Sugar Production PDF

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
King Saud University

College of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering
SUGAR PRODUCTION USING THE

CARBONATION PROCESS INCORPORATING
WATER RECYCLING AND TREATMENT UNIT
Submitted by
SULTAN AL AHMARI (428102729)
MUBARAK AL QAHTANI (428102448)
ALI AL GHAMDI (428102690)
ZIYAD AL SAKRAN (428102060)
Supervised by
Prof. MOURAD BOUMAZA
Dr. MOHAMED KAMEL HADJ-KALI
1433 – 1434 H (2012 – 2013 G)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we would like to show our great thanks to our

supervisors in this project Prof. Mourad and Dr. Mohamed Kamel
for their help during all this semester to gain a good project. Also,
we want to thank the entire employees of the Chemical
Engineering Department for their efforts during the last 5 years and
we will not forget any moment with anyone. Finally, we want to
thank our parents and family members who supported us during
this semester.
I
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The objective of this project is to carry out a design of plant that produces 300
ton/day of sugar from sugar beet.
The carbonation process using sugar-beet has several benefits and

advantages in comparison to the one using sugar cane. In addition to the
main product (white sugar), the sugar-beet factories produce molasses and
pulp which are used to prepare feed for cows and sheep.
The plant consists of 15 main units. Five units have been fully designed,
namely:
 The Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) ,

 The Rotary Drum Filter,
 The Multiple Effect Evaporator,
 The Natural Draft Cooling Tower
 The Rotary Drum Dryer
The remaining units have been sized.
As the sugar process requires an large quantity of water, we have also

studied the water treatment and recycling part to minimize the water
consumption.
A hazard and operability (HAZOP) analysis both with the environmental and
safety have also been covered in this project.
The economical study has shown that this project requires a capital cost of
$98 million and about 3 years payback period to retain the total capital
investment.
II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................. 3

1.1 Overview……………… ........................................................................... 3
1.2 History of Beet-Sugar.. ........................................................................... 5
1.3 By – Products of The Beet-Sugar Factory .............................................. 6
1.3.1 Pulp…… ........................................................................................... 6
1.3.2 Carbonation-Lime Residue ............................................................... 6
1.3.3 Molasses…....................................................................................... 6
1.4 Sucrose Properties.. ............................................................................... 7
1.4.1 Sucrose Formation………. ............................................................... 7
1.4.2 Sucrose Properties.. ......................................................................... 7
1.4.3 Sucrochemistry… ............................................................................. 9
Chapter 2. Process Description ................................................. 12
2.1 Block Diagram ...................................................................................... 12

2.2 Flow sheet of Process.. ........................................................................ 13
2.3 Description of Flow sheet ..................................................................... 14
Chapter 3. Material Balance ...................................................... 15
3.1 The General Equation of Mass Balance. .............................................. 15

3.2 Mass Balance of Units .. ....................................................................... 16
Chapter 4. Energy Balance ....................................................... 21
4.1 Heat Capacities…….. ........................................................................ 21

Chapter 5. Equipment Design .................................................. 29
5.1 Reactor Design (Unit – 4) ……. ............................................................ 29
5.2 Filter Design (Unit – 7)… ...................................................................... 32
5.3 Evaporator Design (Unit – 8)… ............................................................. 35
5.4 Dryer Design (Unit – 13) . ..................................................................... 40
5.5 Cooling Tower Design (Unit – 14). ........................................................ 42
Chapter 6. Sizing Equipment..................................................... 45
6.1 Sizing of Mixer (Unit -1). .................................................................... 45

6.2 Sizing of Diffuser (Unit -2). .................................................................. 46
III
6.3 Sizing of Heater (Unit-3). .................................................................... 47
6.4 Sizing of Lime Unit (Unit - 4). .............................................................. 48
6.5 Sizing of Clarifier (Unit - 5). ................................................................. 48
6.6 Sizing of Heater (Unit - 6). ................................................................... 49
6.7 Sizing of Sulfitation (Unit - 9). ............................................................. 50
6.8 Sizing of Crystallizer (Unit - 10). ........................................................ 50
6.9 Sizing of Cooler (Unit - 11). ................................................................. 50
6.10 Sizing of Centrifuge (Unit -12). .......................................................... 51
6.10 Sizing of Storage (Unit - 15). ............................................................. 51
Chapter 7. Water Recycling and Treatment ................................... 53
7.1 Overview. ........................................................................................... 53

7.2 Washing water recycling. .................................................................. 54
7.3 Diffusion Tower water recycling. ....................................................... 55
7.4 Evaporator Water Recycling To Diffusion Tower. ............................. 55
7.5 Cooling Water Recycling From Cooling Tower. ................................. 56
7.6 Water treatment . ............................................................................... 57
Chapter 8. HAZOP and Environment ........................................... 58
8.1 HAZOP……. ......................................................................................... 58

8.1.1 Reactor……… ................................................................................... 59
8.1.2 Cooling Tower……… ......................................................................... 60
8.1.3 Evaporator……… .............................................................................. 61
8.1.4 Dryer……….. ..................................................................................... 62
8.2 Environmental.. ..................................................................................... 63
8.2.1 Pollution Control Strategies ............................................................ 63
8.2.2 Emissions to Air.. ............................................................................ 64
8.2.3 Safety….......................................................................................... 65
Chapter 9. Control Loop .......................................................... 67
9.1 Overview: ...................................................................................... 67

9.2 Diffusion Tower Control ................................................................. 68
9.3 Mixer Control ................................................................................. 68
9.4 Heater(1) Control ........................................................................... 69
9.5 Liming Control ............................................................................... 69
9.6 Clarifier Control ............................................................................. 70
IV
9.7 Heater(2) Control ........................................................................... 70
9.8 Filter Control .................................................................................. 70
9.9 Evaporator Control ........................................................................ 71
9.10 Sulfitation Control ........................................................................ 71
9.11 Crystallizer Control ...................................................................... 71
9.11 Cooler Control ............................................................................. 72
9.12 Centrifuge Control ....................................................................... 72
9.13 Dryer Control ............................................................................... 72
9.14 Cooling Tower Control ................................................................. 73
Chapter 10. Cost Analysis ........................................................ 75
10.1 Overview… ......................................................................................... 75

