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Attention and Misdirection: How to Use Conjuring Experience to Study

Attentional Processes

Chapter · January 2015

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In Fa wc e t t , J .M., Ris ko , E.F. & King s t o ne , A. ( 2 0 1 5 ) . The ha nd b o o k o f a t t e nt io n.

MIT Pre s s , Ca m b rid g e , Ma s s a c hus e t t s , p . 5 0 3 -5 2 5

At t e n t io n a n d Mis d ire c t io n : Ho w t o Us e Co n ju rin g

Ex p e rie n c e t o S t u d y At t e n t io n a l Pro c e s s e s

Gus t a v Kuhn a nd Ro b e rt Te s z ka

Ma g ic is o ne o f t he o ld e s t a rt fo rm s , d a t ing b a c k t o t he a nc ie nt Eg yp t ia ns —

s o m e o f t he a nc ie nt s c ro lls re p o rt a m a g ic ia n b a ffling his a ud ie nc e b y

d e c a p it a t ing t he he a d o f a live g o o s e o nly t o re s t o re t he a nim a l a nd b ring it

b a c k t o life ( Chris t o p he r, 2 0 0 6 ) . Sinc e writ t e n re c o rd s b e g a n, we ha ve b e e n

fa s c ina t e d wit h t he wa y c o njuro rs a llo w us t o e xp e rie nc e t he im p o s s ib le .

Alt ho ug h m a g ic t ric ks ha ve e vo lve d o ve r t im e , m a ny o f t he b a s ic p rinc ip le s

re m a in t he s a m e . Mis d ire c t io n is a fund a m e nt a l p rinc ip le und e rlying m o s t m a g ic

t ric ks , a nd it ha s b e e n s ug g e s t e d t ha t “m is d ire c t io n p la ys s uc h a n im p o rt a nt

ro le in m a g ic t ha t o ne m ig ht s a y t ha t m a g ic is m is d ire c t io n a nd m is d ire c t io n is

m a g ic ” ( Hug a rd , 1 9 6 0 , p . 1 1 5 ) . Ma ny m a g ic b o o ks d e fine m is d ire c t io n a s a

fo rm o f d e c e p t io n in whic h t he a t t e nt io n o f a n a ud ie nc e is m a nip ula t e d ( Bruno ,

Pa g e 1 o f 3 9
1 9 7 8 ; Fit z ke e , 1 9 4 5 ; Ha y, 1 9 7 2 ) . Alt ho ug h a t t e nt io n p la ys a n im p o rt a nt ro le in

m is d ire c t io n, t he re is m o re t o m is d ire c t io n t ha n m e e t s t he e ye .

The re is a c le a r link b e t we e n m is d ire c t io n a nd a t t e nt io n, a nd m a g ic ia ns ’

a p p lie d kno wle d g e c a n p o t e nt ia lly p ro vid e ne w ins ig ht s int o a t t e nt io n a nd

a wa re ne s s ( Kuhn, Am la ni, & Re ns ink, 2 0 0 8 ; Ma c knik e t a l., 2 0 0 8 ; Re s nink &

Kuhn, 2 0 1 4 ) . In t his c ha p t e r we p ro vid e a ro a d m a p e xp la ining ho w t his a p p lie d

kno wle d g e c a n b e us e d t o s t ud y vis ua l a t t e nt io n. Ma g ic ia ns ’ t he o rie s o f

m is d ire c t io n p ro vid e a va lua b le s t a rt ing p o int s inc e m uc h o f t he ir a p p lie d

kno wle d g e ha s been fo rm a liz e d in t he o re t ic a l a c c o unt s o f m is d ire c t io n.

Ho we ve r, und e rs t a nd ing t he a t t e nt io na l m e c ha nis m s re q uire s e xp e rim e nt a l

re s e a rc h. We o ut line ho w m is d ire c t io n c a n b e s t ud ie d e xp e rim e nt a lly a nd d is c us s

s o m e o f t he p o t e nt ia l a d va nt a g e s o f t his a p p ro a c h ( e .g ., hig h e c o lo g ic a l va lid it y,

d is c o ve ring no ve l p rinc ip le s o f a t t e nt io n) . Alt ho ug h m is d ire c t io n is c e nt ra l t o

m a g ic , d e fining m is d ire c t io n in a m e a ning ful wa y is fa r fro m t rivia l, whic h is why

we s t a rt b y d is c us s ing t he c o nc e p t o f m is d ire c t io n.

His t o ric a l Co n t e x t

Ma g ic t ric ks a re g e ne ra lly d e s c rib e d in t e rm s o f m e t ho d s a nd e ffe c t s . The e ffe c t

is t he m a g ic a l e ve nt e xp e rie nc e d b y t he s p e c t a t o r ( e .g ., a ra b b it a p p e a rs ) , a nd

t he m e t ho d re fe rs t o t he wa y in whic h t his s e e m ing ly im p o s s ib le e ve nt wa s

c re a t e d ( e .g ., m is d ire c t ing a t t e nt io n a nd t hus p re ve nt ing t he a ud ie nc e fro m

no t ic ing t he m a g ic ia n s e c re t ly s ne a king t he ra b b it int o t he ha t ) . Lo o s e ly

d e fine d , m is d ire c t io n is us e d t o p re ve nt t he s p e c t a t o r fro m no t ic ing t he m e t ho d

Pa g e 2 o f 3 9
us e d t o c re a t e t he e ffe c t while s t ill e xp e rie nc ing t he e ffe c t ( La m o nt & Wis e m a n,

1 9 9 9 ) . This d e finit io n ha s t wo p a rt s t o it . On o ne le ve l, m is d ire c t io n is us e d t o

p re ve nt p e o p le fro m s e e ing a n e ve nt . This is a n im p o rt a nt aspect of

m is d ire c t io n, b ut it is c le a rly no t s uffic ie nt . Im a g ine a s it ua t io n in whic h t he

m a g ic ia n a s ks yo u t o lo o k a t t he p e rs o n b e hind yo u, a ft e r whic h he re a c he s int o

his s e c re t p o c ke t , g ra b s t he ra b b it , a nd p la c e s it int o his t o p ha t . Onc e yo u

o rie nt yo ur a t t e nt io n b a c k t o t he s t a g e , t he m a g ic ia n wa ve s his m a g ic wa nd a nd

p ro d uc e s t he ra b b it . Mis d ire c t io n o nly wo rks if o b s e rve rs d o n’t a t t rib ut e

m is d ire c t io n a s a p o t e nt ia l m e t ho d fo r t he e ffe c t , whic h is why t he s p e c t a t o r

s ho uld no t b e a wa re o f t he m is d ire c t io n ( La m o nt & Wis e m a n, 1 9 9 9 ) .

Alt ho ug h a t t e nt io n p la ys a n im p o rt a nt ro le , m is d ire c t io n is no t lim it e d t o

m a nip ula t ing a t t e nt io n ( Kuhn, Ca ffa ra t t i, Te s z ka , & Re ns ink, 2 0 1 4 ) , no r is it

c o nfine d t o m a g ic . Fo r e xa m p le , p o lit ic ia ns a re o ft e n a c c us e d o f us ing

m is d ire c t io n t o d e fle c t t he m e d ia ’s a t t e nt io n a wa y fro m le s s d e s ira b le is s ue s .

Fo r t he p urp o s e o f t his re vie w we will fo c us o n a t t e nt io na l m is d ire c t io n a nd t he

wa y it c a n b e us e d t o s t ud y a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s . So m e o f o ur e a rly p io ne e rs in

p s yc ho lo g ic a l re s e a rc h s ho we d a ke e n int e re s t in s t ud ying m a g ic s c ie nt ific a lly

( Bine t , 1 8 9 4 ; Trip le t t , 1 9 0 0 ) . Mo re re c e nt ly, it ha s b e e n s ug g e s t e d t ha t

s c ie nt is t s c o uld le a rn m uc h fro m s t ud ying c o njuring s c ie nt ific a lly ( De m a c he va ,

La d o uc e ur, St e inb e rg , Po g o s s o va , & Ra z , 2 0 1 2 ; Kuhn, Am la ni, & Re ns ink, 2 0 0 8 ;

Ma c knik e t a l., 2 0 0 8 ; Re ns ink & Kuhn, 2 0 1 4 ) . Int uit ive ly, t he c o nne c t io n

b e t we e n a t t e nt io n a nd m is d ire c t io n is c le a r, a nd it is e a s y t o s e e ho w s o m e o f

t he m a g ic ia n’s re a l-wo rld e xp e rie nc e in a t t e nt io na l m a nip ula t io n c o uld b e

Pa g e 3 o f 3 9
e xp lo it e d . Tha t s a id , s t ud ying m is d ire c t io n in a m e a ning ful wa y is c ha lle ng ing .

Ho w d o yo u m e a s ure whe t he r t he m is d ire c t io n wa s e ffe c t ive ? Wha t c o g nit ive

m e c ha nis m s a re influe nc e d b y t he m is d ire c t io n? Whic h p rinc ip le o f m is d ire c t io n

a re yo u s t ud ying ?

Be lo w we d is c us s d iffe re nt a p p ro a c he s t ha t ha ve b e e n us e d t o s t ud y

m is d ire c t io n in re la t io n t o a t t e nt io n. We will a ls o d is c us s t he a d va nt a g e s t ha t

t his a p p ro a c h ha s o ve r m o re t ra d it io na l e xp e rim e nt a l m e t ho d o lo g ie s .

Ho w Ca n We S t u d y Mis d ire c t io n ?

Ma g ic ia n s ’ Re a l- Wo rld Ex p e rie n c e

Go o d m a g ic re q uire s a c o m p re he ns ive und e rs t a nd ing o f ho w t o m is d ire c t

s o m e o ne ’s a t t e nt io n. Be c o m ing a p ro fe s s io na l m a g ic ia n t yp ic a lly re q uire s a ro und

1 0 ,0 0 0 ho urs o f t ra ining , a nd m uc h o f t his t ra ining t a ke s t he fo rm o f

p e rfo rm ing in fro nt o f live a ud ie nc e s ( Ris s a ne n, Pa lo ne n, Pit kä ne n, Kuhn, &

Ha kka ra ine n, 2 0 1 3 ) . Pro fe s s io na l m a g ic ia ns us e t he a ud ie nc e ’s re a c t io n a s

fe e d b a c k o n t he ir p e rfo rm a nc e a nd t e c hniq ue . Ye a rs o f e xp e rie nc e e na b le s t he

p ra c t ic ing m a g ic ia n t o a c q uire re a l-wo rld kno wle d g e a b o ut ho w t o m is d ire c t

a t t e nt io n. This kno wle d g e a b o ut a t t e nt io na l t e c hniq ue s ha s b e e n t ho ro ug hly

t e s t e d in fro nt o f live a ud ie nc e s , a p ro c e s s t ha t is no t t ha t d is s im ila r t o t he wa y

in whic h s c ie nt is t s t e s t t he ir t he o rie s o f a t t e nt io n in t he la b . If t he m a g ic ia n’s

c o nc e p t o f m is d ire c t io n is inc o rre c t , t he s e c re t will b e s p o t t e d a nd t he m a g ic

t ric k will fa il. Fo r m is d ire c t io n t o b e e ffe c t ive , t he p rinc ip le s m us t b e b o t h

Pa g e 4 o f 3 9
p o we rful ( i.e ., e ve ryb o d y’s a t t e nt io n m us t b e m is d ire c t e d ) a nd re lia b le ( i.e ., it

m us t a lwa ys wo rk) . This re a l-wo rld e xp e rie nc e in m is d ire c t io n p ro vid e s a us e ful

s t a rt ing p o int fo r s t ud ying a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s .

Mo s t m a g ic ia ns a re re luc t a nt t o e xp la in ho w ind ivid ua l t ric ks a re d o ne , a nd

a c c e s s ing t his kno wle d g e a s a n o ut s id e r c a n b e c ha lle ng ing . Ho we ve r, it is

im p o rt a nt t o no t e t ha t s inc e t he firs t m a g ic b o o k in 1 5 8 4 ( Sc o t , 1 5 8 4 )

t ho us a nd s o f m a g ic b o o ks a nd m a g ic t ric ks ha ve b e e n p ub lis he d , a nd m a ny

m a g ic ia ns a re ha p p y t o t a lk t o la y p e o p le a b o ut g e ne ra l p rinc ip le s in m a g ic ( e .g .,

s e e t he e xp lo s io n o f ins t ruc t io na l DVDs a nd o nline vid e o s ) . The m a in c ha lle ng e

lie s in t he fa c t t ha t m o s t kno wle d g e a b o ut m is d ire c t io n is d e s c rib e d a s p a rt o f

ind ivid ua l m a g ic t ric ks a nd is e m b e d d e d wit hin o t he r le s s re le va nt t e c hnic a l

d e t a ils . Mo s t no nm a g ic ia ns will s t rug g le t o fully und e rs t a nd t he d e s c rip t io ns

s im p ly b e c a us e t he y la c k t he re le va nt b a c kg ro und info rm a t io n, s im ila r t o t he

wa y no ns c ie nt is t s m a y s t rug g le t o und e rs t a nd a p s yc ho lo g y jo urna l a rt ic le . In

t he fo llo wing s e c t io ns we will s um m a riz e t his s p e c ia lis t kno wle d g e wit h t he a im

o f p ro vid ing t he re a d e r wit h e no ug h d e t a il t o a p p ly it in e xp e rim e nt a l re s e a rc h

o n a t t e nt io n.

