perpendicular to the direction of the load
- Drop-forging
- Upsetting
Lower die
- Extrusion
- Open-die forging
- Ring rolling Workpiece
Workpiece
Drop-forging Upsetting
Punch
Main roll
Saddle Axial rolls
Die Mandrel
Workpiece
Workpiece
Workpiece
Saddle
Double-acting
Eccentric presses
hammers Ring rolling
Hydraulic Crank presses
Counterblow Reducer rolling
presses Upsetting
hammers Cross rolling
machines
Screw presses
Presses
The machine types are shown depicting the limiting conditions at the end of the working stroke. Each
machine type has its advantages and disadvantages and is specially chosen depending on the part to
be produced.
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Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application 22
Hammers for drop forging I
1 Power unit
1
2 Ram
2 3 Upper die
4 Lower die
3
5 Anvil block
4 Vibration damper
6
elements
5
1 Drive
1
2 Ram
2
3 Upper die
3 4 Hammer frame
5 Lower die
4
6 Lower ram
5 7 Hydraulic ram
clutch
The counterblow hammer is driven 6
pneumatically – ideal for large
pieceweights 7
1 Frame
8
6 2 Punch slide
9 3 Punch guide
4 Screw spindle
7 5 Spindle nut
4 Clutch
6
5 7 Flywheel bearings
8 Spindle brake Hydraulic
9 equipment
1
10 Ejector
11 11 Pneumatic
3
counterweight
2
10
1 Hydraulic cylinder
5 2 Ram
1 3 Table
2 4 Machine frame
4 5 Electric motors
6
6 Walking beam
8 automation
7 Forming station
8 Material feed
3
The hydraulic press offers a constant It is particularly suited for hot- and
maximum press force over the whole cold-extruding with a long working
stroke stroke
5
9
8 2
4 10
1
8 1
2 5
3 4
10
1
3
2
5
6
4 7
Multi-die presses for hot forging (e.g. Hatebur) are fully automatic in operation.
The speed is continuously variable and large numbers of pieces can be produced
Automatic multi-die hot-forging press with Tool area of a multi-die hot forging press with
inductive pre-heating equipment four dies
A series of eccentric presses linked to form a production line using robots – the operator is keeping an
eye on the whole process
1 10 9
2 8
4 5 6
1 3
4
5
1
The arrangement of the tooling on a longitudinal
2
forging machine for high precision rotary swaging
of hollow parts with an optimized weight 3 4 5
1 Manipulator 4 Workpiece
2 Forging tools 5 Manipulator
3 Forging machine
These special processes are Anvil plate Contact electrode Upper tool
Workpiece
Roll segment
Definition:
Cold forging = no heating of the workpieces and/or forming starts at room temperature.
up to 49 employees
50 – 199 employees
200 – 399 employees
400 and more employees
17 India 19 Rest
Advantages Difficulties
No heating necessary
Exemplary parts
Gear shaft Drive junction Shaft housing (car tie Gearshift level
5000g (cardan shaft) |1000g rod) | 290g (PRINZ) | 209g
Special methods
Number of steps:
Coil • Multi-step presses
www.asia.ru • Single-step presses
Processable types of materials:
Design: Hydraulic press
• Steel
• Horizontal
• Non-ferrous heavy metals
• Vertical
• Aluminium
• Stainless steel
Blank forming:
• Sections
• Coils
Process chain
Depending on the hardness of the material, its cross-section and the cut-off rate required, various
cut-off systems are used for making blanks .
Sawing offers the Cold shearing has the Hot shearing is independent of
advantage of the greatest advantages of low material material hardness and is well
precision and the largest wastage and short cycle times. suited for integration into high
cross-sections, but has The disadvantage is that the speed automated forging lines.
higher material wastage, cross-sectional area is limited
longer cycle times and (to max. 150mm)
higher costs.
Production stages of a
drop-forged crankshaft
form left to right:
- Steel blank
- Pre-formed blank
- Rough-forged part
- Finish-forged part
- Forging and trimmed
- flash
- Crankshaft
Lower rough forging die Lower finish forging die Trimming tool Trimming punch
Arm before
Post-forging processes save bending
material and processing costs, Flash
reduce the dimensional variation
Forging Big and little
and make possible undercuts. ends in as forged
condition
Piercing punch
Big and
Forging with
little ends
inner flash
punched
to size Forging
Before
Piercing die
expanding
Forging
After
expanding
Forging
Internal flash
The connecting rod big end is fractured in a defined way using a splitting wedge to give an exact fit –
this saves the sawing and milling operations. The individual fracture pattern is used to provide an exact
fit between the two surfaces.