10.2 Methods for estimating capital investment .......................................... 75
10.3 Equipment cost purchased in 2007..................................................... 75
10.4 Equipments In KSA at 2012 ................................................................ 76
10.5 Total Capital Investment (TCI)….. ........................... …………….…….81
10.6 Total Production Cost (TPC)….. ........................................................ 83
10.7 Profitability Analysis ............................................................................ 86
10.8 Payback Period (PBP)……………………………………………………86
Chapter 11. Conclusion ........................................................... 88
REFERENCES ....................................................................... 89
APPENDICES ........................................................................ 91
V
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Annual Consumption of Sugar in The World ……………… .......... 4
Table 1.2 Sucrose Properties .. .................................................................... 8
Table 3.1 The Materials of Process……….. ............................................... 15
Table 5.1 Reactor Design ……. .................................................................. 32
Table 5.2 Filter Design … ........................................................................... 34
Table 5.3 Evaporator Design… .................................................................. 39
Table 5.4 Dryer Design …. . ....................................................................... 42
Table 5.5 Cooling Tower Design… ............................................................. 44
Table 6.1 Sizing of Mixer. .......................................................................... 45
Table 6.2 Sizing of Diffuser ........................................................................ 46
Table 6.3 Sizing of Heater. ......................................................................... 47
Table 6.4 Sizing of Lime Unit . .................................................................... 48
Table 6.5 Sizing of Clarifier ........................................................................ 48
Table 6.6 Sizing of Heater. ........................................................................ 49
Table 6.7 Sizing of Cooler .. ...................................................................... 51
Table 6.8 Sizing of Centrifuge. .................................................................. 51
Table 7.1 Mass Balance of Washing Water Recycling. ............................. 53
Table 7.2 Mass Balance of Diffusion Tower water recycling...................... 55
Table 7.3 Mass Balance Evaporator Water Recycling. ............................. 55
Table 8.1 HAZOP of Reactor ……. ............................................................. 59
Table 8.2 HAZOP of Cooling Tower ........................................................... 60
Table 8.3 HAZOP of Evaporator ................................................................. 61
Table 8.4 HAZOP of Dryer......................................................................... 62
Table 8.5 MSDS of Sugar Factory .. ........................................................... 65
Table 9.1 Control Overview. ...................................................................... 74
Table 10.1 Total Capital Investment… ....................................................... 82
Table 10.2 Raw Material………………….. .................................................. 83
Table 10.3 Total Production Cost.. ............................................................. 84
Table 10.4 Calculations of Total Production Cost ....................................... 85
Table 10.5 Summary for Economics Calculation ……….…………….…….87
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Beet and Cane Distribution in The World ……………… .............. 4
Figure 1.2 The Relationship Between Solubility and Temperature .. ............ 8
Figure 2.1 Block Diagram of Process………............................................... 12
Figure 2.2 Flow Sheet of Process ……....................................................... 13
Figure 5.1 Reactor Design … ..................................................................... 29
Figure 5.2 Rotary Drum Filter … ................................................................. 33
Figure 5.3 Multiple Effect Evaporator …. . .................................................. 35
Figure 5.4 Rotary Drum Dryer ..… .............................................................. 40
Figure 5.5 Natural Draft Cooling Tower. ..................................................... 42
Figure 7.1 Diagram of Water Recycling and Treatment ... .......................... 53
Figure 7.2 Diagram of Washing Water Recycling. ...................................... 54
Figure 7.3 Diagram of Diffusion Tower Water Recycling . .......................... 55
Figure 7.4 Diagram of Evaporator Water Recycling. .................................. 55
Figure 7.5 Diagram of Cooling Water Recycling From Cooling Tower........ 56
Figure 9.1 Control Flow Sheet .. ................................................................. 67
Figure 9.2 Diffusion Tower Control . ........................................................... 68
Figure 9.3 Mixer Control ... ......................................................................... 68
Figure 9.4 Heater1 Control . ....................................................................... 69
Figure 9.5 Liming Control. .......................................................................... 69
Figure 9.6 Clarifier Control.......................................................................... 70
Figure 9.7 Heater2 Control. ........................................................................ 70
Figure 9.8 Filter Control. ............................................................................. 70
Figure 9.9 Evaporator Control. ................................................................... 71
Figure 9.10 Sulfitation Control. ................................................................... 71
Figure 9.11 Crysallizer Control. .................................................................. 71
Figure 9.12 Cooler Control. ........................................................................ 72
Figure 9.13 Cenrifuge Control. ................................................................... 72
Figure 9.14 Dryer Control. .......................................................................... 72
Figure 9.15 Cooling Tower Control. ............................................................ 73
VII
NOMENACLATURE
P Purity
T Temperature
DS Dry substance
m Mass Flow rate
CP Heat Capacity
 Density
 Latent Heat
H Enthalpy
Q Amount of heat
U Overall heat transfer coefficient
∆Tlm Log mean temperature difference
V Volume
ha Outlet Humidity of air
hb Inlet humidity of air
X Conversion of reaction
Xa Initial moisture
Xb Final moisture
D Diameter
L Length
G Mass velocity of the dry air
t Time
C Concentration
F Flow rate in reactor
ᵋ Percentage of mole change
f Submergence fraction
α0 Cake resistance
µ Viscosity
∆P Pressure drop
s Compressibility coefficient
VIII
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Overview
"Beet and cane are almost similar in sugar content (beet typically contains
18% and cane about 15%), but are dissimilar in the amount of non sugars
(beet juice contains about 2.5% and cane juice about 5%) and fiber (beet
contains about 5% and cane about 10%). The composition differences require
different methods to produce sugar from beet or cane. The differences in
farming, composition, and processing of these crops are sufficient to justify
two separate industries:
 Beet-sugar industry
 Cane-sugar industry
During the last century, both industries have grown considerably. World sugar
production has increased from approximately 10 million tons in 1900 to about
160 million tons in 2012.
There are over 500 beet-sugar factories in the world. About 40% of the
world’s sugar production is from beet, and 60% is from cane. The climates of
most sugar-producing countries are suitable for growing either beet (in
moderately cold areas) or cane (in tropical areas). In only a few countries
(United States, Iran, Spain, Egypt, and Pakistan), the growing conditions are
suitable for both crops. Sugar from sugarbeet is produced in about 50
countries worldwide, in North America(United States and Canada), South
America (Chile), Asian, North Africa (Morocco and Egypt)countries, and most
of Europe.
Sugar technologists often use an old statement regarding a sugar factory’s
goal: “The sugar factory does not make sugar; it separates non sugars.” But
this is only half a picture because today’s beet-sugar factory cannot survive if
it doesn’t aim for the following:
- To produce sugar with the highest efficiency.
- To produce molasses with the lowest possible purity.
- To be responsive to the natural environment with its wastes."[1]
3
Table 1.1 Annual Consumption of Sugar in The World [9]
Country 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

India 22,021 23,500 22,500 23,500 25,500 26,500
European Union 16,496 16,760 17,400 17,800 17,800 17,800
China 14,250 14,500 14,300 14,000 14,400 14,900
Brazil 11,400 11,650 11,800 12,000 11,500 11,700
United States 9,590 9,473 9,861 10,086 10,251 10,364
Other 77,098 76,604 77,915 78,717 80,751 81,750
Total 150,855 152,487 153,776 156,103 160,202 163,014
"Today, the annual consumption is running at about 160 million tons and is
expanding at a rate of about 2 million tons per year. The European Union,
Brazil and India are the top three producers and together account for some
40% of the annual production. However most sugar is consumed within the
country of production and only approximately 25% is traded internationally.
Sugar cane is cultivated in over 100 countries and the amount of sugar from
sugar cane is approximately 6 times higher than of beet sugar."[8]
Figure 1.1 Beet and Cane Distribution in The World [8]
"The word sugar comes from the Indian "sarkara". The chemical name of
sugar is "sucrose" in English and "saccharose" in some European languages.
Sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11) is one of the families of sugars (saccharides). All
sugars belong to a larger group, known as carbohydrates (sugars, starches,
and dietary fibers). The term sugar substitutes refers to all natural and
4
synthetic (artificial) sugars other than sucrose. All sweet-taste sugars and
sugar substitutes are known to us as sweeteners.
Sucrose (sugar), glucose (dextrose), and fructose (levulose) are examples of
sweet-tasting sugars. The quantity of hydroxyl groups (OH) in molecules of
sugars contributes to their sweetness. However, not all sugars are sweet in
taste. In general, sugars with at least two hydroxyl groups (OH) in their
molecules are sweet. About 50 compounds have a sweet taste.
Sugar in its market-quality form is white and crystalline (granulated) with a
sweet taste. It is used in the kitchen, as an ingredient in sugar-added food
products (e.g., soft drinks and confectioneries), and in production of nonfood
products (e.g., detergents and ethanol). Sugar is considered as:

one of the world’s purest food products (99.95% sucrose; water is the main
remainder).

One of the most natural foods used by humans for centuries without proven
health risk.