The Ta rb e ll m a il-o rd e r c o urs e in m a g ic wa s a n e a rly wo rk t ha t d e vo t e d a

s e c t io n s p e c ific a lly t o p s yc ho lo g y a nd t o m is d ire c t io n ( Ta rb e ll, 1 9 2 7 / 1 9 7 1 ) a nd

b e c a m e e no rm o us ly influe nt ia l a m o ng m a g ic ia ns a ft e r b e ing c o lle c t e d a s a s e rie s

o f b o o ks in t he 1 9 5 0 s . One o f t he s e le s s o ns s p e c ific a lly fo c us e s o n m is d ire c t io n

a nd d is c us s e s s e ve ra l p rinc ip le s t ha t ha d b e e n writ t e n a b o ut in s e p a ra t e wo rks .

It s t a t e s o ut rig ht t ha t “whe re ve r yo u d ire c t t he ir a t t e nt io n, t he a ud ie nc e will

Pa g e 5 o f 3 9
lo o k t he re ” a nd t ha t t his c a n b e d o ne b e c a us e t he a ud ie nc e fo llo ws yo ur e ye s ,

s ho wing t ha t m a g ic ia ns ha ve int uit ive ly und e rs t o o d g a z e fo llo wing . The le s s o n

a ls o d is c us s e s t he p rinc ip le o f na t ura lne s s a nd t he wa y in whic h a wkwa rd a nd

unus ua l ha nd p o s it io ns a t t ra c t a t t e nt io n. Se ve ra l o t he r e a rly wo rks d is c us s

m is d ire c t io n, b ut we will t urn t o b o o ks t ha t fo c us s ub s t a nt ia lly o r e nt ire ly o n

d e fining a nd und e rs t a nd ing m is d ire c t io n.

Da rie l Fit z ke e ’s ( 1 9 4 5 ) Mag ic b y Mis d ire c t io n c o ve rs s e ve ra l p rinc ip le s in

d e p t h, wit h s p e c ific us a g e o f p s yc ho lo g ic a l t e rm ino lo g y. He a rg ue d t ha t a c o re

p rinc ip le o f m is d ire c t io n invo lve s t he c o nt ro l o f a t t e nt io n, a nd he d e vo t e d

s e p a ra t e c ha p t e rs t o d iffe re nt m e t ho d s o f m a nip ula t ing a t t e nt io n. The e ffic a c y

o f a ll t he m e t ho d s is b a s e d o n t he t he o ry t ha t a ll m is d ire c t io n a c t s b y

m a nip ula t ing t he s p e c t a t o r’s c o g nit ive fa c ult ie s . It is im p o rt a nt t o no t e t ha t

Fit z ke e us e s a m uc h b ro a d e r d e finit io n o f a t t e nt io n t ha n we wo uld us e t o d a y.

Fit z ke e a nd m a ny o t he r m a g ic ia ns us e t he t e rm “a t t e nt io n” t o d e s c rib e o ur

a wa re ne s s , a nd t he re is a s t ro ng im p lic it a s s um p t io n t ha t a t t e nt io n a nd

a wa re ne s s a re d ire c t ly linke d . Sp e c t a t o rs a re una wa re o f t he m e t ho d b e hind t he

e ffe c t b e c a us e m is d ire c t io n influe nc e s no t o nly t he ir a wa re ne s s o f e ve nt s b ut

a ls o t he ir re a s o ning a nd int e rp re t a t io n o f t ho s e e ve nt s . Co re t e c hniq ue s fo r

d o ing t his inc lud e c re a t ing int e re s t in s o m e e ve nt s b y he ig ht e ning t he

a ud ie nc e ’s a nt ic ip a t io n t ha t s o m e t hing is a b o ut t o ha p p e n o r b y m a king t he

e ve nt unus ua l. Co nve rs e ly, int e re s t in a n a re a is re d uc e d b y ha ving t he e ve nt

s e e m na t ura l in c o nt e xt o r b y c re a t ing a m o m e nt o f re la xa t io n ( a ft e r a n o b je c t

Pa g e 6 o f 3 9
a p p e a rs o r whe n a t ric k a p p e a rs t o b e o ve r) . Fit z ke e ’s wo rk is c o m p re he ns ive ,

b ut it d o e s no t a t t e m p t t o c la s s ify o r o rg a niz e t he p rinc ip le s .

J o s e p h Bruno ( 1 9 7 8 ) p ro p o s e d a m o re s ys t e m a t ic a p p ro a c h in A nat o m y

o f Mis d ire c t io n, whe re he a rg ue s t ha t m is d ire c t io n c a n e it he r d is t ra c t , d ive rt , o r

re la x a t t e nt io n. Dis t ra c t io n is a ke y p rinc ip le t ha t m a g ic ia ns us e t o d ivid e

a t t e nt io n b e t we e n m ult ip le e ve nt s , a nd it wo rks b e c a us e t he s p e c t a t o rs c a nno t

ke e p t ra c k o f e ve ryt hing t ha t is ha p p e ning . Bruno a rg ue s t ha t d is t ra c t io n wo rks

a s lo ng a s it m a ke s s e ns e in c o nt e xt , b ut t ha t it is e s s e nt ia lly a ra t he r c rud e

fo rm o f m is d ire c t io n. Ma g ic ia ns a re t he re fo re a d vis e d t o d ive rt a t t e nt io n ra t he r

t ha n d is t ra c t it . Ac c o rd ing t o Bruno , d ive rs io n m e a ns ho ld ing a t t e nt io n. The

p e rfo rm a nc e a p p e a rs t o b e unint e rrup t e d , a nd t he s p e c t a t o rs fe e l t ha t t he y

we re wa t c hing e ve ryt hing t he who le t im e . Ma g ic ia ns ho ld a t t e nt io n b y c re a t ing

int e re s t . The y c a n hig hlig ht a s p e c ia l o b je c t o r im p o rt a nt a c t io n, o r t a ke

a d va nt a g e o f t he c lim a x o f a n e ffe c t t ha t jus t o c c urre d . While t he s p e c t a t o rs

a t t e nd t o t he d ive rs io n, t he y a re una wa re o f a ny s e c re t m e t ho d s t ha t a re

c a rrie d o ut e ls e whe re . Fina lly t he re is t he p rinc ip le o f re la xa t io n, whe re

s p e c t a t o rs a s s um e t ha t no t hing is ha p p e ning . During a p a us e , o r a ft e r t he

c o nc lus io n t o a n e ffe c t , s p e c t a t o rs d o no t fo c us t he ir a t t e nt io n, a nd s o t he

m a g ic ia n c a n ut iliz e his o r he r s e c re t m e t ho d t o s e t up a n e ffe c t . The m a g ic ia n

c a n a ls o a c t ive ly re la x a t t e nt io n ( o r re d uc e int e re s t ) b y re p e a t ing a n a c t io n

no rm a lly unt il it is no lo ng e r wo rt h a t t e nd ing t o , a t whic h p o int a “fa ke ” ve rs io n

o f t he a c t io n c a n b e p e rfo rm e d s o t ha t a s e c re t m e t ho d c a n b e a p p lie d .

Pa g e 7 o f 3 9
 In Co njuro rs ’ Ps y c ho lo g ic al S e c re t s S. H. Sha rp e ( 1 9 8 8 ) c o ns t ruc t e d a

m o re a c a d e m ic c la s s ific a t io n of m is d ire c t io n, wit h re fe re nc e to e a rly

p s yc ho lo g ic a l re s e a rc h a va ila b le a t t he t im e ( Trip le t t , 1 9 0 0 ) . Cruc ia lly, his

fra m e wo rk d is t ing uis he s b e t we e n a t t e nt io n a nd ina t t e nt io n. In t his t he o ry,

m is d ire c t io n ha s t wo d im e ns io ns . Me t ho d s in whic h t he m a g ic ia n d e lib e ra t e ly

a c t s t o c ha ng e a s p e c t s o f t he e nviro nm e nt , s uc h a s t he p hys ic a l a p p e a ra nc e o r

a n o b je c t ’s p o t e nt ia l im p o rt a nc e ( a c t ive m is d ire c t io n) a re c o nt ra s t e d t o

m e t ho d s t ha t d e p e nd o n t he s t im uli’s int rins ic p ro p e rt ie s ra t he r t ha n t he

m a g ic ia n’s invo lve m e nt , s uc h a s us ing c o m m o n o b je c t s ins t e a d o f s us p ic io us

p la s t ic p ro p s ( p a s s ive m is d ire c t io n) . The o t he r fa c t o r is t he p urp o s e o f t he

m is d ire c t io n, whic h c o uld b e t o d is g uis e ( in o rd e r t o a vo id a t t e nt io n) o r t o

d is t ra c t b y d e lib e ra t e ly s hift ing a t t e nt io n. The s e t wo fa c t o rs c o m b ine t o c re a t e

fo ur t yp e s o f m is d ire c t io n.

Mo re re c e nt ly, Mag ic in The o ry p ro p o s e d a t a xo no m y o f m is d ire c t io n t ha t

wa s int e nd e d t o b e us e d b y a c a d e m ic p s yc ho lo g y re s e a rc he rs (La m o nt &

Wis e m a n, 1 9 9 9 ) . Mis d ire c t io n is d ivid e d int o p hys ic a l a nd p s yc ho lo g ic a l

m is d ire c t io n. The fo rm e r d e a ls wit h m a nip ula t ing a t t e nt io n, while t he la t t e r

c o nc e rns m a nip ula t ing p e o p le ’s s us p ic io ns . This c a p t ure s t he d is t inc t io n

b e t we e n a t t e nt io na l a nd no na t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s t ha t wa s o nly im p lic it in t he

p re vio us wo rks . Phys ic a l m is d ire c t io n invo lve s no t o nly d ire c t ing whe re t he

s p e c t a t o r is lo o king b ut a ls o whe n t he y lo o k, b y re d uc ing a t t e nt io n a t t he t im e

o f t he m e t ho d a nd inc re a s ing it a t t he t im e o f t he m a g ic a l e ffe c t . Ps yc ho lo g ic a l

m is d ire c t io n re d uc e s s us p ic io n a b o ut t he t rue m e t ho d by influe nc ing

Pa g e 8 o f 3 9
no na t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s s uc h a s s p e c t a t o rs ’ a b ilit y t o re a s o n a b o ut t he

m e t ho d a nd ho w t he y int e rp re t t he a c t io ns t he y s e e .

S t a t e - o f - t h e - Art Re v ie w

Ho w c a n we us e t he a p p lie d kno wle d g e a b o ve t o furt he r o ur s c ie nt ific

und e rs t a nd ing o f a t t e nt io n? One o f t he m a in c ha lle ng e s is t ha t m o s t t he o rie s o f

m is d ire c t io n us e ra t he r lo o s e d e finit io ns o f a t t e nt io n, a nd s o m e o f t he s e

d e finit io ns d o no t ne c e s s a rily c o rre s p o nd t o t he c o nc e p t s us e d b y re s e a rc he rs .

Sc ie nc e re lie s o n p re c is e d e finit io ns a nd c le a rly s p e c ifie d t he o rie s a b o ut s p e c ific

m e c ha nis m s . Und e rs t a nd ing t he p s yc ho lo g ic a l m e c ha nis m s und e rlying t he s e

m is d ire c t io n t he o rie s t he re fo re re q uire s furt he r s c ie nt ific inve s t ig a t io n. Alt ho ug h

m is d ire c t io n t he o rie s a re b a s e d o n re a l-wo rld e xp e rie nc e , t he y a re ult im a t e ly

b a s e d o n a ne c d o t a l e vid e nc e , a nd in s o m e c a s e s e ve n t he m a g ic ia n’s int uit io n

m a y b e wro ng . Fo r e xa m p le , it is a s s um e d t ha t vis ua l s o c ia l c ue s ( e .g ., e ye

g a z e ) a re a m o ng t he m o s t e ffe c t ive o f c ue s fo r m is d ire c t ing a t t e nt io n ( Fit z ke e ,

1 9 4 5 ; La m o nt & Wis e m a n, 1 9 9 9 ; Sha rp e , 1 9 8 8 ) . While t he re is m uc h e m p iric a l

e vid e nc e t o s up p o rt t he us e o f vis ua l s o c ia l c ue s ( Kuhn & La nd , 2 0 0 6 ; Kuhn,

Ta t le r, & Co le , 2 0 0 9 ; Ta t le r & Kuhn, 2 0 0 7 ) , t he ir us e m a y b e lim it e d t o c e rt a in

s it ua t io ns ( Cui, Ot e ro -Milla n, Ma c knik, King , & Ma rt ine z-Co nd e , 2 0 1 1 ) . The o rie s

o f m is d ire c t io n p ro vid e a va lua b le s t a rt ing p o int fo r a t t e nt io n re s e a rc h.