The breaking (cracking) of the big end is carried The pair of cracked surfaces are unique and offer
out by applying pressure to a splitting wedge a high degree of fitting accuracy with relatively little
effort
The use of combinations of processes enables multi-axis forming to be carried out and thus complex
geometrical forms to be manufactured
Shock absorber Gear wheel with Carrying sleeve for a Trailer axle: drop-
lugs: drop-forged internal spline: warm- truck: drop-forged forged and welded;
and upset forged and cold-sized; and hot-extruded; light-weight design with
very high degree of multistage forming a combination of different
accuracy on the flanks materials
of the teeth
For open-die forging, saddles with various different working surfaces are used. Dies have the "negative"
form of the workpiece and can therefore only be used for specific forms
Lower dies
Flat saddle
The form of a die is produced either by spark-erosion or by high-speed milling. The surface of the
form is treated is various ways to improve its life (e.g. by grinding, polishing, nitriding and/or hard-
chrome plating ).
CNC milling
of the form
Spark-erosion Finishing of
of the die form the die form
Surface treatment
of the die form
Finished die
Diagram showing die manufacture The milling head of the high-speed milling
machine rotates at up to 40,000 rpm.
After forging the workpiece is descaled by shot-blasting. The shot size is between 0.8 and 2.8mm
The finished workpiece is checked dimensionally using a coordinate measurement machine. The
measurements are made either on a sample basis or 100% for safety critical parts (e.g. for aircraft
components).
The machine is calibrated using the yellow Diagram showing a quality control chart to
workpiece (the so-called setting gauge or demonstrate process stability
reference part).
The lower green zigzag line on the VDU When examined under UV light, the surface
indicates the fault faults become visible
In non-destructive testing of materials the component remains intact and can be used further. This
enables 100% testing to be carried out (e.g. for aircraft components)
Brinell hardness testing using Vickers hardness testing using a Rockwell hardness testing using
a sphere and measuring the pyramid and calculating the area a cone and measurement of the
diameter of indentation (10; 5; of indentation depth of indentation
2.5 and 1 mm)
Ultrasonic testing
A special dye, which penetrates cracks, is applied to the workpiece. After rinsing and the subsequent
application of a developer, the cracks become visible. This process is used for testing non-magnetic
metals.
Destructive material testing for tensile strength and notch bar impact value is carried out on samples
taken from batches of parts. The test specimens are made from finished components.
The notched bar impact test is a destructive test. The test specimen is machined out of the finished
component.
High-speed steel (HSS), tungsten carbide (TC) and ceramics are all used to make cutting tools.
In comparison with its cast equivalent the forged full-floating axle shown here has superior material
properties and high process stability.
The costs were reduced markedly by The forged full-floating axle is cheaper,
incorporating a forged part does not need subsequent hardening
and tempering and has a reduced scrap
rate.
In car manufacture special properties are required, which can be achieved using hot-, warm- and cold-
forging or a combination of several manufacturing steps.
Steel and aluminium chassis Engine parts are mostly made of Gear-box parts made of steel -
components for car manufacture. hot-forged steel hot-forged and cold-sized
Improved accuracy and finer detail can be achieved using combinations of hot-, warm- and cold
forming processes.
Drive-train and axle parts: hot-, Gear-box shafts are often cold
warm- and cold-forged extruded
1 Gear-wheels
3 2 Shafts
3 Parking lot
4
4 Planet-carrier
1 Axle pivot
2 Axle drive shaft
3 Control arm
4 Wheel carrier
1 2 3 4
5 Differential
Mercedes-Benz Car, powered rear axle
In vehicle
construction,
engineers are
looking for the
lightest
possible
designs. This
saves fuel and
CO2 emissions
and improves
comfort and
driving
dynamics.
This component, optimised using FEM methods, The low unsprung weight
Is made of aluminium increases sprung comfort
Kurbelwelle Pleuel
1 Rocker arm
2 Push-rods - cold-formed parts
5
4
3 Valve bridge
4 Camshaft
5 Inlet and outlet valves
Four cylinder valve drive of a diesel engine
1 Mount of support
2 Differential
5 Propeller shaft
7 Planetary gears
Double floating axle with dual tyres on a truck.