One of the most purified organic compounds in the world and one of the
lowest priced food products."[1]
1.2 History of Beet-Sugar

"Sugarcane cultivation and the technique of sugar production began in India
probably around 2000 BC and moved to Persia (now Iran) around AD 600. In
Persia, the technique was improved; milk was used as the purifying agent;
and the filtered syrup was crystallized. Then, the Persians invented a cone-
shaped clay mold for the production of cone sugar (loafsugar).
In AD 800, sugarcane cultivation spread from Persia to Egypt, Syria, and as
far as Morocco and Spain. By the fourteenth century, Egypt was Europe’s
main supplier, via the port of Alexandria, of sugar made from sugarcane.
Sugar became popular in tea in Britain by the end of the seventeenth century.
In those days, sugar was available in large cone shapes that had to be broken
first into large pieces with a cast-iron pincer and then into regular cube size
with a little chopper.
Sugarbeet cultivation on a research scale began in 1747 when Andreas
Marggraf (a German chemist) discovered sugar in sugar-beet varieties. Later,
5
Franz Achard (Marggraf’s student) in Germany and Esipov in Russia were
simultaneously engaged in the cultivation of sugar-beet varieties. They also
continued independently with research on the processing of sugar from sugar-
beet in industrial scale. The first beet-sugar factory was built in Cunern (in
Germany) in 1802 by Achard and in Alyabevo (in Russia), shortly thereafter.
Beetsugar technology developed rapidly, resulting in more than 400 beet-
sugar factories in European countries by 1830.
During the industrial revolution between the late eighteenth and mid-
nineteenth centuries, sugar technologists had always been the models for
other industries by developing new technologies and equipment."[1]
1.3 By – Products of The Beet-Sugar Factory

"In 100 kg sugar-beet, about 75 kg is water and 25 kg is dry substance. About
15 kg of the dry substance contained in 100 kg beet ends up in the form of a
product (the amount of sugar produced is about one-seventh the weight of the
beets), and the remaining 10 kg is a combination of by-products.
The by-products of the beet-sugar factory are the following:
- Pulp
- Carbonation-lime residue (CLR)
- Molasses
1.3.1 Pulp
Pulp which are usually dried and processed as animal feed. The dried pulp is
often pelletized to increase bulk density to minimize shipping costs to distant
markets. The dried pulp is valuable cattle feed because it supplies
carbohydrates, proteins, and minerals.
1.3.2 Carbonation-Lime Residue

Sugar factories use lime, in the form of calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2, known as
milk of lime] in the juice-purification station, to improve the quality of the beet
juice. After the lime has been used, the juice is mixed with carbon dioxide gas
(CO2), which precipitates lime again in the form of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). The calcium carbonate is then concentrated using cake filters
6
(rotary drum filters or filter presses) to produce carbonation-lime residue
(CLR).
The CLR stockpiled in the factory can take up space. Therefore, the sugar
industry has been trying to find different uses for this material. Carbonation-
lime residue consists of about 80% CaCO3 as dry substance. It is ideal for use
as an agricultural soil-enhancer and pH adjuster.
1.3.3 Molasses
Molasses is the runoff syrup from the final stage of crystallization, at which
stage further separation of the sugar is not possible with conventional
equipment. Beet molasses must not contain less than 48% sugar (namely
sucrose and invert sugar) and 79.5% dry substances when is offered to
consumers.
Molasses produced by beet-sugar factories usually contains about 50% sugar
and 80%dry substances. It is the most valuable by-product of the sugar
factory. Its market includes the yeast fermentation, pharmaceutical, and
animal feed industries."[1]
1.4 Sucrose Properties
1.4.1 Sucrose Formation

"Sucrose is formed in many fruits. Industrially, sugar beet and sugarcane are
the main sources of sucrose. Sucrose is formed by the photosynthetic
process .The primary product of photosynthesis is monosaccharides.
Then, two monosaccharides combine with the help of an enzyme (named
sucrase, not sucrose) to form sucrose:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Sunlight energy  C6H12O6 + 6 O2
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 + Enzyme  C12H22O11 + H2O
The second equation is called a dehydration reaction (condensation reaction)
because one molecule of water is formed during reaction.
Sucrose is found in many fruits (about 7% in bananas, 5% in oranges, and to
a lesser extent in some vegetables). Sugar beet and sugarcane are the main
sources of sucrose. Sugar beet contains 15 to 20% and sugarcane 10 to 17%
sucrose."[1]
7
1.4.2 Sucrose Properties
Table 1.2 Sucrose Properties
Chemical Formula C12H22O11

Density (Kg/m3) 1587.1
o
Melting point ( C) 185
 SUCROSE SOLUBILITY
"Sucrose is highly soluble in water. The reason for its high solubility is that
sucrose contains eight free hydroxyl groups (OH) of which at least five can
attach to other molecules depending on the molecule reactivity.
When sucrose is dissolved in water, each sucrose molecule can form at least
five hydrogen bonds with water molecules. As the concentration of the
solution increases, no more free water molecules are left in the solution for
hydrogen bonding and the solution becomes saturated.
Solubility increases with increasing temperature."[1]
Figure 1.2 The Relationship Between Solubility with Temperature[1]
"Sucrose (a non polar substance) is soluble in polar solvents, such as water,

acetone (C3H6O), acetic acid (HCH3COO), and formic acid (HCOOH). But it is
not soluble in nonpolar solvents, such as chloroform (CHCl3), carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4), hexane (C6H14), heptane (C7H16), toluene (C7H8), oil."[1]
8
 SUCROSE SPECIFIC HEAT
"The specific heat of pure and impure sucrose solutions decreases when their
concentration and temperature are increased. You can calculate the specific
heat of pure and impure sucrose solutions by using equation (1.1) :
CP = 4.187 − DS × (0.0297 − 4.6 × 10−5 × P ) + 7.5 × 10−5 × DS × T (1.1)
DS: Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)

T: Temperature (ºC)
P: Purity (for pure solutions, P = 100)"[1]
 SUCROSE SPECIFIC ENTHALPY:

"The specific enthalpy (in kJ/kg) of pure and impure sucrose solutions using
equation (1.2) :
H = T {4.187 − DS ( 0.0297− 4.6 × 10−5 × P ) +3.75 × 10−5 × DS × T} (1.2)
DS: Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)

T: Temperature (ºC)
P: Purity (for pure solutions, P = 100)"[1]
1.4.3 Sucrochemistry:
"Sucrochemistry is the study of using sucrose as a raw material for production
of other products.
Many sucrose-based products are available on the market, such as the
following:
 BIOETHANOL
Ethanol produced from plant sources produced from sucrose, molasses, or
sucrose containing raw materials (mainly sugarcane) is the most important
nonfood product of sucrose. Ethanol-based fuel is considered as the gasoline
9
of the future. Because of a recent steady increase of oil price, every country
tries to reduce its dependence on oil-based fuel. In the United States, a
program called 25/25 aims to get 25% of its energy from renewable resources
(e.g., ethanol, solar, and wind) by the year 2025. Ethanol produced from
sugarcane and corn plays an important role in this program.
Bioethanol is produced in countries such as Brazil, the United States (ethanol

is produced from corn), India, Pakistan, and some European countries. It is
mixed up to 85% with gasoline as a blend of fuel for most cars, or it is used
without mixing in specially designed cars. Bioethanol consumption counts for
2.5% of the world gasoline use In the world, Brazil leads sugar and ethanol
production, both of which come from sugarcane.
In Brazil, ethanol is produced from sugarcane juice, molasses, or mix of both