Ho we ve r, t he s e t he o rie s c a nno t b e t a ke n a t fa c e va lue a nd m us t b e e va lua t e d

wit h e xp e rim e nt a l e vid e nc e .

Pa g e 9 o f 3 9
Co n t ro lle d Ex p e rim e n t a t io n

St ud ying m is d ire c t io n s c ie nt ific a lly ha s t he p o t e nt ia l o f info rm ing us a b o ut ne w

a t t e nt io na l p he no m e na a nd a llo ws us t o d e ve lo p no ve l p a ra d ig m s t o s t ud y

a t t e nt io n a nd a wa re ne s s . Ho we ve r, t he t ra ns la t io n fro m t he m a g ic ia n’s s t a g e t o

t he la b a ls o p o s e s c ha lle ng e s . Mo s t o f t he p rinc ip le s d is c us s e d a b o ve ha ve s o

fa r no t b e e n s t ud ie d e xp e rim e nt a lly, a nd we ho p e t ha t t he m e t ho d o lo g ic a l

is s ue s d is c us s e d he re will he lp fut ure re s e a rc he rs t o t ra ns la t e b e t we e n m a g ic

t he o ry a nd s c ie nt ific e xp e rim e nt a t io n.

Fo r c o nt ro lle d e xp e rim e nt a t io n, it is a p p ro p ria t e t o is o la t e s o m e o f t he s e

p rinc ip le s a nd fo c us o n t ho s e t ha t ha ve a p p lic a t io ns o ut s id e t he c o nt e xt o f a

p a rt ic ula r m a g ic t ric k. Ne xt , we ne e d t o d e c id e o n ho w t o m e a s ure whe t he r t he

m is d ire c t io n wa s e ffe c t ive o r no t . Mis d ire c t io n is int e nd e d t o p re ve nt p e o p le

fro m no t ic ing t he m e t ho d , a nd it t he re fo re m a ke s int uit ive s e ns e t o e va lua t e

whe t he r t his wa s a c hie ve d o r no t . The m o s t d ire c t wa y o f d o ing t his is t o a s k

p e o p le whe t he r t he y s a w ho w t he t ric k wa s d o ne . Ho we ve r, no t a ll m e t ho d s a re

vis ib le , whic h is why s o m e re s e a rc he rs ha ve c ho s e n t o d e ve lo p p a ra d ig m s in

whic h m is d ire c t io n is us e d t o p re ve nt p e o p le fro m s e e ing a p o t e nt ia lly vis ib le

e ve nt . Kuhn a nd Ta t le r ( 2 0 0 5 ) d e ve lo p e d a m is d ire c t io n p a ra d ig m whe re t he

o b s e rve r e xp e rie nc e s a m a g ic t ric k in whic h t he m a g ic ia n a p p a re nt ly m a ke s a

lig ht e r a nd a c ig a re t t e d is a p p e a r. The m e t ho d fo r t his e ffe c t is ve ry s im p le in

t ha t t he m a g ic ia n jus t d ro p s t he it e m s int o his la p ( s e e fig ure 2 2 .1 fo r

illus t ra t io n) . Cruc ia lly, t his t a ke s p la c e in full vie w s o t ha t t he d ro p p ing it e m s a re

Pa g e 1 0 o f 3 9
fully vis ib le . The m a g ic ia n e m p lo ys m is d ire c t io n t ha t p re ve nt s m o s t o f t he

p a rt ic ip a nt s fro m no t ic ing t he d ro p p ing it e m s a lt ho ug h it ha p p e ns in full vie w.

As t he m e t ho d is p o t e nt ia lly vis ib le , p e o p le ’s d e t e c t io n o f t he e ve nt ( s e e ing t he

it e m s b e ing d ro p p e d ) p ro vid e s a d ire c t ind e x o f whe t he r t he m is d ire c t io n wa s

e ffe c t ive o r no t . In s ub s e q ue nt e xp e rim e nt s t he m a g ic ia n m a d e o nly a lig ht e r

d is a p p e a r, b ut t he ra t io na le re m a ine d t he s a m e ( Kuhn e t a l., 2 0 0 9 ) . Im p o rt a nt ly,

if t he s a m e t ric k is re p e a t e d , m o s t p a rt ic ip a nt s no t ic e t he d ro p p ing lig ht e r, t hus

illus t ra t ing t ha t t he m e t ho d wa s ind e e d p o t e nt ia lly vis ib le ( Kuhn & Ta t le r, 2 0 0 5 ;

Kuhn e t a l., 2 0 0 9 ) . Ant ho ny Ba rnha rt ha s d e ve lo p e d a p a ra d ig m in whic h

m is d ire c t io n is us e d t o p re ve nt p a rt ic ip a nt s fro m no t ic ing a c o in t ha t vis ib ly

m o ve s fro m o ne c up t o t he o t he rs ( Ba rnha rt & Go ld ing e r, 2 0 1 4 ) . The ra t io na le

b e hind t his p a ra d ig m is t he s a m e in t ha t t he e ffe c t ive ne s s o f t he m is d ire c t io n is

m e a s ure d b y e s t a b lis hing whe t he r t he e ve nt wa s p e rc e ive d o r no t .

Ot he rs ha ve us e d m is d ire c t io n t o p re ve nt p a rt ic ip a nt s fro m no t ic ing t he

c ha ng e in a n o b je c t a nd t hus ind uc e d a p e rc e p t ua l fa ilure s im ila r t o c ha ng e

b lind ne s s . Fo r e xa m p le , T. J . Sm it h, La m o nt , a nd He nd e rs o n ( 2 0 1 3 ) d e s ig ne d a

s t ud y in whic h t he b a c k o f a d e c k o f c a rd s c ha ng e d fro m b lue t o re d .

Pa rt ic ip a nt s we re a s ke d t o c o unt t he num b e r o f c a rd s t ha t we re b e ing d e a lt o n

t he t a b le . The b a c ks o f t he firs t five c a rd s we re b lue , b ut t he re m a ining c a rd s

ha d re d b a c ks . Alt ho ug h t he c ha ng e in c o lo r wa s fully vis ib le , m o s t p a rt ic ip a nt s

fa ile d t o no t ic e t he c ha ng e . In o ur o wn wo rk we ha ve us e d s le ig ht o f ha nd t o

vis ib ly c ha ng e t he b a c k o f a p a c ke t o f p la ying c a rd s ( Kuhn, Te s z ka , Te na w, &

King s t o ne , s ub m it t e d ) . If m is d ire c t io n is e m p lo ye d a t t he p o int a t whic h t he

Pa g e 1 1 o f 3 9
c o lo r c ha ng e o c c urs , m o s t p a rt ic ip a nt s fa il t o no t ic e it . Pe o p le ’s a b ilit y t o d e t e c t

t he c ha ng e p ro vid e s a us e ful ind e x o f t he s uc c e s s o f m is d ire c t io n.

Mis d ire c t io n ha s a ls o b e e n us e d t o m a ke p e o p le p e rc e ive e ve nt s t ha t ha ve

ne ve r t a ke n p la c e . Fo r e xa m p le , in t he va nis hing b a ll-illus io n, t he m a g ic ia n

p re t e nd s t o t hro w a b a ll up in t he a ir while s e c re t ly p a lm ing it in his ha nd ( Kuhn

& La nd , 2 0 0 6 ; s e e fig ure 2 2 .2 ) . The m a g ic ia n m is d ire c t e d p e o p le ’s a t t e nt io n

a nd t he ir e xp e c t a t io ns , whic h re s ult e d in a n illus o ry p e rc e p t o f s e e ing t he b a ll

le a ving t he ha nd ( Kuhn & La nd , 2 0 0 6 ; Trip le t t , 1 9 0 0 ) . He re p e o p le ’s

p e rc e p t io n, o r m e m o ry, o f t he e ve nt p ro vid e d a n ind e x o f whe t he r t he

m is d ire c t io n wa s e ffe c t ive o r no t . Us ing a s im ila r a p p ro a c h, Cui e t a l. ( 2 0 1 1 )

us e d a vid e o c lip in whic h a m a g ic ia n p re t e nd e d t o t o s s a c o in fro m o ne ha nd t o

t he o t he r. Pa rt ic ip a nt s we re t he n a s ke d t o ind ic a t e whic h ha nd t he c o in wa s in.

If p a rt ic ip a nt s c la im e d t he c o in wa s in t he t a rg e t ha nd , t he m is d ire c t io n wa s

c o ns id e re d t o b e e ffe c t ive .

[ Ins e rt Fig ure 2 2 .2 ]

One o f t he d o wns id e s o f us ing vis ua l e xp e rie nc e a s a m e a s ure o f

m is d ire c t io n is t ha t we c a n o nly p ro b e a wa re ne s s a t d is c re t e p o int s in t im e , a nd

p a ra d ig m s ne e d t o b e d e ve lo p e d t ha t a llo w fo r a vis ua l p ro b e . Ma g ic ia ns

g e ne ra lly a s s um e t ha t m is d ire c t io n invo lve s m a nip ula t ing whe re we lo o k, a nd t he

t e rm s “s p a t ia l a t t e nt io n” a nd “e ye m o ve m e nt s ” a re o ft e n t re a t e d a s t he s a m e

( e .g ., La m o nt & Wis e m a n, 1 9 9 9 ) . Eye m o ve m e nt s p ro vid e us wit h a n o nline

m e a s ure o f vis ua l a t t e nt io n, a nd whe re we lo o k influe nc e s t he info rm a t io n t ha t

Pa g e 1 2 o f 3 9
is b e ing s e le c t e d ( Find la y & Gilc hris t , 2 0 0 3 ) . Mo s t e xp e rim e nt a l s t ud ie s o n

m is d ire c t io n ha ve inc lud e d e ye -m o ve m e nt m e a s ure s . Se ve ra l o f t he s e s t ud ie s

ha ve s ho wn t ha t m is d ire c t io n is ve ry e ffe c t ive a t influe nc ing whe re p e o p le lo o k

( Cui e t a l., 2 0 1 1 ; Kuhn & Find la y, 2 0 1 0 ; Kuhn & La nd , 2 0 0 6 ; Kuhn & Ta t le r,

2 0 0 5 ; Kuhn, Ta t le r, Find la y, & Co le , 2 0 0 8 ; T. J . Sm it h e t a l., 2 0 1 3 ) , a nd s o c ia l

c ue s , fo r e xa m p le , a re p a rt ic ula rly e ffe c t ive ( Kuhn e t a l., 2 0 0 9 ) . Ra t he r t ha n

fo c us ing o n whe re p e o p le lo o k, o t he rs ha ve fo c us e d o n t he t yp e s o f e ye

m o ve m e nt s p e o p le m a ke in re s p o ns e t o d iffe re nt t yp e s o f m is d ire c t io n c ue s

( Ot e ro -Milla n, Ma c knik, Ro b b ins , & Ma rt ine z -Co nd e , 2 0 1 1 ) .

Eye m o ve m e nt s p ro vid e us wit h a va lua b le wind o w int o t he m ind . The y

a llo w us t o m e a s ure p e o p le ’s fo c us o f a t t e nt io n d uring t he c o urs e o f a m a g ic

ro ut ine in a re la t ive ly uno b t rus ive m a nne r. Ho we ve r, it is im p o rt a nt t o no t e t ha t

whe re p e o p le lo o k d o e s no t ne c e s s a rily t e ll us wha t t he y s e e . Ma ny o f t he

s t ud ie s t ha t ha ve c o m b ine d e ye -m o ve m e nt m e a s ure s wit h p e rc e p t ua l p ro b e s

ha ve s ho wn t ha t t he re is ve ry lit t le re la t io ns hip b e t we e n whe re p e o p le lo o k a nd

whe t he r t he y d e t e c t a s us t a ine d e ve nt s uc h a s t he d ro p p ing o f t he lig ht e r

( Kuhn & Find la y, 2 0 1 0 ; Kuhn & Ta t le r, 2 0 0 5 ) o r no t ic e a vis ua l c ha ng e ( T. J .