1 Differential
3 Cardan shaft
4 3
4 Flange for
cardan shaft
1 Flange
2 Cross pin
3 Joint fork
4 Hollow shaft
1 2 3 4 5
5 Butt-welded joint fork
Cardan shaft with universal joints
1 Blade hinge
2 Cylinder eye
3 Scarifier tooth
4 Drive sprocket
7 6 5 4 3 5 Track guide
6 Track idlers
Bulldozer with scarifier Bulldozer 7 Track links
with scarifier
Drive-sprocket segment
3
4
9 Handwheel
1
5 2 Collar
3 Neck
6 4 Gland follower
5 Bonnet
7 6 Casing
8
7 Flanges
8 Seating ring
9 Eyebolt
4 5
The four-engined Airbus A380 1 Low pressure compressor 2 High pressure turbine blades
puts its trust in forging technology 3 Bladed disks 4 Turbine shaft 5 Turbine
1 8
1 Drive shaft
2 2 Generator
3 3 Planetary gearing
4 5 Disc brake
97 percent of forged and formed parts are made of steel, but also aluminium and
titanium as well as such non-ferrous metals as copper, brass and nickel alloys.
FEM programs
(finite element methods)
offer the possibility of
optimizing weight and
geometry right at the
design stage.
The illustration shows a steering arm with a generated FEM lattice grid
production/ machining
specifications/ loadcases
process development
part development
part optimisation
Design, toolmaking and production are closely associated with each other to fulfil the customer's
requirements.
Example: the customer gives the installation space and the required properties for an aluminium front wheel
swing bearing for a car. From this a first model is made and from this the forging design is developed.
With the aid of design software (e.g. Catia, UG), the forging design is discretised according to the
limiting stresses.
Cluster of nine
processor computers
and one control
computer
Using the material flow simulation, designers can already see in advance whether the material
distributes itself optimally during the forging process.
Visible fault caused by lack of material or an Visible lap caused by a fault in the form in the
unsuitable die-form previous operation(s)
The material flow simulation enables designers to view the forging process and possible faults in
the developed tooling.
Gear shaft
We would like to thank the following companies for their great help in providing illustrations
and technical information:
Acument Global Technologies, Inc. Lasco Umformtechnik GmbH
BMW AG Mahle Brockhaus GmbH
Bombardier AG Müller-Weingarten AG
BPW AG Pratt & Whitney
Buderus Edelstahlwerke- Presswerk Krefeld GmbH & Co. KG
Schmiedetechnik GmbH Prinz Verbindungselemente GmbH
Caterpillar AG Räuchle GmbH + Co. KG
CDP Bharat Forge GmbH Schubert Maschinen und Anlagen GmbH
Dango & Dienenthal GmbH Schuler Group
Daimler AG Siepmann Persta GmbH
FEMUTEC / simufact engineering GmbH SITEMA GmbH & Co. KG
GKN GmbH SMS Group
Hatebur AG ThyssenKrupp Gerlach GmbH
Hammerwerk Fridingen GmbH ThyssenKrupp Presta AG
Hirschvogel Automotive Group Volkswagen AG
Kamax-Werke Zeller + Gmelin GmbH & Co. KG
Karl Diederichs KG
Copyright 2011. All shown images, photos and texts are copyrighted. Partial reproduction of any contents
only permitted by referencing the source.
Infostelle Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V., Goldene Pforte 1, 58093 Hagen, Deutschland.
Our website: www.metalform.de
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Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application 95
Imprint
Voigtländer, O.:
Perspektiven der Massivumformung in den 90er Jahren.
Werkstatt und Betrieb 121 (1988) 7. S. 561/567
DIN Normenheft 7:
Anwendung der Normen über Form- und Lagetoleranzen in der
Praxis.
4. Auflage Berlin und Köln; Beuth-Verlag 1987
Breuer, H.-W.:
Gestaltung beanspruchungs- und fertigungsgerechter
Schmiedeteile.
Konstruktion 43 (1991) S.285/291
Dahme, M. u.a.:
Gemeinschaftliche CAD/CAM- Entwicklungen: Basis für
Simultaneous Engineering.
Schmiede-Journal (1995) September S. 17/18
The manufacturer lists can be downloaded free of charge (pdf data) on the internet:
www.metalform.de