with an expected production of about 17.5 million m3 in 2005/2006 campaign.
As a result, Brazil became an energy-independent nation and its sugar
surplus was reduced. Ethanol produced in Brazil costs less than U.S. ethanol
produced from corn.
European countries have become interested in ethanol production from sugar

beet. France produces 125000 m3 ethanol a year from sugar beet, wheat, and
maize.
 DEXTRAN
A polysaccharide used in pharmaceutical and photographic industry, and
some other polysaccharides. Dextran is produced through a fermentation
process. Sucrose is also used for the production of products such as acetic
acid (HCH3COO).
10
 CARBOHYDRATES:
Carbohydrates (from carbon hydrates) are saccharides, starches, and dietary

fibers. Carbohydrates are a large class of substances with similar structures.
 MONOSACCHARIDES:
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates consisting of one unit, so
they cannot be further decomposed to a simpler sugar.
Example: Glucose (blood sugar), Fructose (fruit sugar).
 DISACCHARIDES:
Disaccharides are carbohydrates composed of two monosaccharides.
Example: Sucrose (sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar).
 OLIGOSACCHARIDES:
Oligosaccharides (from the Latin oligo meaning a few) consist of three to six
monosaccharides.
Example: Stachyose, Raffinose .
 POLYSACCHARIDES:
Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) are long molecules that consist of
many repeating monosaccharides (hundreds to thousands) connected by
alpha 1 : 2 glycosidic bonds.
Example: Starch, Pectin, Cellulose, Dextran."[1]
11
Chapter 2. Process Description
"The agricultural department of the sugar factory is responsible for

coordinating with sugarbeet farmers the delivery, unloading, and storing of
sugarbeets, as well as care of sugarbeets during storage. At the point where
the factory starts to process sugarbeets, responsibility passes to the operation
department, which must recover as much sugar as possible from the
sugarbeets entered into the process.
Changing sugarbeet to sugar requires successive processes, called unit
operations. Unit operation is one of the subjects that differentiates chemical
engineering from chemistry at universities. Unit operation studies focus on the
chemical processes used in chemical and food factories. Sugar production is
a large-scale operation divided into smaller unit operations.
To process sugarbeet and produce sugar, unit operations are commonly used
in a beet sugar factory: Slicing, Diffusion, Purification, Sedimentation,
Filtration, Evaporation, Crystallization, Centrifugation, Drying."[1]
2.1 Block Diagram :
Figure 2.1 Block Diagram of Process [1]
12
2.2 Flow sheet of Process :
The process retainer for the project is shown in Figure. (2.2)
14
4
Diffusion
Tower
7
2 3
Liming
1 5 6 8
Mixer
14
13 11 10
Evaporator Filter Clarifier
12 9
15
17
Sulfitation
Centrifuge
16 18 19 20
Crystallizer
21
25
24 23 22
Storage Dryer
26
Figure 2.2 Flow sheet of Process
13
In flow sheet, we have 15 main units of the process, (Mixer, Diffusion Tower,
Heater1, Reactor, Clarifier, Heater2, Filter, Evaporator, Tank, Crystallizer,
Cooler1, Centrifuge, Dryer, Cooler2 and Storage).
2.3 Description of Flow sheet

Figure (2.2) shows the sliced beet (cossettes) in stream 1 enters a mixer, and
the diffusion juice in stream 3 will be mixed with cossettes , after mixing
operation the thin juice (cossettes + diffusion juice) in stream 2 enters the
diffusion tower and the mass transfer operation will be between (thin juice in
stream 2 and the condensate water coming from evaporator in stream 14) ,
the pulp will exit as stream 4 , and the juice returns to the mixer and exits ,
then it is heated from 30 OC to 88 OC before entering the liming unit (stream 6)
. In liming unit there are two steps : The first is the addition Milk of Lime (MOL)
Ca(OH)2 to remove the impurities in juice after mixing operation. The second
is Carbonation Process (Adding CO2) to precipitate CaO from juice. Stream 8
(thin juice + precipitated CaO) enter clarifier to remove CaO precipitated in
Carbonation Process. Then the clarifying juice (Stream 10) is heated to 92OC
before entering the filter to remove non sugars (increasing purity of sucrose in
dry substance from 88% to 92%). The thin juice in previous units has (15%
dry substance and 85% water). In evaporation unit the concentration of dry
substance will be increased to 70% , water 30% in stream 15 with
temperature about 95OC before adding SO2 to decolorize it from impurities
with thick juice. Then, the thick juice in stream 16 enters the crystallizer to
form the crystals of sugar and the dry substance here will be 93% and 7%
water. Then the wet crystals will be cooled to 75OC before entering the
centrifuge unit (stream 19) which separate the crystals from molasses by
centrifuging force. The molasses here (stream 20) is available as a product for
selling and the wet crystals (stream 21) will enter the dryer and leave it with
100% sucrose and 0% water before cooling to 30OC (stream 24). The product
(white sugar) now is available in storage (silos) at 30OC with 100% sugar but
different shape (granulated sugar in stream 25 and powder of sugar in stream
26).
14
Chapter 3. Material Balance
3.1 The General Equation of Mass Balance :

The aim of this chapter is to carry out the mass balance calculation about the
giving flow sheet in Fig.(2.2).
The general equation of mass balance calculation will be considered as
follows: [2]
= (3.1)
Accumulation in process equal zero .

Mass Input = mass flow rate streams enter system.
Mass Output = mass flow rate streams leave system.
In this project, we assume 300 ton/day as our product, and the factory works
180 days.
TABLE. (3.1) Materials used in the process and their abbreviation
Name Species Symbol
Water H2O W
Sugar C12H22O12 S
Non Sugar Mg,Ca,…. NS
- The amount of Beet entering to the process after washing and slicing
(Cossetts) is 3554 ton/day (by backward mass balance).
- Factory works 180 days.
- m1= 148083 kg/h (the amount of beet)
- m4= 29616 kg/h (the amount of pulp)
- m7= 5574 kg/h (the amount of lime added to the reactor)
- m20 = 19737 kg/h (the amount of molasses produced)
15
3.2 Mass Balance of Units :
Water
14
1 5
Overall mass (C12H22O12)
Juice diff.
Beet balance of XDS = 0.15
Diffusion Xw = 0.85
Pulp
Xp= 0.2 on beet
Overall M.B. :
m1+ m14= m4 + m5  m1+ 3845.87= m4 + 6689.05
m4=0.2m1
 m1+3845.87= 0.2m1 + 6689.05
 0.8m1=6689.05-3845.87
 m1=3554 ton/day = 148083.33 kg/h
 m4= (0.2)(3554)=710.8 ton/day = 29616.67 kg/h
Component M.B. :
STREAM 5 :
m5DS = 0.15 (6689.05) = 1003.36 ton/day =41806.67 kg/h
m5S = 1003.36 (0.88) = 883 ton/day = 36791.67 kg/h
m5NS = 1003.36 (0.12) = 120.36 ton/day = 5015 kg/h
m5w = 0.85 (6689.05) = 5685.7 ton/day = 236904.2 kg/h
16
Mixer – Unit 1 : The cossette mixed with diffusion juice .
Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

2 226567.5 35184.6 4797.9
3 333005.34 52427.5 7149.17
5 236904.2 36791.67 5015
Diffuser – Unit 2 : To extract sucrose from cossette by using water.

2 226567.5 35184.6 4797.9
3 333005.34 52427.5 7149.17
14 160244.8 0 0
Heater – Unit 3: In this unit the juice will be heated from 30 to 88 oC .

5 236904.2 36791.7 5015
6 236904.2 36791.7 5015
Liming – Unit 4 : Liming is the step of purification where lime is added to the
juice .