Sm it h, La m o nt , & He nd e rs o n, 2 0 1 2 ) . This d is s o c ia t io n b e t we e n whe re p e o p le

lo o k a nd t he ir vis ua l e xp e rie nc e c a n p ro vid e us wit h va lua b le ins ig ht s int o t he

re la t io ns hip b e t we e n e ye m o ve m e nt s a nd vis ua l a wa re ne s s ( Ma c k & Ro c k, 1 9 9 8 ;

Me m m e rt , 2 0 0 6 ) .

St ud ying m is d ire c t io n a llo ws us t o inve s t ig a t e a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s

wit hin a m o re na t ura lis t ic c o nt e xt . Ho we ve r, e xp e rim e nt s in m is d ire c t io n re q uire

Pa g e 1 3 o f 3 9
a c e rt a in le ve l o f re d uc t io n a nd e xp e rim e nt a l c o nt ro l. Our firs t e xp e rim e nt a l

s t ud ie s inve s t ig a t ing a t t e nt io na l m is d ire c t io n we re c o nd uc t e d in hig hly

na t ura lis t ic s e t t ing s . In t he s e s t ud ie s we we re c o nc e rne d t ha t t he e xp e rim e nt a l

s e t t ing ( i.e ., d o ing m a g ic in a la b ) wo uld ha ve a d ve rs e e ffe c t s o n ho w p e o p le

wo uld p e rc e ive t he m a g ic t ric k, a nd s o we c ho s e t o c o nd uc t t he e ye -t ra c king

s t ud ie s in a unive rs it y b a r ( Kuhn & Ta t le r, 2 0 0 5 ) . Pa rt ic ip a nt s wa t c he d t he

m a g ic ia n p e rfo rm t he m is d ire c t io n t ric k in whic h a lig ht e r a nd a c ig a re t t e

d is a p p e a re d while we m o nit o re d t he ir e ye m o ve m e nt s us ing a re a l-wo rld e ye

t ra c ke r. The m is d ire c t io n wa s e xt re m e ly e ffe c t ive a t p re ve nt ing p a rt ic ip a nt s

fro m no t ic ing t he d ro p p ing lig ht e r, a nd t he m a g ic ia n t rie d his b e s t t o e ns ure

t ha t e a c h s ub s e q ue nt p e rfo rm a nc e wa s a s s im ila r a s p o s s ib le (Ta t le r & Kuhn,

2 0 0 7 ) . Ho we ve r, t he re wa s , o f c o urs e , no wa y o f e ns uring t ha t a ll o f t he

p e rfo rm a nc e s we re id e nt ic a l, a nd m e a s uring e ye m o ve m e nt s wit hin t his re a l-

wo rld c o nt e xt p re s e nt s a who le ra ng e o f t e c hnic a l c ha lle ng e s . In s ub s e q ue nt

e xp e rim e nt s t he s a m e m is d ire c t io n t ric k wa s p re re c o rd e d a nd p re s e nt e d o n a

c o m p ut e r m o nit o r. Alt ho ug h t he m is d ire c t io n wa s s o m e wha t le s s e ffe c t ive , it

s t ill wo rke d ( Kuhn, Ta t le r, e t a l., 2 0 0 8 ) . The fa c t t ha t m a g ic t ric ks wo rk whe n

p re s e nt e d o n a c o m p ut e r m o nit o r s ho uld p ro b a b ly c o m e a s lit t le s urp ris e , a s

t e le vis io n is a p o p ula r m e d ium fo r t his t yp e o f p e rfo rm a nc e . Mo re re c e nt ly, we

c o nd uc t e d a s t ud y inve s t ig a t ing t he im p o rt a nc e o f re a l fa c e -t o -fa c e int e ra c t io ns

in m is d ire c t io n b y ve rb a l a nd vis ua l s o c ia l c ue s ( Kuhn, Te s z ka , & King s t o ne ,

s ub m it t e d ) . To o ur s urp ris e , t he c ue s we re jus t a s e ffe c t ive whe n t he m a g ic

t ric k wa s p re s e nt e d o n a m o nit o r a s whe n it wa s p e rfo rm e d in a fa c e -t o -fa c e

Pa g e 1 4 o f 3 9
s it ua t io n. In t he vid e o c o nt e xt p a rt ic ip a nt s s p e nt m o re t im e lo o king a t t he fa c e

t ha n in t he fa c e -t o -fa c e c o nt e xt ( s e e a ls o La id la w, Fo uls ha m , Kuhn, &

King s t o ne , 2 0 1 1 ) , s ug g e s t ing t ha t t he re m a y b e s o m e s ub t le a t t e nt io na l

d iffe re nc e s . Ho we ve r, o n t he who le t he s e re s ult s a re g o o d ne ws fo r a t t e nt io n

re s e a rc he rs a s t he y d e m o ns t ra t e t ha t m is d ire c t io n c a n wo rk e ffe c t ive ly whe n

p re s e nt e d o n a c o m p ut e r m o nit o r.

In m o s t a t t e nt io n p a ra d ig m s p a rt ic ip a nt s a re e xp o s e d t o a la rg e num b e r

o f e xp e rim e nt a l t ria ls a nd we a ve ra g e p e rfo rm a nc e s a c ro s s t he s e t ria ls . One o f

t he ke y rule s in m a g ic s t a t e s t ha t m a g ic t ric ks s ho uld ne ve r b e re p e a t e d m o re

t ha n o nc e us ing t he s a m e m e t ho d . Ind e e d p re vio us s t ud ie s ha ve s ho wn ho w

re p e a t ing t he s a m e t ric k d ra m a t ic a lly inc re a s e s p e o p le ’s a b ilit y t o d e t e c t t he

e ve nt ( Kuhn & Find la y, 2 0 1 0 ; Kuhn & Ta t le r, 2 0 0 5 ) . Sim p ly t e lling s o m e o ne

wha t t he y a re a b o ut t o s e e inc re a s e s d e t e c t io n a nd s ig nific a nt ly c ha ng e s whe re

t he y lo o k ( Kuhn & Ta t le r, 2 0 0 5 ; Kuhn e t a l., 2 0 0 9 ; Kuhn, Ta t le r, e t a l., 2 0 0 8 ) .

Lim it ing yo ur e xp e rim e nt a l d e s ig n t o a s ing le t ria l c e rt a inly c re a t e s c ha lle ng e s .

Ho we ve r, t his is no t t ha t d iffe re nt fro m o t he r a t t e nt io n p a ra d ig m s , s uc h a s

ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s , whe re p a rt ic ip a nt s a re t yp ic a lly e xp o s e d t o o ne c rit ic a l

t ria l ( Ma c k & Ro c k, 1 9 9 8 ) . Ot he rs , ho we ve r, ha ve s t ud ie d m is d ire c t io n b y

p re s e nt ing p a rt ic ip a nt s wit h s e ve ra l re p e t it io ns o f t he s a m e t ric k (Cui e t a l.,

2 0 1 1 ; Ot e ro -Milla n e t a l., 2 0 1 1 ) , a nd t he re m a y b e s it ua t io ns in whic h it is

p o s s ib le t o d e s ig n m ult ip le -t ria l e xp e rim e nt s .

Pa g e 1 5 o f 3 9
Ad v a n t a g e s o f S t u d y in g Mis d ire c t io n

No w t ha t we ha ve a d d re s s e d t he m e t ho d o lo g ie s o n o ffe r t o s t ud y m is d ire c t io n,

we will fo c us o n s o m e o f t he p o t e nt ia l a d va nt a g e s t he s c ie nt ific s t ud y o f

m is d ire c t io n o ffe rs fo r re s e a rc h o n a t t e nt io n.

S t u d y in g At t e n t io n w it h Ec o lo g ic a l Va lid it y w it h o u t

Co m p ro m is in g Ex p e rim e n t a l Co n t ro l

The re ha s b e e n m uc h d e b a t e o n t he m e rit s a nd p it fa lls o f s t ud ying a t t e nt io na l

p ro c e s s e s wit hin t he c o nfine d s urro und ing s o f t he e xp e rim e nt a l la b o ra t o ry

( King s t o ne , Sm ile k, & Ea s t wo o d , 2 0 0 8 ; King s t o ne , Sm ile k, Ris t ic , Frie s e n, &

Ea s t wo o d , 2 0 0 3 ) . St ud ying a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s in t he c o nt e xt o f m is d ire c t io n

a llo ws re s e a rc he rs t o inve s t ig a t e a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s in m o re na t ura lis t ic

e nviro nm e nt s . The im p o rt a nc e o f e c o lo g ic a l va lid it y ha s b e c o m e p a rt ic ula rly

a p p a re nt in t he fie ld o f s o c ia l a t t e nt io n ( Ris ko , La id la w, Fre e t h, Fo uls ha m , &

King s t o ne , 2 0 1 2 ; Ska rra t t , Co le , & Kuhn, 2 0 1 2 ) b ut m a y a ls o a p p ly t o o t he r

is s ue s .

Ta t le r a nd Kuhn ( 2 0 0 7 ) us e d a c o rre la t io na l d e s ig n t o inve s t ig a t e t he

re la t io ns hip b e t we e n t he m a g ic ia n’s g a z e a nd t he o b s e rve rs ’ lo c us o f fixa t io n. In

t he ir e xp e rim e nt p a rt ic ip a nt s we re in a fa c e -t o -fa c e int e ra c t io n a nd t he e ye

m o ve m e nt s we re m o nit o re d us ing a re a l-wo rld e ye t ra c ke r. The re wa s a

s ig nific a nt c o rre la t io n b e t we e n whe re t he m a g ic ia n lo o ke d a nd t he a re a s fixa t e d

b y t he o b s e rve r. Ho we ve r, t he re we re c le a rly m a ny ins t a nc e s whe re t he g a z e

Pa g e 1 6 o f 3 9
wa s no t fo llo we d . A fo llo w-up s t ud y us e d a s im ila r m is d ire c t io n p a ra d ig m whe re

p a rt ic ip a nt s wa t c he d d iffe re nt vid e o s in whic h t he m a g ic ia n m a d e a lig ht e r

d is a p p e a r b y d ro p p ing it int o his la p (Kuhn e t a l., 2 0 0 9 ) . Cruc ia lly, in o ne o f t he

c o nd it io ns , s o c ia l c ue s ( i.e ., whe re t he m a g ic ia n lo o ke d ) we re us e d t o m is d ire c t

a t t e nt io n a wa y fro m t he d ro p , while in t he o t he r c o nd it io n, t he m a g ic ia n lo o ke d

s t ra ig ht a t t he d ro p p ing lig ht e r. Pa rt ic ip a nt s we re m uc h m o re like ly t o no t ic e

t he d ro p whe n t he m a g ic ia n lo o ke d a t t he d ro p p ing lig ht e r. The s e re s ult s

d e m o ns t ra t e d t ha t g a z e c ue s influe nc e b o t h whe re p e o p le lo o k a nd a t t e nt io na l

p ro c e s s e s t ha t a re ind e p e nd e nt o f e ye m o ve m e nt s ( i.e ., c o ve rt a t t e nt io n) . It

s ho uld b e no t e d t ha t a lt ho ug h t his e xp e rim e nt us e d a s ing le t ria l p e r p a rt ic ip a nt ,

t he d iffe re nc e wa s hig hly re lia b le .

So c ia l a t t e nt io n ha s a ls o b e e n s t ud ie d us ing t he va nis hing -b a ll illus io n

( Kuhn & La nd , 2 0 0 6 ) . He re t he m a g ic ia n p re t e nd e d t o t hro w a b a ll up in t he a ir

whe n in fa c t it re m a ine d c o nc e a le d in his ha nd . Cruc ia lly, in o ne o f t he

c o nd it io ns , t he m a g ic ia n’s g a z e fo llo we d t he im a g ina ry t ra je c t o ry o f t he b a ll,

while in t he o t he r c o nd it io n, he lo o ke d a t t he ha nd c o nc e a ling t he b a ll ( s e e

fig ure 2 2 .2 ) . The m is d ire c t io n t ha t wa s s up p o rt e d b y t he s o c ia l c ue s wa s fa r

m o re e ffe c t ive t ha n whe n t he m a g ic ia n lo o ke d a t t he ha nd , s up p o rt ing t he vie w

t ha t g a z e c ue s a re im p o rt a nt in d riving p e o p le ’s e xp e c t a t io ns . Whe n q ue s t io ne d ,

m o s t p a rt ic ip a nt s c la im e d t ha t t he y m e re ly lo o ke d a t t he b a ll, ye t t he e ye -

m o ve m e nt d a t a re ve a le d t ha t t he y s p e nt a la rg e p ro p o rt io n o f t he t im e lo o king

a t t he fa c e a nd m a d e s t ra t e g ic us e o f t he m a g ic ia n’s s o c ia l c ue s . The s e re s ult s

s ug g e s t t ha t we m a ke m o re us e o f s o c ia l c ue s t ha n we wo uld int uit ive ly t hink. In

Pa g e 1 7 o f 3 9
a ve ry re c e nt s t ud y us ing s e g m e nt s o f t he c up s a nd b a lls ro ut ine ( Ta c hib a na ,

2 0 1 4 ) it wa s s ho wn t ha t ind ivid ua ls who s p e nd m o re t im e lo o king a t t he fa c e

we re m o re m is d ire c t e d . Ot he rs , ho we ve r, ha ve s ho wn t ha t if t he re is a ra p id

a c t io n t ha t is c o nfine d t o a s m a ll s p a t ia l lo c a t io n, g a z e m a y no t a d d m uc h ( Cui

e t a l., 2 0 1 1 ) .

Mis d ire c t io n p a ra d ig m s ha ve a ls o b e e n us e d t o inve s t ig a t e ind ivid ua l

d iffe re nc e s in re s p o ns e t o s o c ia l c ue s . Im p a irm e nt s in s o c ia l int e ra c t io ns a re o ne

o f t he ha llm a rks o f a ut is m s p e c t rum d is o rd e r ( ASD; Am e ric a n Ps yc hia t ric

As s o c ia t io n, 1 9 9 4 ) , b ut it ha s b e e n d iffic ult t o find t his d iffe re nc e us ing

t ra d it io na l g a z e c uing p a ra d ig m s ( Na t io n & Pe nny, 2 0 0 8 ) . So m e ha ve a rg ue d

t ha t t he s e d iffe re nc e s a re no t fo und b e c a us e t yp ic a l g a z e c uing p a ra d ig m s d o

no t t a p int o s o c ia l p ro c e s s e s ( King s t o ne , 2 0 0 9 ; Na t io n & Pe nny, 2 0 0 8 ) . The

va nis hing -b a ll illus io n re lie s he a vily o n s o c ia l c ue s , whic h m a ke s it a n e c o lo g ic a lly

va lid t o o l t o inve s t ig a t e s o c ia l a t t e nt io n. Kuhn e t a l. ( 2 0 1 0 ) c o m p a re d t he

e ffe c t ive ne s s o f t his illus io n b e t we e n a g ro up o f hig h-func t io ning a d ult s wit h

ASD c o m p a re d t o a g ro up o f t yp ic a lly d e ve lo p ing ind ivid ua ls . If ind ivid ua ls wit h

ASD a re le s s influe nc e d b y s o c ia l c ue s , we wo uld e xp e c t t he m t o b e le s s

s us c e p t ib le t o t his illus io n. Ra t he r s urp ris ing ly, t he o p p o s it e p a t t e rn o f re s ult s

wa s fo und , in t ha t t he ind ivid ua ls wit h ASD we re s ig nific a nt ly m o re s us c e p t ib le

a nd t he ASD g ro up s p e nt t he s a m e a m o unt o f t im e lo o king a t t he m a g ic ia n’s

fa c e . Ho we ve r, t he y we re s ig nific a nt ly s lo we r t o fixa t e t he fa c e t ha n t he c o nt ro l

p a rt ic ip a nt s . The c o nt ro l p a rt ic ip a nt s we re e xt re m e ly e ffic ie nt a t us ing t he

m a g ic ia n’s s o c ia l c ue s t o he lp t he m fixa t e t he b a ll o nc e it wa s t hro wn in t he a ir,

Pa g e 1 8 o f 3 9
s o m e t hing t he ASD g ro up s t rug g le d t o d o . The s e re s ult s s ug g e s t t ha t b y

a d ult ho o d ind ivid ua ls wit h ASD d o lo o k a t fa c e s , b ut t he y a re no t a s e ffic ie nt a t

us ing t he c ue s p ro vid e d b y t he fa c e t o e xe c ut e e ye m o ve m e nt s t o t he rig ht

p la c e a t t he rig ht t im e . So c ia l c ue s fo rm a p ivo t a l a s p e c t o f m is d ire c t io n

( La m o nt & Wis e m a n, 1 9 9 9 ; Sha rp e , 1 9 8 8 ) , whic h is o ne wa y m is d ire c t io n o ffe rs

a va lua b le t e c hniq ue fo r inve s t ig a t ing s o c ia l a t t e nt io n wit hin a m o re na t ura lis t ic

c o nt e xt .

Mis d ire c t io n d e a ls wit h influe nc ing p e o p le ’s a wa re ne s s a nd , a s s uc h, o ffe rs

an int uit ive t ool t o inve s t ig a t e t he re la t io ns hip b e t we e n a t t e nt io n a nd

a wa re ne s s . Mo s t m a g ic ia ns p re s um e t ha t t he ke y t o m is d ire c t ing t he a ud ie nc e ’s

a t t e nt io n invo lve s m is d ire c t ing whe re t he y lo o k ( e .g ., La m o nt & Wis e m a n,

1 9 9 9 ) . One o f t he m o s t c o ns is t e nt find ing s fro m t he re s e a rc h o n m is d ire c t io n

ha s b e e n t he la c k o f re la t io ns hip b e t we e n g a z e fixa t io n a nd a wa re ne s s o f t he

e ve nt . Fo r e xa m p le , in t he c ig a re t t e a nd lig ht e r t ric k t he re wa s no re la t io ns hip

b e t we e n whe re p e o p le lo o ke d a nd whe t he r t he y d e t e c t e d t he d ro p o r no t ( Kuhn

& Find la y, 2 0 1 0 ; Kuhn & Ta t le r, 2 0 0 5 ) . Sim ila rly, in t he s t ud y in whic h t he b a c k

o f t he c a rd s c ha ng e d c o lo r, t he re wa s no re la t io ns hip b e t we e n e ye p o s it io n a nd

p a rt ic ip a nt s ’ no t ic ing t he c o lo r c ha ng e ( T. J . Sm it h e t a l., 2 0 1 3 ) , o r whe n o ne

c o in wa s c ha ng e d int o a no t he r o ne ( T. J . Sm it h e t a l., 2 0 1 2 ) . Our o wn wo rk

( Kuhn, Te s z ka , Te na w, & King s t o ne , s ub m it t e d ) in whic h s le ig ht o f ha nd is us e d

t o c ha ng e t he b a c k o f a d e c k o f p la ying c a rd s d o ve t a ils wit h t he s e re s ult s . Mo s t

re s e a rc h inve s t ig a t ing t he re la t io ns hip b e t we e n a t t e nt io n a nd a wa re ne s s ( Ko c h

& Ts uc hiya , 2 0 0 7 ) o r o ve rt a nd c o ve rt a t t e nt io n ( D. T. Sm it h & Sc he nk, 2 0 1 2 )

Pa g e 1 9 o f 3 9
ha s us e d ra t he r a rt ific ia l e xp e rim e nt a l p a ra d ig m s . Mis d ire c t io n a llo ws re s e a rc he rs

t o inve s t ig a t e t he re la t io ns hip b e t we e n a t t e nt io n a nd a wa re ne s s a nd d iffe re nt

fo rm s o f a t t e nt io n ( e .g ., o ve rt vs . c o ve rt ) wit hin a m o re na t ura lis t ic c o nt e xt .

Cle a rly, t he re a re m a ny o t he r p a ra d ig m s t ha t c a n b e us e d t o inve s t ig a t e

a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s in a m o re na t ura lis t ic c o nt e xt , b ut t he s e o ft e n re q uire

e la b o ra t e s e t up s ( Sim o ns & Le vin, 1 9 9 8 ) . Ma g ic ha s a c le a r p ra c t ic a l a d va nt a g e

in t ha t it is p o rt a b le , it is q uic k, a nd it d o e s no t re q uire s e t up s t ha t g o b e yo nd

t he m a g ic ia n’s s kills .

Dis c o v e rin g No v e l At t e n t io n a l Ph e n o m e n a

Ma ny o f t he m is d ire c t io n p rinc ip le s us e d b y m a g ic ia ns c o rre s p o nd t o a t t e nt io na l

p ro c e s s e s t ha t a re s t ud ie d b y re s e a rc he rs . Fo r e xa m p le , t he us e o f s o c ia l c ue s

in m is d ire c t ing a t t e nt io n c le a rly c o rre s p o nd s t o wo rk o n s o c ia l a t t e nt io n. One o f

t he m o s t e xc it ing a d va nt a g e s o f us ing m is d ire c t io n t o s t ud y a t t e nt io na l

p ro c e s s e s lie s in p o t e nt ia lly d is c o ve ring no ve l a t t e nt io na l p he no m e na t ha t ha ve

s o fa r b e e n ig no re d b y m o re t ra d it io na l a t t e nt io n re s e a rc he rs . Fo r e xa m p le ,

p ic kp o c ke t Ap o llo Ro b b ins ha s c la im e d t ha t c urve d m o ve m e nt s p ro d uc e

s t ro ng e r m is d ire c t io n t ha n d o s t ra ig ht m o ve m e nt s . Ot e ro -Milla n a nd c o lle a g ue s

( 2 0 1 1 ) inve s t ig a t e d t his c la im a nd re ve a le d t ha t p e o p le who wa t c h c urve d

m o ve m e nt s g e ne ra t e m o re s m o o t h p urs uit e ye m o ve m e nt s t ha n p e o p le who

o b s e rve s t ra ig ht m o ve m e nt s . Mo re re s e a rc h is re q uire d t o e va lua t e t he t rue

s ig nific a nc e o f t he s e find ing s , b ut t he a ut ho rs o f t his p a p e r s ug g e s t t ha t c urve d

Pa g e 2 0 o f 3 9
m o t io n t ra je c t o rie s , a s us e d b y s o m e m a g ic ia ns , m a y re s ult in d iffe re nt

a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s t ha n d o s t ra ig ht t ra je c t o rie s .

In o ur o wn la b we ha ve inve s t ig a t e d s e ve ra l m a g ic p rinc ip le s t ha t m a y

hig hlig ht no ve l a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s . Fo r e xa m p le , we a re inve s t ig a t ing t he wa y

in whic h a ud it o ry s o c ia l c ue s , s uc h a s a d d re s s ing a p e rs o n us ing a q ue s t io n,

influe nc e a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s . Tra d it io na lly, s o c ia l a t t e nt io n ha s b e e n s t ud ie d

in t he vis ua l d o m a in. Ma g ic ia ns o ft e n us e t he ir vo ic e a nd s p e e c h t o m is d ire c t

a t t e nt io n ( La m o nt & Wis e m a n, 1 9 9 9 ; Ta m a riz , 2 0 0 7 ) , a nd we ha ve b e e n

e xp lo ring t he e ffe c t ive ne s s o f t he s e ve rb a l c ue s o n vis ua l a t t e nt io n. Ra t he r

int rig uing ly, t he s e a ud it o ry s o c ia l c ue s influe nc e whe re p e o p le lo o k b ut ha ve no

e ffe c t o n info rm a t io n e nc o d ing .

Em p iric a l wo rk o n m is d ire c t io n is c le a rly s t ill in it s e a rly s t a g e s , b ut g ive n

t he b re a d t h o f a p p lie d kno wle d g e g a ine d b y m a g ic ia ns , we a re like ly t o d is c o ve r

s o m e int e re s t ing p he no m e na . While s o m e o f t he s e p rinc ip le s a re p rim a rily

re le va nt t o t he c o nt e xt o f m a g ic , o t he rs m a y b e g e ne ra liz e d a nd c o uld s he d

lig ht o nt o s o m e int e re s t ing a t t e nt io na l p rinc ip le s .

In t e g ra t io n

Ho w Do e s Wo rk o n Mis d ire c t io n Lin k t o Mo re Tra d it io n a l

La b o ra t o ry Re s e a rc h ?

Sinc e Ya rb us ’s ( 1 9 6 7 ) s e m ina l b o o k o n e ye m o ve m e nt s , t he re ha s b e e n m uc h

int e re s t in und e rs t a nd ing whe re p e o p le lo o k a nd t he m e c ha nis m s t ha t d rive t his

Pa g e 2 1 o f 3 9
o ve rt a t t e nt io na l s e le c t io n p ro c e s s ( e .g ., s e e c ha p t e r 1 1 in t he c urre nt vo lum e ) .

In s c e ne vie wing e xp e rim e nt s , p a rt ic ip a nt s a re a s ke d t o vie w im a g e s while t he ir

e ye m o ve m e nt s a re re c o rd e d . The c e nt ra l g o a l o f t he s e s t ud ie s is t o m o d e l a nd

p re d ic t t he a re a s t ha t a re b e ing fixa t e d . The s e t yp e s o f s t ud ie s ha ve re ve a le d

t ha t p e o p le a re m o re like ly t o fixa t e a re a s t ha t a re o f int e re s t (He nd e rs o n,

Bro c km o le , Ca s t e lha no , & Ma c k, 2 0 0 7 ) . It ha s a ls o b e c o m e a p p a re nt t ha t

c e rt a in lo w-le ve l p e rc e p t ua l p ro p e rt ie s a re fixa t e d m o re fre q ue nt ly t ha n o t he rs .