6 236904.2 36791.7 5015
8 241641.9 37525.4 5117.1
17
Clarifier – Unit 5 : In this unit the lime will be separated from juice .

8 241641.8958 37525.4 5117.1
9 21321.375 9380.6167 1279.175
10 181233.95 28144.7833 3837.925
Heater – Unit 6 : In this unit the juice will be heated from 88 to 90 oC .

10 181233.95 28144.7833 3837.925
11 181233.95 28144.7833 3837.925
Filter – Unit 7 : In this unit the purity increased to 90 .

11 181233.95 28144.8 3837.925
12 7878.4 0 1390.3125
13 173355.7 28144.8 2447.375
Evaporator – Unit 8 : In this unit the dry substance increased from 15 to 70.

13 173355.7 28144.8 2447.375
14 160244.8 0 0
15 13110.9 28144.8 2447.375
18
Sulfitation – Unit 9 : In this unit added SO2 to remove color .

15 13110.9 28144.8 2447.375
16 13110.9 28144.8 2447.375
Crystallizer – Unit 10 : In this unit the crystals of sugar will be formed .

16 13110.9 28144.8 2447.375
17 10809.4 0 0
18 2301.6 28144.8 2447.375
Cooler – Unit 11: In this unit the juice will be cooled from 100 to 75 oC .

18 2301.5625 28144.8125 2447.375
19 2301.5625 28144.8125 2447.375
Centrifuge – Unit 12: In this unit,the sugar crystals are separated from molasses
.

19 2302.56 28144.33 2447.33
20 1184.25 9831.74 854.933
21 657.5 12500 0
19
Dryer – Unit 13 : In this unit , the wet crystal entered the dryer and leave it as
dry crystal ( W= 0% , S = 100% )

21 657.5 12500 0
22 657.5 0 0
23 0 12500 0
Cooler – Unit 14 : In this unit the sugar will be cooled from 65 to 30 oC

23 0 12500 0
24 0 12500 0
Storage – Unit 15 : To keep sugar at 25oC .

24 0 12500 0
25 0 6250 0
26 0 6250 0
20
Chapter 4. Energy Balance
The aim of this chapter is to carry out the energy balance calculation around
units in the flow sheet given in Fig.(2.2).
The general equation of heat balance calculation will be considered as
follows:[2]
= (4.1)
Accumulation in process equal zero
= − (4.2)
We assume 25 oC as a reference temperature for our calculations.
4-1 Heat Capacities :
CpiW = 75.4 * 10-3 kJ/kmol.oC and CpiLime= 89.5*10-3 kJ/kg.oC[2]
CpiDS From Appendix D.1 attached.
21
Mixer – Unit 1
(C12H22O12)
2 T= 65oC
H3
Beet 1 Mixer
T= 25oC
H1 3
(C12H22O12)
T= 70oC
H4
5
(C12H22O12)
T= 35oC
H5
Water @ 25oC Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kg .oC) = 75.4*10-3 kJ/kmol.oC
H1=m1cp ∆T  ∆T = 25-25=0  H1=0

H2 = H2DS + H2W
H2DS = m2DS CpDS ∆T
CPDS at 65oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.8775 kJ/kg.oC (From appendix D.1).
H2DS = (959.58 *103)( 3.8775)(65-25) = 148830858kJ/day = 6201285.75 kJ/h
.
H2W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [65-25]
= 9111034440 kJ/day = 379626435 kJ/h

H2 = 9259865298 kJ/day = 385827720.8 kJ/h
H3 = H3DS + H3W
CPDS at 70oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.88 kJ/kg.oC (From appendix D.1).
H3DS = (1429.84*103)(3.88)(70-25) = 249650064 kJ/day = 10402086 kJ/h
22
.
H3W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [70-25]
= 1527308055 kJ/day = 63637835.63 kJ/h

H3 = 1776958119 kJ/day = 74039921.63 kJ/h
H5 = H5DS + H5W
CPDS at 30oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.835 kJ/kg.oC (From appendices
attached)
H5DS = (1003.36*103)(3.835)(30-25) = 19239428 kJ/day = 801642.83 kJ/h
.
H5W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [30-25]
= 137933618.3 kJ/day = 5747234.1 kJ/h

H5 = 157173046.3 kJ/day = 6548876.93 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H5 + H2) – (H1+H3)

Q = 7640080225 kJ/day = 318336676.1 kJ/h
23
Heater – Unit 3
Streams Temperature(T) Heat capacity of Dry (CP) Total Enthalpy(HT)

(OC) (KJ/KgoC) (KJ/h)
5 30 3.835 6548876.93
6 88 3.905 72801444.38
Amount of heat (Q) = 66252567.46KJ/h

KJ/h))
Diffuser – Unit 2

2 65 3.8775 385827720.8
3 70 3.88 74039921.63
4 70 3.88 2174126.11
14 90 - 43622136.58
Amount of heat (Q) = -353235809.6 KJ/h

KJ/h))
Liming – Unit 4

6 88 3.905 72801444.38
7 40 - 100989.46
8 88 3.905 74260150.38
Amount of heat (Q) = 1357716.54 KJ/h 24

KJ/h))
Clarifier – Unit 5

8 88 3.905 74260150.38
9 88 2.87 14621985.76
10 88 3.905 55695000.60

KJ/h))
Heater – Unit 6

10 88 3.905 55695000.60
11 92 3.908 59237619.49
Amount of heat (Q) = 3542618.875 KJ/h

KJ/h))
25
Filter – Unit 7

11 92 3.908 59237619.49
12 92 3.908 2575166.572
13 92 3.908 56663384.47

KJ/h))
Evaporator – Unit 8

13 92 3.908 56663384.47
14 100 ---- 50343572.05
15 95 2.985 10236656.06

KJ/h))
26
Crystallizer – Unit 10

16 95 2.985 10236656.06
17 100 ------ 81494833.33
18 100 2.43 12809018.75

KJ/h))
Cooler – Unit 11

18 100 2.43 12809018.75
19 75 2.39 8478162.50

KJ/h))
27
Centrifuge – Unit 12

19 75 2.39 555362
20 60 2.175 1412539.78
21 60 ----- 949354.23

KJ/h))
Dryer – Unit 13

21 60 ---- 949354.23
22 65 ---- 110167.78
23 65 ---- 927000

KJ/h))
Cooling tower – Unit 14

23 65 ---- 927000
24 30 ---- 106195.31
Amount of heat (Q) = -1082250 KJ/h

KJ/h))
28
Chapter 5. Equipment Design
5.1 Reactor Design (Unit – 4) :
Carbonation is the step of purification where the carbonation gas is added to

the limed juice. The gassing time of the juice in this step is about 10
minutes.[1]
The carbonation has main function is to react with unreacted lime to
precipitate calcium carbonate.
C12H22O11.CaO + CO2  C12H22O11 + CaCO3  (5.1)
Assumptions :
- Operating at steady state and the reactor is isothermal .
- Negligible heat resistance between the pellets and gas.
- The pressure drop along the reactor is negligible.
B= C12H22O11.CaO C12H22O11
XB=0.98
T=88oC
P=2 atm Reactor
A=CO2
XA=0.02 CaCO3
Figure 5.1 Reactor Design
29
- A is limiting of reaction .
To calculate the volume of reactor, the equation (5.2) shown is :[3]
(5.2)
The percentage of CO2 in the carbonation gas entering the carbonation tank
(CO2)IN to CO2 in the gas leaving the tank (CO2)OUT , It can be calculated by
the following formula :[1]
( (
X= (
10000 (5.3)
–
CO2(IN) = 2  of lime juice .
CO2(out)= 0.4  of lime juice .
.
X= 10000 = 0.8
.
m8 = 6822.83 ton/day = 284284.6 kg/h
 m(CO2)in= (284284.6)(0.02)=5685.69 kg/h
The rate of reaction is given by : [3]
− = (5.4)
Where:
= 0 (5.5)
ε= yAoԺ  Ժ=1+1-1-1=0 (5.6)
30
 ε= 0
0
0= (5.7)
( . (
0=
( .
= 1.35 10-3 Kmol/m3 = 1.35 mol/m3
(
CA = 1.35(1-0.8) = 0.27 mol/m3

= = = 0.98/0.02= 49 (5.8)
= ( −( (5.9)
CB= CAo (49 – 0.8) = 1.35(48.2) = 65.07 mol/m3
Kinetic :[3]
= (5.10)
E = activation energy = 50000 J/mol
R = gas constant = 8.314 J/mol.k
A = frequency factor = 3.29 105
T= absolute temperature = 361 K
k=3.29X105 e(-50000/(8.314)(361))
k=0.0192 S-1
Now, Applying equation (5.4) :
-rA= KCACB
-rA = (0.0192)(65.07)(0.27) = 0.34 mol/m3.s
31
( . (
FBo=
( (
FBo= 129.22 kmol/h = (129.22)(1000/3600) = 35.89 mol/s
V= (35.8945)(0.8)/(0.34) = 84.46 m3
The volume is big , then will dived to two reactor (42.23 m3 per reactor).
Table 5.1 Reactor Design
Temperature (T) 88oC

Pressure (P) 2atm
Concentration of A (CA) 0.27 mol/m3
Concentration of B (CB) 65.07 mol/m3
activation energy , E 50000 J/mol
frequency factor, A 3.29 105
k 0.0192 S-1
Number of Reactors 2
Volume of one reactor needed 42.23 m3
5.2 Filter Design (Unit – 7) :
Filtration is the process of separating solid particles from a liquid by the force
of the pressure difference on both sides of the filter medium (a porous
material). The filter residue is the solid that remains on the filter medium
(nonsugars), and filtrate (thin juice) is the liquid that passes through the filter
medium and is collected during filtration. There are many types of filters , we
will use Rotary Drum Filter in our project because the amount of cake on filter
is very big with time , and the rotary drum can stand this large amounts.
Type : Rotary drum filter (continuous filtration).
32
Figure 5.2 Rotary Drum Filter
The general relation to specify the total area of rotary drum filter "with
constant pressure drop" :[5]
=( (5.11)
Assumptions :
- The pressure drop will be constant in rotary drum filter , ∆P = 103.42 KPa
- The cake resistance (α0 = 2.7 x 1010 m/kg)
- The compressibility coefficient of the cake (s = 0.29)
- The cycle time (Tc = 4 minutes = 4 x 60 = 240 second)
- The submergence fraction (f = A/AT = 0.4)
The total area of filter can be calculated using equation (5.12) :[5]
= ( (5.12)
MF from mass balance = 213218.1 Kg/h = 59.22 Kg/s

Mc from mass balance = 3837.925 Kg/h = 1.066 Kg/s
MF/MC = 55.5
33
ρsugar = 1587 Kg/m3
C = 15 / [1 – (mF/mc – 1) 15/ρsugar] = 33.35 Kg/m3
µw at (92oC) = 0.3095*10-3 Kg/m.s
Hence, the total area :
AT = 1.066 [(2.70*1010 )(0.3095*10-3)]/[2*33.35*10342140.71*0.4*(1/240)]0.5
AT = 67.7 m2
π*D*L = 67.7
D*L= 67.7/ π = 21.5
In filter design , the length at least double of diameter , hence, the diameter D
about 3 m and length L about 7.2 m .
Submerged area (A) = f * AT

 0.4 * 67.7 = 27.08 m2 .
Table 5.2 Filter Design

Pressure drop (∆P) 103.4214 KPa
Cake resistance (α0) 2.7*1010 m/Kg
Compressibility coefficient (s) 0.29
The cycle time (Tc) 4 minutes (240 second)
The submergence fraction (f) 40 % (0.4)
Total area of filter (AT) 67.7 m2
The diameter (D) 3m
The length (L) 7.2 m
The submergence area (A) 27.08 m2
34
5.3 Evaporator Design (Unit – 8) :
Evaporation is the process of concentrating a solution by boiling to convert
some of the liquid to vapor. The evaporation station can be viewed as the
heat center of the factory because it serves the sugar factory in three ways:
- Concentrates thin juice and produces thick juice.

- Produces condensate for boilers.
- Produces vapor and condensate for heat users.
In our project, multiple effect evaporator is used.[1]
Figure 5.3 Multiple Effect Evaporator[10]
Type : (Multiple Effect Evaporator).

Assumptions :
- Number of effects = 3
- U1 = 3123 , U2 = 1987 , U3 = 1136 W/m2.oC [4]
- Boiling Point Rise (BPR OC) = 1.78DS + 6.22DS2 (DS = % sugar in each
effect) [4]
- Cp = 4.19 – 2.35DS KJ/kg.OC [4]
- Each effect has same surface area
- Each effect has same amount of water vaporized (V1 = V2 = V3)
- The vapor pressure at third effect is 84.55 KPa
- The temperature of saturation steam is 180OC
35
O
STEP 1 : The temperature of the third effect at 84.55 KPa is 95 C , the
temperature of the thick juice can be estimated as follows :
BPR3 = 1.78 (0.7) + 6.22 (0.72) = 4.2938OC

T3 = 95 + 4.2938 = 99.2938 OC
STEP 2 : From overall mass balance in each effect :

1st effect with (V1 = V2 = V3 = 160244.79 / 3) :
F = V1 + L1  L1 = 203947.9167 – 53414 .93 = 150532.9861 Kg/h
2nd effect :
L1 = V2 + L2  L2 = 150532.9861 – 53414.93 = 97118.05613 Kg/h
3rd effect :
L2 = V3 + L3  L3 = 97118.05613 – 53414.93 = 43703.126 Kg/h
From component mass balance in each effect :
1st effect with (V1 = V2 = V3 = 160244.79 / 3) :

0.15 F = L1x1  30592.1875 = 150532.9861 x1  x1 = 0.203
2nd effect :
0.203L1 = L2x2  30558.196 = 97118.05613 x2  x2 = 0.314
3rd effect :
0.314L2 = L3x3  30495.06962 = 43703.126 x3  x3 = 0.70
STEP 3 : The BPR in each effect :

BPR1 = 1.78 (0.203) + 6.22 (0.2032) = 0.617OC
BPR2 = 1.78 (0.314) + 6.22 (0.3142) = 1.172OC
BPR3 = 1.78 (0.7) + 6.22 (0.72) = 4.2938OC
∑∆T = TSTEAM – T3Sat - ∑BPR (5.13)[4]
36
= 180 – 95 – (0.617 + 1.172 + 4.2938) = 78.9172OC
∆T1 = ∑∆T [(1/U1)/(1/U1+1/U2+1/U3)] (5.14)[4]

= (78.9172) [(1/3123)/(1/3123+1/1987+1/1136)] = 14.831OC
∆T2 = ∑∆T [(1/U2)/(1/U1+1/U2+1/U3)]
= (78.9172) [(1/1987)/(1/3123+1/1987+1/1136)] = 23.311OC
∆T3 = ∑∆T [(1/U3)/(1/U1+1/U2+1/U3)]
= (78.9172) [(1/1136)/(1/3123+1/1987+1/1136)] = 40.774OC
Actual BP in each effect :[4]