Fo r e xa m p le , p a rt ic ip a nt s a re m o re like ly t o fixa t e a re a s t ha t ha ve hig h s p a t ia l

fre q ue nc ie s a s we ll a s e d g e s a nd hig h c o nt ra s t s (Ma nna n, Rud d o c k, & Wo o d ing ,

1 9 9 7 ) . The s e a nd m a ny o t he r find ing s ha ve le d s o m e t o s ug g e s t t ha t o ur e ye

m o ve m e nt s a re c o nt ro lle d b y lo w-le ve l s t im ulus fe a t ure s t ha t a re e xt ra c t e d

e a rly o n in t he vis ua l p ro c e s s ( It t i & Ko c h, 2 0 0 1 ) .

An im p o rt a nt o b je c t ive in m is d ire c t io n is t o m a nip ula t e whe re t he

a ud ie nc e lo o ks . This fo rm o f m is d ire c t io n is d ire c t ly re la t e d t o re s e a rc h in t he

fie ld o f s c e ne vie wing . Mo s t m is d ire c t io n t he o rie s e m p ha s iz e t he im p o rt a nc e o f

lo w-le ve l p e rc e p t ua l c ha ra c t e ris t ic s ( e .g ., p a s s ive m is d ire c t io n) . Fo r e xa m p le ,

m a g ic ia ns o ft e n us e b rig ht c o lo rs o r hig h lum ina nc e c o nt ra s t s ( e .g ., fire ) t o

c a p t ure t he a ud ie nc e ’s a t t e nt io n. Sim ila rly, d iffe re nt t yp e s o f m o ve m e nt s a nd

vis ua l t ra ns ie nt s a re us e d t o o rie nt a t t e nt io n (La m o nt & Wis e m a n, 1 9 9 9 ) .

Wit hin t he m a g ic lit e ra t ure it is we ll e s t a b lis he d t ha t t he a p p e a ra nc e o f a n

o b je c t ( s uc h a s whe n, e .g ., a b a ll a p p e a rs und e r a c up ) fo rm s a p o we rful c ue t o

a t t ra c t a t t e nt io n, a nd m a g ic ia ns will e xp lo it t his t o c a rry o ut a s e c re t m e t ho d

Pa g e 2 2 o f 3 9
( e .g ., p ic king up a n e xt ra b a ll) while t he a ud ie nc e ’s a t t e nt io n ha s b e e n

d is t ra c t e d .

Re s e a rc h o n s c e ne vie wing ha s a ls o re ve a le d t ha t o ur a t t e nt io n is

influe nc e d b y t he p re s e nc e o f o t he rs ( e .g ., s e e c ha p t e r 1 5 in t he c urre nt

vo lum e ) . Fo r ins t a nc e , p e o p le ’s e ye m o ve m e nt s a re p a rt ic ula rly a t t ra c t e d t o

fa c e s ( Birm ing ha m , Bis c ho f, & King s t o ne , 2 0 0 8 ; Ya rb us , 1 9 6 7 ) a nd a re a s t ha t

a re lo o ke d a t b y o t he rs ( Fle t c he r-Wa t s o n, Le e ka m , Be ns o n, Fra nk, & Find la y,

2 0 0 8 ) . Cle a rly, t he o rie s o f m is d ire c t io n ha ve m uc h t o s a y a b o ut ho w a t t e nt io n

is influe nc e d b y s o c ia l c ue s .

Our e ye m o ve m e nt s a re a ls o d rive n b y o ur g o a ls a nd int e nt io ns . It is in

t his a re a whe re m is d ire c t io n c o uld o ffe r t he m o s t ins ig ht . Alt ho ug h lo w-le ve l

fe a t ure s p la y a n im p o rt a nt ro le in m is d ire c t io n, m a g ic ia ns fre q ue nt ly m a nip ula t e

o b s e rve rs ’ e xp e c t a t io ns a nd int e re s t t hro ug h t o p -d o wn p ro c e s s e s ; t his invo lve s

c a p it a liz ing o n num e ro us p ro c e s s e s t ha t int e ra c t wit h o ne a no t he r. Ma g ic t ric ks

s e ld o m ha p p e n in is o la t io n—a m a g ic ia n ra re ly jus t m a ke s a n o b je c t d is a p p e a r.

Ma g ic t ric ks a re fra m e d wit hin int ric a t e ro ut ine s t ha t a re c a re fully

c ho re o g ra p he d , a nd t he s e ro ut ine s a re us e d t o m a nip ula t e a s p e c t s o f t he

e nviro nm e nt t ha t a re im p o rt a nt fo r a s uc c e s s ful p e rfo rm a nc e . Fo r e xa m p le , t he

m a g ic ia n m a y a s k yo u t o s huffle a d e c k o f c a rd s . In yo ur m ind s huffling t he

c a rd s o ffe rs yo u t he c ha nc e o f m ixing t he m a nd e ns uring t ha t t he y ha ve no t

b e e n t a m p e re d wit h. The t rue p urp o s e o f t his a c t io n m a y b e t o d is t ra c t yo ur

a t t e nt io n fro m t he m a g ic ia n, who will us e t his m o m e nt t o c a rry o ut a s e c re t

m e t ho d . Ma g ic ia ns m a y a ls o c ho re o g ra p h t he ro ut ine in wa ys t ha t will g ive

Pa g e 2 3 o f 3 9
c e rt a in o b je c t s a p a rt ic ula r im p o rt a nc e . Onc e p rim e d , yo u a re m o re like ly t o

a t t e nd t o t ha t o b je c t a t t he e xp e ns e o f a t t e nd ing t o t he lo c a t io n in whic h t he

s e c re t m e t ho d is b e ing c o nd uc t e d . The s e t o p -d o wn fo rm s o f m is d ire c t io n a re

jus t a s im p o rt a nt a s t he m o re lo w-le ve l o ne s . Sim ila r c o nc lus io ns ha ve b e e n

re a c he d in re s e a rc h o n s c e ne vie wing .

Mis d ire c t io n invo lve s d is t o rt ing p e o p le ’s a wa re ne s s t ho ug h m a nip ula t ing

a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s , a nd s im ila rit ie s ha ve b e e n d ra wn b e t we e n m is d ire c t io n

a nd ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s ( Kuhn & Find la y, 2 0 1 0 ) . In ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s ,

p a rt ic ip a nt s fa il t o no t ic e a vis ua lly s a lie nt e ve nt if t he y a re e ng a g e d in a n

a t t e nt io na lly d e m a nd ing d is t ra c t o r t a s k (Ma c k & Ro c k, 1 9 9 8 ; Mo s t , Sc ho ll,

Cliffo rd , & Sim o ns , 2 0 0 5 ; s e e a ls o c ha p t e r 9 in t he c urre nt vo lum e ) . Fo r

e xa m p le , in t he g o rilla illus io n, p a rt ic ip a nt s fa il t o no t ic e t he g o rilla wa lking

a c ro s s t he s c e ne if t he y a re e ng a g e d in c o unt ing t he num b e r o f t im e s t he b a ll

ha s b e e n p a s s e d fro m o ne b a s ke t b a ll p la ye r t o t he ne xt ( Sim o ns & Cha b ris ,

1 9 9 9 ) . It ha s b e e n s ug g e s t e d t ha t t he p ro c e s s e s re s p o ns ib le fo r p e o p le ’s fa ilure

in no t ic ing t he lig ht e r b e ing d ro p p e d a re a na lo g o us t o ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s

( Kuhn & Find la y, 2 0 1 0 ) . Mis d ire c t io n c le a rly ha s s im ila rit ie s wit h ina t t e nt io na l

b lind ne s s , b ut t he re a re a ls o d iffe re nc e s ( Me m m e rt , 2 0 1 0 ; Me m m e rt & Furle y,

2 0 1 0 ) . Mo s t ( 2 0 1 0 ) ha s a rg ue d t ha t t he m a in d iffe re nc e b e t we e n ina t t e nt io na l

b lind ne s s a nd m is d ire c t io n is t ha t t he fo rm e r re s ult s fro m g e ne ra l a t t e nt io na l

d e m a nd s while m is d ire c t io n is d ue t o s p a t ia l a t t e nt io na l m a nip ula t io ns . In t he

m is d ire c t io n p a ra d ig m , t his is c le a rly t he c a s e . Ho we ve r, if we lo o k a t

m is d ire c t io n m o re g e ne ra lly, m uc h of m is d ire c t io n invo lve s m a nip ula t ing

Pa g e 2 4 o f 3 9
no ns p a t ia l a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s ( e .g ., t im e m is d ire c t io n, t e m p o ra l

c ha ra c t e ris t ic s ) .

We s t ud y s e le c t ive a t t e nt io n b e c a us e o ur lim it e d p ro c e s s ing c a p a c it y

re q uire s us t o p rio rit iz e c e rt a in a s p e c t s o f t he info rm a t io n. Tra d it io na lly,

s e le c t ive a t t e nt io n ha s b e e n s t ud ie d us ing a s p a t ia l m e t a p ho r whe re b y p e o p le

a t t e nd t o d is c re t e lo c a t io ns ( Po s ne r, 1 9 8 0 ) o r o b je c t s ( Eg ly, Drive r, & Ra fa l,

1 9 9 4 ) . Ho we ve r, we fre q ue nt ly a t t e nd t o p a rt ic ula r p o int s in t im e ( e .g ., s e e

c ha p t e r 3 in t he c urre nt vo lum e ) . Fo r e xa m p le , t ra ffic lig ht s t urn a m b e r rig ht

b e fo re t urning g re e n. This is int e nd e d t o a llo w o ne t o a nt ic ip a t e t he g o s ig na l

a nd t he re fo re re s p o nd m o re ra p id ly. Ind e e d t he re a re lo t s o f s it ua t io ns in whic h

o ne d e p lo ys o ne ’s a t t e nt io n t o p o int s in t im e ra t he r t ha n m e re ly s p a t ia l

lo c a t io ns ( Co ull & No b re , 1 9 9 8 ) . In m is d ire c t io n, t he s e t e m p o ra l fluc t ua t io ns in

a t t e nt io n a re jus t a s im p o rt a nt a s , if no t m o re im p o rt a nt t ha n, s p a t ia l a s p e c t s .

The re a re ve ry fe w ins t a nc e s whe re t he m e t ho d a nd t he e ffe c t t a ke p la c e a t t he

s a m e t im e . Ins t e a d , t he m e t ho d is t yp ic a lly c a rrie d o ut b e fo re t he e ffe c t is

re ve a le d . Fo r e xa m p le , in t he fa ls e t ra ns fe r, t he m a g ic ia n p re t e nd s t o t ra ns fe r a

c o in fro m o ne ha nd t o t he ne xt . He t he n t yp ic a lly wa it s a fe w s e c o nd s wit h t he

ha nd p re t e nd ing t o c o nc e a l t he c o in b e fo re t he c o in is re ve a le d t o ha ve

d is a p p e a re d . This t e m p o ra l s e p a ra t io n b e t we e n m e t ho d a nd t he e ffe c t is

t yp ic a lly kno wn a s t im e m is d ire c t io n ( Fra p s , 2 0 1 4 ) . The re s ult o f s e p a ra t ing t he

m e t ho d fro m t he e ffe c t is t ha t t he a ud ie nc e will no t kno w whic h a s p e c t o f t he

m a g ic t ric k will b e im p o rt a nt a nd t he y will b e le s s like ly t o a t t e nd t o it . This is

t he re a s o n why m a g ic ia ns ra re ly t e ll t he ir a ud ie nc e wha t t he y a re a b o ut t o d o

Pa g e 2 5 o f 3 9
b e fo re t he m e t ho d ha s b e e n c a rrie d o ut . Ke e p ing t he a ud ie nc e in s us p e ns e

p re ve nt s t he m fro m s us p e c t ing whe re , b ut a ls o whe n, t he m e t ho d will t a ke

p la c e .