T1 = TS1 - ∆T1 = 180 – 14.831 = 165.169OC = TS2
T2 = T1 - ∆T2 – BPR1 = 165.169 – 23.311 – 0.617 = 141.241OC = TS3
T3 = T2 - ∆T3 – BPR2 = 141.241 – 40.774 – 1.172 = 99.3OC
STEP 4 : The heat capacity of the juice in each effect (4.19 – 2.35DS) :
F : Cp1 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.15) = 3.83 KJ/Kg.OC

L1 : Cp2 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.203) = 3.71 KJ/Kg.OC
L2 : Cp3 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.314) = 3.45 KJ/Kg.OC
L3 : Cp4 = 4.19 – 2.35 (0.70) = 2.54 KJ/Kg.OC
Enthalpy in each effect : [4]
Effect (1) : H1 = HS2 + 1.884 (BPR1) = 2763.5 + 1.884 (0.617) = 2764.6624

KJ/Kg
λs1 = HS1 – hS1 = 2778.2 – 763.22 = 2014.98 KJ/Kg
Effect (2) : H2 = HS3 + 1.884 (BPR2) = 2735 + 1.884 (1.172) = 2737.208 KJ/Kg
λs2 = HS2 – hS2 = 2763.5 – 697.34 = 2066.16 KJ/Kg
Effect (3) : H3 = HS4 + 1.884 (BPR3) = 2668.1 + 1.884 (4.2938) = 2676.186
KJ/Kg
λs3 = HS3 – hS3 = 2735 – 592 = 2143 KJ/Kg
Heat balance in each effect , noting this relations :
37
V1 = 203947.9167 – L1
V2 = L1 – L2
V3 = L2 – 43703.126
Effect (1) : FCp1(TF – 0) + S λs1 = L1Cp2(T1 – 0)+ V1H1

 203947.9167 (3.83) (92) + S (2014.98) = L1 (3.71) (165.169) +
(203947.9167 – L1) (2764.6624)
Effect (2) : L1Cp2(T1 – 0) + V1 λs2 = L2Cp3(T2 – 0)+ V2H2
 L1 (3.71) (165.169) + (203947.9167 – L1) (2066.16) = L2 (3.45) (141.241) +
(L1 – L2) (2737.208)
Effect (3) : L2Cp3(T2 – 0) + V2 λs3 = L3Cp4(T3 – 0)+ V3H3
 L2 (3.45) (141.241) + (L1 – L2) (2143) = 43703.126 (2.54) (99.3) +
(57461.5182) (2676.186)
Solving equation for effects (2) and (3) simultaneously :
L1 = 155188.6455 Kg/h , V1 = 48759.2712 Kg/h

L2 = 101164.6418 Kg/h , V2 = 54024.0037 Kg/h
L3 = 43703.126 Kg/h , V3 = 57461.5182 Kg/h
From effect (1) :

(203947.9167) (3.83) (92) + S(2014.98)=(155188.6455)(3.71)(165.169)+
(48759.2712) (2764.6624)
The amount of steam used in first effect :
S = 78430.489 Kg/h
38
STEP 5 : The heat required of each effect and area can be calculated as
follows : [4]
= (5.15)
Q1 = SλS1 = (78430.489/3600) * (2014.98*1000) = 43.898*106 W

Q2 = V1λS2 (48759.2712/3600) * (2066.16*1000) = 27.984*106 W
Q3 = V2λS3 (54024.0037/3600) * (2143*1000) = 32.159*106 W
Hence, the area required for each effect from equation (5.16) shown: [4]
= (5.16)
A1 = (Q1)/(U1*∆T1) = (43.898*106)/(3123*14.831) = 947.76 m2

A2 = (Q2)/(U2*∆T2) = (29.661*106)/(1987*8.541) = 640.36 m2
A3 = (Q3)/(U3*∆T3) = (33.239*106)/(1136*14.94) = 717.60 m2
Table 5.3 Evaporator Design
The amount of steam at 1st effect (S) 78430.489 Kg/h

The amount of heat at 1st effect (Q1) 43.898*106 W
The amount of heat at 2nd effect (Q2) 27.984*106 W
The amount of heat at 3rd effect (Q3) 32.159*106 W
The total area in 1st effect 947.76 m2
The total area 2nd effect 640.36 m2
The total area in 3rd effect 717.60 m2
The temperature of thick juice (TOUT) 95 OC
The temperature of steam (TS) 180 OC
39
5.4 Dryer Design (Unit – 13) :
Drying is the process of removing a liquid (usually water) from a wet solid
substance by the use of heat (usually hot air). The concentration difference
between the heating medium and the solid substance under drying is the
driving force (cause) of drying, which evaporates the water in the substance.
In normal operations, if the sugar entering the dryer has a moisture content
below 1% and is at about 60‫؛‬C, its heat provides sufficient energy to reduce
the moisture to about 0.00%. Most of the water in wet sugar is on the surface
of the crystals in the form of a saturated sucrose solution with high purity (very
close to 100%) and high concentration (about 90%). The wet sugar is dried
and cooled in the sugar dryer to a moisture content of about 0.00% and a
temperature below 30˚C. The sugar loses more moisture and cools during
transportation from the dryer to the silo or in the packing station. The dryer
used is rotary drum because the efficiency is higher than other types.
Type : Rotary drum dryer.
Figure 5.4 Rotary Drum Dryer[1]

Assumption :
Mass velocity of dry air (G) = 2000 Kg/m2.h
Temperature of entering air (Thb) = 126.7°C
Temperature of exiting air (Tha) = 70°C
The amount of mass entering the dryer (m) = 13157.5 Kg/h

Initial moisture (Xa) = 0.05 , Final moisture (Xb) = 0 , G = 2000 Kg/m2.h
Tsa = 60°C , Tsb = 65°C , Thb = 126.7°C , Tha = 70°C , Csb = 0.57 kJ/Kg.°C
Rate of mass transfer : mv = m(Xa – Xb) = 657.875 Kg/h , hb = 0.01
40
The heat duty was found from energy balance : Q = 87813.55 kJ/h
The flow rate of entering air is found from heat balance :[5]
(1 = (5.17)
(
(1 = 2717.087
= .
The outlet humidity : [5]
.
= = 0.01 = . (5.18)
.
The cross sectional area : [5]
( .
= = = . (5.19)
The dryer diameter : [5]
.
=( = . (5.20)
The dryer length : [5]

LMTD = Log Mean Temperature Difference
= . (5.21)
.
.
= . = .
. .
41
Table 5.4 Dryer Design
mass entering the dryer (m) 13157.5 Kg/h
Initial moisture (Xa) 0.05
Final moisture (Xb) 0
Mass velocity of dry air (G ) 2000 Kg/m2.h
Amount of heat (Q) 87813.55 kJ/h
The cross sectional area .
The dryer diameter (D) .
The dryer length (L) .
5.5 Cooling Tower Design (Unit – 14):
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat
to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby some of
the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently
discharged into the atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the water is
cooled down significantly.
The chosen cooling tower type that is natural draft cooling tower.
Figure 5.5 Natural Draft Cooling Tower[13]
42
Assumption :
Temperature of entering water (t1) = 40 oC
Temperature of exiting water (t2) = 25 oC
Temperature of entering air (t1) = 20 oC
Temperature of exiting air (t2) = 38 oC
Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) = 650 w/m2.K
The heat duty was found from energy balance : Q = - 820804.69 kJ/h
Mass flow rate of water :
Cp,water at Tav= (40+25)/2= 32.5oC ,Cp,water= 4.18 (kJ/kg.oC)

Δtwater = ( t2- t1) = (40 - 25) = 15oC
Q = mwater* Cpwater *ΔTwater = mwater* (4.18)(15)
mwater = 13091 (kg/h)
Mass flow rate of air :