Ma g ic ia ns c a re fully c ho re o g ra p h t he ir ro ut ine s to a llo w t he m to

m a nip ula t e t e m p o ra l a s p e c t s o f a t t e nt io n. Ma g ic ia ns t a lk a b o ut c re a t ing t im e s

o f hig h a nd lo w int e re s t , a nd t he m is d ire c t io n wo rks b y c a rrying o ut t he m e t ho d

d uring t he lo w p o int s . Lo w p o int s o f a t t e nt io n a re p o int s im m e d ia t e ly a ft e r a n

e ffe c t o r a ft e r a jo ke . Pe o p le a re g e ne ra lly m o re re la xe d a ft e r a jo ke a nd a re le s s

like ly t o s us p e c t t ha t t he m a g ic ia n will c a rry o ut a s e c re t m e t ho d . Ho we ve r, in

re a lit y, t he s e o ffb e a t m o m e nt s a re t he m o m e nt s in whic h t he m e t ho d s t yp ic a lly

t a ke p la c e , a nd m a g ic ia ns o ft e n s t ra t e g ic a lly m a ke a jo ke jus t b e fo re c a rrying

o ut t he ir m e t ho d . Bo d y la ng ua g e is a ls o o ft e n us e d t o m is d ire c t t e m p o ra l

a s p e c t s o f a t t e nt io n. Fo r e xa m p le , Slyd ini, who wa s a t rue mast er of

m is d ire c t io n, d e s c rib e s wa ys in whic h b o d y p o s t ure is us e d t o m is d ire c t

a t t e nt io n ( Ga ns o n, 1 9 8 0 ) . During t im e s a t whic h a m e t ho d t o o k p la c e he wo uld

re la x int o his c ha ir; t he n he wo uld m o ve fo rwa rd t o fo c us a t t e nt io n b e fo re

re ve a ling t he e ffe c t .

Fu t u re Dire c t io n s

Ye a rs o f re a l-wo rld e xp e rie nc e ha ve a llo we d m a g ic ia ns t o a c c um ula t e va s t

a m o unt s o f p ra c t ic a l e xp e rie nc e in m is d ire c t ing va rio us aspect s o f o ur

a t t e nt io na l s ys t e m . This p ra c t ic a l e xp e rie nc e p o t e nt ia lly o ffe rs va lua b le ins ig ht s

int o a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s e s . Alt ho ug h t he re ha s b e e n a lo ng t ra d it io n o f d ra wing

Pa g e 2 6 o f 3 9
p a ra lle ls b e t we e n m a g ic a nd p s yc ho lo g y, a d va nc e s ha d b e e n re la t ive ly s lo w

( La m o nt & He nd e rs o n, 2 0 0 9 ) . Ho we ve r, t he la s t d e c a d e ha s s e e n a va s t s urg e

in int e re s t in t he fie ld a s we ll a s a la rg e num b e r o f s c ie nt ific p a p e rs inve s t ig a t ing

d iffe re nt a s p e c t s o f m is d ire c t io n a nd m a g ic m o re g e ne ra lly ( Kuhn, Am la ni, &

Re ns ink, 2 0 0 8 ; Ma c knik e t a l., 2 0 0 8 ; Re ns ink & Kuhn, 2 0 1 4 ) .

The s c ie nt ific s t ud y o f m is d ire c t io n is c le a rly s t ill in it s infa nc y, a nd m uc h

p ro g re s s re m a ins t o b e m a d e t o a d va nc e t he kno wle d g e t ra ns fe r. Fo r o ne , we

ne e d a fra m e wo rk t o s t ud y m is d ire c t io n. Ea c h p a p e r t ha t is p ub lis he d in t he fie ld

will he lp a d va nc e o ur s c ie nt ific und e rs t a nd ing o f t he p ro c e s s e s , a s we ll a s he lp

d e ve lo p ne w m e t ho d o lo g ie s . Fo r e xa m p le , t he re ha s b e e n m uc h d e b a t e a b o ut

t he re la t io ns hip b e t we e n m is d ire c t io n a nd ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s , a nd t his

c o ns t ruc t ive d ia lo g ue will he lp a d va nc e t he fie ld ( Kuhn & Ta t le r, 2 0 1 1 ;

Me m m e rt , 2 0 1 0 ; Me m m e rt & Furle y, 2 0 1 0 ; Mo ra n & Bra d y, 2 0 1 0 ; Mo s t , 2 0 1 0 ) .

Mo re s t ruc t ure d a p p ro a c he s t o a d va nc ing t he fie ld m a y a ls o b e o f us e .

Ma g ic ia ns a re c le a r m a s t e rs o f m is d ire c t io n, a nd t he ir m a in c o nc e rn lie s in

find ing m e t ho d s t ha t a llo w t he m to m a nip ula t e o b s e rve rs ’ a wa re ne s s

e ffe c t ive ly, re g a rd le s s o f wha t p s yc ho lo g ic a l o r ne uro lo g ic a l m e c ha nis m s a re

invo lve d . As re s e a rc he rs , we a re int e re s t e d in t he m e c ha nis m s a nd in

und e rs t a nd ing w hy c e rt a in p rinc ip le s wo rk. One o f t he firs t s t e p s in a d va nc ing

t his fie ld o f re s e a rc h wo uld b e t o d e ve lo p a p s yc ho lo g ic a l t a xo no m y o f

m is d ire c t io n ( Kuhn e t a l., 2 0 1 4 ) . This t a xo no m y wo uld he lp o rg a niz e t he va s t

a m o unt s o f a p p lie d kno wle d g e t ha t ha ve b e e n d e ve lo p e d b y t he m a g ic

c o m m unit y. In a d d it io n t o he lp ing t o o rg a niz e t he kno wle d g e , it wo uld a ls o a llo w

Pa g e 2 7 o f 3 9
re s e a rc he rs wit h no e xp e rie nc e in m a g ic t o s t ud y m is d ire c t io n wit ho ut re ve a ling

t he s e c re t s o f ind ivid ua l t ric ks .

Alt ho ug h t he g e ne ra l c o nc e p t o f us ing m is d ire c t io n t o s t ud y a t t e nt io n is

int uit ive , m o s t re s e a rc h in t he fie ld ha s b e e n c o nd uc t e d b y ind ivid ua ls who ha ve

s o m e e xp e rie nc e in m a g ic . Firs t ha nd c o njuring e xp e rie nc e is a d va nt a g e o us , b ut

it is no t a re q uire m e nt . The s e c re t ive na t ure o f m a g ic m ig ht a lie na t e s o m e

re s e a rc he rs fro m us ing m is d ire c t io n in t he ir o wn re s e a rc h. Ho we ve r, it is

im p o rt a nt t o no t e t ha t t his s e c re t ive na t ure o f m a g ic is s up e rfic ia l, a nd m o s t

m a g ic ia ns a re ha p p y t o c o lla b o ra t e wit h s c ie nt is t s a nd a re t yp ic a lly m o re t ha n

ha p p y t o s ha re t he ir t e c hniq ue s . A d ire c t kno wle d g e t ra ns fe r b e t we e n m a g ic ia ns

a nd s c ie nt is t s is c le a rly b e ne fic ia l, b ut t he s c ie nt ific s t ud y o f m is d ire c t io n d o e s

no t re q uire p e rs o na l c o nt a c t wit h m a g ic ia ns . Inve s t ig a t ing m is d ire c t io n d o e s no t

re q uire a full und e rs t a nd ing o f m a g ic . The ke y is fo r s c ie nt is t s t o fo c us o n

c e rt a in a s p e c t s o f t his p ro c e s s . We ho p e t ha t t his re vie w ha s he lp e d d e s c rib e

s o m e o f t he p ro c e s s e s invo lve d us ing m is d ire c t io n t o s t ud y a t t e nt io n a nd t ha t

t he ro a d m a p p ro vid e d he re will he lp re s e a rc he rs fro m d iffe re nt fie ld s t o b e ne fit

fro m t his a p p lie d kno wle d g e .

[ Ins e rt Bo x 2 2 .1 ]

[ Ins e rt Bo x 2 2 .2 ]

Pa g e 2 8 o f 3 9
Re f e re n c e s

Am e ric a n Ps yc hia t ric As s o c ia t io n. ( 1 9 9 4 ) . Diag no s t ic and s t at is t ic al m anual o f

m e nt al d is o rd e rs ( 4 t h e d .) . Wa s hing t o n, DC: Aut ho r.

Bine t , A. ( 1 8 9 4 ) . Ps yc ho lo g y o f p re s t id ig it a t io n. A nnual Re p o rt o f t he Bo ard o f

Re g e nt s o f t he S m it hs o nian Ins t it ut io n ( p p . 5 5 5 –5 7 1 ) . Wa s hing t o n, DC.

Birm ing ha m , E., Bis c ho f, W. F., & King s t o ne , A. ( 2 0 0 8 ) . Ga z e s e le c t io n in

c o m p le x s o c ia l s c e ne s . V is ual Co g nit io n, 1 6 , 3 4 1 –3 5 6 .

Bruno , J . ( 1 9 7 8 ) . A nat o m y o f m is d ire c t io n. Ba lt im o re , MD: St o ne y Bro o k Pre s s .

Chris t o p he r, M. ( 2 0 0 6 ) . The illus t rat e d his t o ry o f m ag ic . Ne w Yo rk: Ca rro ll &

Gra f.

Co ull, J . T., & No b re , A. C. ( 1 9 9 8 ) . Whe re a nd whe n t o p a y a t t e nt io n: The ne ura l

s ys t e m s fo r d ire c t ing a t t e nt io n t o s p a t ia l lo c a t io ns a nd t o t im e int e rva ls

a s re ve a le d b y b o t h PET a nd fMRI. Jo urnal o f Ne uro s c ie nc e , 1 8 , 7 4 2 6 –

7435.

Cui, J ., Ot e ro -Milla n, J ., Ma c knik, S. L., King , M., & Ma rt ine z -Co nd e , S. ( 2 0 1 1 ) .

So c ia l m is d ire c t io n fa ils t o e nha nc e a m a g ic illus io n. Fro nt ie rs in Hum an

Ne uro s c ie nc e , 5 , 1 0 3 . d o i:1 0 .3 3 8 9 / fnhum .2 0 1 1 .0 0 1 0 3 .

De m a c he va , I., La d o uc e ur, M., St e inb e rg , E., Po g o s s o va , G., & Ra z , A. ( 2 0 1 2 ) .

The a p p lie d c o g nit ive p s yc ho lo g y o f a t t e nt io n: A s t e p c lo s e r t o

Pa g e 2 9 o f 3 9
 und e rs t a nd ing m a g ic t ric ks . A p p lie d Co g nit iv e Ps y c ho lo g y , 2 6 , 5 4 1 –5 4 9 .

d o i:1 0 .1 0 0 2 / a c p .2 8 2 5 .

Eg ly, R., Drive r, J ., & Ra fa l, R. D. ( 1 9 9 4 ) . Shift ing vis ua l a t t e nt io n b e t we e n

o b je c t s a nd lo c a t io ns —Evid e nc e fro m no rm a l a nd p a rie t a l le s io n s ub je c t s .

Jo urnal o f Exp e rim e nt al Ps y c ho lo g y . Ge ne ral, 1 2 3 , 1 6 1 –1 7 7 .

Find la y, J . M., & Gilc hris t , I. D. ( 2 0 0 3 ) . A c t iv e v is io n. Oxfo rd , UK: Oxfo rd

Unive rs it y Pre s s .

< o t he r> Fit z ke e , D. ( 1 9 4 5 ) . Mag ic b y m is d ire c t io n. Po m e ro y, OH: Le e J a c o b s

Pro d uc t io ns .< / o t he r>

Fle t c he r-Wa t s o n, S., Le e ka m , S. R., Be ns o n, V., Fra nk, M. C., & Find la y, J . M.

( 2 0 0 8 ) . Eye -m o ve m e nt s re ve a l a t t e nt io n t o s o c ia l info rm a t io n in a ut is m

s p e c t rum d is o rd e r. Ne uro p s y c ho lo g ia, 4 7 , 2 4 8 –2 5 7 .

< o t he r> Frie b e rt s ha us e r, A., Te s z ka , R., & Kuhn, G. ( 2 0 1 4 ) . Eye t ra c king m a g ic

vid e o s t im uli s um m a rie s .

d o i:ht t p :/ / d x.d o i.o rg / 1 0 .6 0 8 4 / m 9 .fig s ha re .1 1 8 3 4 6 8 < / o t he r>

Ga ns o n, L. ( 1 9 8 0 ) . The m ag ic o f S ly d ini. Bid e fo rd , De vo n, UK: Sup re m e Ma g ic .

Ha y, H. ( 1 9 7 2 ) . The am at e ur m ag ic ian’s hand b o o k ( 3 rd e d .) . Ne w Yo rk: Ne w

Am e ric a n Lib ra ry.

< e d b > He nd e rs o n, J . M., Bro c km o le , J . R., Ca s t e lha no , M. S., & Ma c k, M. L.

( 2 0 0 7 ) . Vis ua l s a lie nc y d o e s no t a c c o unt fo r e ye m o ve m e nt s d uring

s e a rc h in re a l-wo rld s c e ne s . In R. P. G. va n Go m p e l, M. H. Fis c he r, W. S.

Pa g e 3 0 o f 3 9
 Murra y, & R. L. Hill ( Ed s .) , Ey e m o v e m e nt s : A w ind o w o n m ind and b rain

( p p . 5 3 7 –5 6 2 ) . Oxfo rd , UK: Els e vie r.< / e d b >

< o t he r> Hug a rd , J . ( 1 9 6 0 , Ma rc h) . Mis d ire c t io n. Hug ard ’s Mag ic Mo nt hly , p .

1 1 5 .< / o t he r>

It t i, L., & Ko c h, C. ( 2 0 0 1 ) . Co m p ut a t io na l m o d e lling o f vis ua l a t t e nt io n. Nat ure

Re v ie w s . Ne uro s c ie nc e , 2 , 1 9 4 –2 0 3 .

King s t o ne , A. ( 2 0 0 9 ) . Ta king a re a l lo o k a t s o c ia l a t t e nt io n. Curre nt Op inio n in

Ne uro b io lo g y , 1 9 , 5 2 –5 6 .

King s t o ne , A., Sm ile k, D., & Ea s t wo o d , J . D. ( 2 0 0 8 ) . Co g nit ive e t ho lo g y: A ne w

a p p ro a c h fo r s t ud ying hum a n c o g nit io n. Brit is h Jo urnal o f Ps y c ho lo g y , 9 9 ,

3 1 7 –3 4 0 .

King s t o ne , A., Sm ile k, D., Ris t ic , J ., Frie s e n, C. K., & Ea s t wo o d , J . D. ( 2 0 0 3 ) .

At t e nt io n, re s e a rc he rs ! It is t im e t o t a ke a lo o k a t t he re a l wo rld . Curre nt

Dire c t io ns in Ps y c ho lo g ic al S c ie nc e , 1 2 , 1 7 6 –1 8 0 .

Ko c h, C., & Ts uc hiya , N. ( 2 0 0 7 ) . At t e nt io n a nd c o ns c io us ne s s : Two d is t inc t

b ra in p ro c e s s e s . Tre nd s in Co g nit iv e S c ie nc e s , 1 1 , 1 6 –2 2 .

Kuhn, G., Am la ni, A. A., & Re ns ink, R. A. ( 2 0 0 8 ) . To wa rd s a s c ie nc e o f m a g ic .

Tre nd s in Co g nit iv e S c ie nc e s , 12, 3 4 9 –3 5 4 .

d o i:1 0 .1 0 1 6 / j.t ic s .2 0 0 8 .0 5 .0 0 8 .

Kuhn, G., Ca ffa ra t t i, H. A., Te s z ka , R., & Re ns ink, R. A. (2 0 1 4 ). A

p s yc ho lo g ic a lly-b a s e d t a xo no m y o f m is d ire c t io n. Fro nt ie rs , 5 , 1 3 9 2 .

Pa g e 3 1 o f 3 9
Kuhn, G., & Find la y, J . M. ( 2 0 1 0 ) . Mis d ire c t io n, a t t e nt io n a nd a wa re ne s s :

Ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s re ve a ls t e m p o ra l re la t io ns hip b e t we e n e ye

m o ve m e nt s a nd vis ua l a wa re ne s s . Quart e rly Jo urnal o f Exp e rim e nt al

Ps y c ho lo g y , 6 3 , 1 3 6 –1 4 6 . d o i:1 0 .1 0 8 0 / 1 7 4 7 0 2 1 0 9 0 2 8 4 6 7 5 7 .

Kuhn, G., Ko urko ulo u, A., & Le e ka m , S. R. ( 2 0 1 0 ) . Ho w m a g ic c ha ng e s o ur

e xp e c t a t io ns a b o ut a ut is m . Ps y c ho lo g ic al S c ie nc e , 2 1 , 1 4 8 7 –1 4 9 3 .

d o i:1 0 .1 1 7 7 / 0 9 5 6 7 9 7 6 1 0 3 8 3 4 3 5 .

Kuhn, G., & La nd , M. F. ( 2 0 0 6 ) . The re ’s m o re t o m a g ic t ha n m e e t s t he e ye .

Curre nt Bio lo g y , 1 6 , R9 5 0 –R9 5 1 .

Kuhn, G., & Ta t le r, B. W. ( 2 0 0 5 ) . Ma g ic a nd fixa t io n: No w yo u d o n’t s e e it , no w

yo u d o . Pe rc e p t io n, 3 4 , 1 1 5 5 –1 1 6 1 . d o i:1 0 .1 0 6 8 / p 3 4 0 9 b n1 .

Kuhn, G., & Ta t le r, B. W. ( 2 0 1 1 ) . Mis d ire c t e d b y t he g a p : The re la t io ns hip

b e t we e n ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s a nd a t t e nt io na l m is d ire c t io n.

Co ns c io us ne s s and Co g nit io n, 20, 4 3 2 –4 3 6 .

d o i:1 0 .1 0 1 6 / j.c o nc o g .2 0 1 0 .0 9 .0 1 3 .

Kuhn, G., Ta t le r, B. W., & Co le , G. G. ( 2 0 0 9 ) . Yo u lo o k whe re I lo o k! Effe c t o f

g a z e c ue s o n o ve rt a nd c o ve rt a t t e nt io n in m is d ire c t io n. V is ual Co g nit io n,

1 7 , 9 2 5 –9 4 4 .

Kuhn, G., Ta t le r, B. W., Find la y, J . M., & Co le , G. G. ( 2 0 0 8 ) . Mis d ire c t io n in

m a g ic : Im p lic a t io ns fo r t he re la t io ns hip b e t we e n e ye g a z e a nd a t t e nt io n.

V is ual Co g nit io n, 1 6 , 3 9 1 –4 0 5 .

Pa g e 3 2 o f 3 9
La id la w, K. E. W., Fo uls ha m , T., Kuhn, G., & King s t o ne , A. ( 2 0 1 1 ) . Po t e nt ia l

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5 5 4 8 –5 5 5 3 . d o i:1 0 .1 0 7 3 / p na s .1 0 1 7 0 2 2 1 0 8 .

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Ma nna n, S. K., Rud d o c k, K. H., & Wo o d ing , D. S. ( 1 9 9 7 ) . Fixa t io n s e q ue nc e s

m a d e d uring vis ua l e xa m ina t io n o f b rie fly p re s e nt e d 2 D im a g e s . S p at ial

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Me m m e rt , D. ( 2 0 0 6 ) . The e ffe c t s o f e ye m o ve m e nt s , a g e , a nd e xp e rt is e o n

ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s . Co ns c io us ne s s and Co g nit io n, 1 5 , 6 2 0 –6 2 7 .

Me m m e rt , D. ( 2 0 1 0 ) . The g a p b e t we e n ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s a nd a t t e nt io na l

m is d ire c t io n. Co ns c io us ne s s and Co g nit io n, 19, 1 0 9 7 –1 1 0 1 .

d o i:1 0 .1 0 1 6 / J .Co nc o g .2 0 1 0 .0 1 .0 0 1 .

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Me m m e rt , D., & Furle y, P. ( 2 0 1 0 ) . Be yo nd ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s a nd

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m e c ha nis m s . Co ns c io us ne s s and Co g nit io n, 19, 1 1 0 7 –1 1 0 9 .

d o i:1 0 .1 0 1 6 / J .Co nc o g .2 0 1 0 .0 6 .0 0 5 .

Mo ra n, A., & Bra d y, N. ( 2 0 1 0 ) . Mind t he g a p : Mis d ire c t io n, ina t t e nt io na l

b lind ne s s a nd t he re la t io ns hip b e t we e n o ve rt a nd c o ve rt a t t e nt io n.

Co ns c io us ne s s and Co g nit io n, 1 9 , 1 1 0 5 –1 1 0 6 .

Mo s t , S. B. ( 2 0 1 0 ) . Wha t ’s “ina t t e nt io na l” a b o ut ina t t e nt io na l b lind ne s s ?

Co ns c io us ne s s and Co g nit io n, 1 9 , 1 1 0 2 –1 1 0 4 .

Mo s t , S. B., Sc ho ll, B. J ., Cliffo rd , E. R., & Sim o ns , D. J . ( 2 0 0 5 ) . Wha t yo u s e e is

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a wa re ne s s . Ps y c ho lo g ic al Re v ie w , 1 1 2 , 2 1 7 –2 4 2 .

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So c ia l a t t e nt io n wit h re a l ve rs us re e l s t im uli: To wa rd a n e m p iric a l

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Fig ure 2 2 .1

( a ) The m a g ic ia n is s e a t e d a t a t a b le a c ro s s fro m t he vie we r. A lig ht e r is o n t he

t a b le . ( b ) He p ic ks up t he lig ht e r a nd flic ks it o n. ( c –f) He p re t e nd s t o t a ke t he

fla m e a wa y a nd m a ke it va nis h, p ro vid ing a g a z e c ue a s m is d ire c t io n a wa y fro m

Pa g e 3 6 o f 3 9
his o t he r ha nd . At ( f) , t he lig ht e r is vis ib ly d ro p p e d int o his la p . ( g –h) The lig ht e r

a p p e a rs t o ha ve va nis he d . Fig ure fro m Frie b e rt s ha us e r, Te s z ka , a nd Kuhn

(2 0 1 4 ).

Fig ure 2 2 .2

The m a g ic ia n is s t a nd ing a c ro s s fro m t he vie we r, ho ld ing a s m a ll b a ll. ( a –e ) He

t hro ws t he b a ll in t he a ir t wic e , fo llo wing it s t ra je c t o ry wit h his g a z e . At ( f) , he

p re t e nd s t o t hro w t he b a ll, b ut a c t ua lly re t a ins it in his ha nd . In t he p ro -illus io n

c o nd it io n he lo o ks up , fo llo wing t he im p lie d t ra je c t o ry o f t he b a ll, while in t he

a nt i-illus io n c o nd it io n he c o nt inue s lo o king a t his ha nd . ( h) The b a ll a p p e a rs t o

ha ve va nis he d . Fig ure fro m Frie b e rt s ha us e r e t a l. ( 2 0 1 4 ) .

{ Bo x e s _ b e g in }

Bo x 2 2 . 1

Ke y Po in t s

• Ma g ic ia ns ha ve a c q uire d m uc h a p p lie d kno wle d g e a b o ut m is d ire c t ing a t t e nt io n

whic h a t t e nt io n re s e a rc he rs a re no w s t a rt ing t o e xp lo it .

• Ma g ic ia ns ’ kno wle d g e a b o ut m is d ire c t io n ha s b e e n fo rm a liz e d in t he o rie s o f

m is d ire c t io n whic h p ro vid e s a s t a rt ing p o int fo r s c ie nt ific inve s t ig a t io ns .

• Mis d ire c t io n re s e a rc h ha s re le va nc e t o e xis t ing la b o ra t o ry t ra d it io ns s uc h a s

s c e ne vie wing a nd s o c ia l a t t e nt io n re s e a rc h.

Pa g e 3 7 o f 3 9
• Us ing m is d ire c t io n t o s t ud y a t t e nt io n a llo ws fo r hig h e c o lo g ic a l va lid it y a nd

o ffe rs t he p o t e nt ia l t o d is c o ve r ne w a t t e nt io na l m e c ha nis m s .

Bo x 2 2 . 2

Ou t s t a n d in g Is s u e s

• Wha t a re t he p s yc ho lo g ic a l m e c ha nis m s invo lve d in m is d ire c t io n? Ca n we

d e ve lo p a m e a ning ful t a xo no m y o f m is d ire c t io n?

• Wha t is t he b e s t wa y o f inc o rp o ra t ing t his re a l-wo rld kno wle d g e int o t he

s t ud y o f c o g nit io n a nd a t t e nt io n?

• Mis d ire c t io n a ls o m a nip ula t e s t o p -d o wn kno wle d g e b y influe nc ing re a s o ning

a nd m e m o ry t o re d uc e int e re s t a nd s us p ic io n. Ho w d o t he s e no na t t e nt io na l

p ro c e s s e s int e ra c t wit h a t t e nt io n?

• A m a g ic t ric k is a s p e c ia l c a s e o f s o c ia l int e ra c t io n whe re o ne o f t he p e o p le is

unt rus t wo rt hy. Ho w m uc h o f t he find ing s fro m m a g ic re s e a rc h g e ne ra liz e

o ut s id e o f t he c o nt e xt o f m a g ic ? Ho w d o s o c ia l fa c t o rs s uc h a s s t a t us o r

c ult ura l b a c kg ro und int e ra c t wit h m is d ire c t io n p rinc ip le s ?

• Do e s e xp e rt is e in m a g ic o r t ra ining in m is d ire c t io n p rinc ip le s ha ve a n e ffe c t o n

a t t e nt io na l p ro c e s s ing o r o t he r c o g nit ive a b ilit ie s ?

Pa g e 3 8 o f 3 9
 Fig ure 1

Fig ure 2

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