Cp,air at Tav = (38+20)/2= 29 oC, Cp,air = 1.005 kJ/Kg.oC
Δtair = ( t2- t1) = (38 - 20) = 18oC
Q = mair* Cpair *ΔTair = mwater* (1.005)(18)
mair = 45373.39 (kg/h)
Design equation:
= (5.22)[5]
Where :
U: overall heat transfer coefficient (w/m2.K).
A: surface area for cooler (m2).
ΔTln: log mean temperature difference.
43
Tout  Tin
ΔTln = , ΔTout= (40-30)= 10oC, ΔTin= (65-25)= 40oC
Tout
ln
Tin
ΔTln=(10 - 40)/ln(10/40)= 21.64oC
Area of cooling tower = (Q/U* ΔTln)= (228001.303/(650*21.64))= 16.21 m2
Table 5.5 Cooling Tower Design

Mass flowrate of water (mwater) 13091 Kg/h
Mass flowrate of air (mair) 45373.39 Kg/h
Amount of heat (Q) - 820804.69 kJ/h
Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) 650 w/m2.K
Log mean temperature difference (ΔTln) 21.64oC
Area of cooling tower 16.21 m2
44
Chapter 6. Sizing equipment
6.1 Sizing of Mixer (Unit -1):

Type : BMA (Braunschweig Machinenbau Anstalt).
The cossette mixer works as a heat exchanger because the hot tower juice
preheats the cossettes.
The retention time = 15 minutes
.
= = = 5.73 m3/min (6.1)[4]
.
V = 5.73* ( 15 ) = 85.95 m3
The volume is big , then will dived to three tanks (28.65 m3 per tank)
Table 6.1 Mixer Sizing

Diameter of one tank (D) 2.5 m
High of one tank (H) 5. 85 m
Retention time (TR) 15 minutes
Volumetric flow rate 5.73 m3/min
Number of tanks 3
Volume of one tank needed 28.65 m3
45
6.2 Sizing of Diffuser (Unit -2):
Type : Braunschweig Machinenbau Anstalt (BMA) tower diffuser
Assumptions :
- The process takes about 50 minutes at 70ºC .
- A BMA diffuser (5-7) m in diameter and (11-16) m high can
handle 5000 t beets/day .
.
= = = 6.033 m3/min
.
V = 6.033* ( 50 ) = 301.65 m3
Table 6.2 Diffusion Tower Sizing

Diameter (D) 5.44 m
High (H) 13 m
Time of process (t) 50 minutes
Volume of diffuser needed 310.65 m3
46
6.3 Sizing of Heater (Unit-3):
The area of heater is depending on overall heat transfer coefficient "U"
(W/m2.oC). The value of "U" for organic compounds (sugar) with water is
between (500 – 750).
"U" = 700 W/m2.oC
The amount of heat required in heater is calculated from the general equation
of heat exchanger (6.2): [4]
= (6.2)
Tout  Tin
ΔTlm = (6.3)
T
ln out
Tin
ΔTout = (170-88)= 82oC , ΔTin=(250-30)= 220oC
ΔTlm = (82 – 220) / ln (82/220) = 139.83 oC
Qheater = 66252567.46 kJ/h (Appendix B.2) .
Hence, the area of heater can be calculated now :
A = (66252567.46 *103/3600) / (700*139.83) = 188 m2
Table 6.3 (Heater Sizing)

Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) 700 W/m2.OC
Logarithmic mean temperature (ΔTlm) 139.83 OC
Amount of heat needed in heater (Q) 66252567.46 KJ/h
The area of heater (A) 188 m2
47
6.4 Sizing of Lime Unit (Unit - 4):
Liming is the step of purification where lime is added to the juice .

Type : BMA
Vertical , H= (8-12) m , D= (2.5 – 4 ) m
.
= = = 4.26 m3/min
V = 4.26 * ( 15 ) = 64 m3
Table 6.4 Lime Unit Sizing

Diameter (D) 3m
High (H) 9m
Volume of liming needed 64 m3
6.5 Sizing of Clarifier (Unit - 5):
Type : Dorr clarifier .

Vertical , H= (8 -12) m , D= 2-6 m
.
= = = 4.34 m3/min
V = 4.34 * ( 20 ) = 86.8 m3
Table 6.5 Clarifier Sizing
Diameter (D) 2.5 m
High (H) 11 m
Volume of dorr clarifier needed 86.8 m3
48
6.6 Sizing of Heater (Unit - 6):
The area of heater is depending on overall heat transfer coefficient "U"

(W/m2.oC). The amount of "U" for organic compounds (sugar) with water is
between (500 – 750)
"U" = 700 W/m2.oC

The amount of heat required in heater is calculated from the general equation
of heat exchanger (6.2)
=
Tout  Tin
ΔTlm = , ΔTout = (100-92)= 8oC ,ΔTin=(130-88)= 42oC
T
ln out
Tin
ΔTlm = (8 – 42) / ln (8/42) = 20.5 oC
Qheater = 3542618.875 kJ/h (Appendix B.6).
Hence, the area of heater can be calculated now :
A = (3542618.875*103/3600) / (700*20.5) = 68.56 m2
Table 6.6 Heater Sizing

Amount of heat needed in heater (Q) 3542618.875 KJ/h
The area of heater (A) 68.56 m2
49
6.7 Sizing of Sulfitation (Unit - 9):
Assuming t= 1 h
m = 43703.125 Kg/h and ρ= 1343.30 kg/m3
Volume required = = 32.5 m3
6.8 Sizing of Crystallizer (Unit - 10):
Assuming t= 1.5 h
m = 32893.75 kg/h and ρ= 1586.2 kg/m3
volume required= = 31.11 m3
6.9 Sizing of Cooler (Unit - 11):
The area of cooler is depending on overall heat transfer coefficient "U"

(W/m2.oC). The amount of "U" for organic compounds (sugar) with water is
between (500 – 750)
"U" = 650 W/m2.oC

The amount of heat required in cooler is calculated from the general equation
of heat exchanger (6.2)
=
Tout  Tin
ΔTlm = , ΔTout = (75-50)= 25oC ,ΔTin=(100-25)= 75oC
Tout
ln
Tin
ΔTlm = (25 – 75) / ln (25/75) = 45.5 oC
Qcooler = 1203015.6 w (Appendix B.10).

50
Hence, the area of cooler can be calculated now :
A = (1203015.6) / (650*45.5) = 40.7 m2
Table 6.7 Cooler Sizing

Amount of heat needed in cooler (Q) 1203015.6 w
The area of cooler (A) 40.7 m2
6.10 Sizing of Centrifuge (Unit -12):
Table 6.8 Centrifuge Sizing[11]

Model TITAN 2400
Basket volume (m3) 1.4
Capacity (Kg) 2413
Length (m) 6.299

Diameter (m) 1.981
51
6.10 Sizing of Storage (Unit - 15):
Data of sugar :
Mass flowrate of sugar (ms) = 300 ton/day = 300000 Kg/day
Density of sugar (ρs) = 1586.2 Kg/m3
Volumetric flowrate of sugar (Vs) = ms/ρs = 189.13 m3/day = 1323.92 m3/week
Assume :
Length (L) = 12m , Diameter (D) = 3.5m
( = D = 11 .4
= = (6.4)[5]
52
Chapter 7. Water Recycling and
Treatment
7.1 Overview:
Water recycling is used on four units in this project : washing ,diffusion tower ,
evaporation and cooling tower.
The objectives of this operation is to reduce water consumption to reduce
costs and preserve the natural resources .
Figure 7.1 (Diagram of Water Recycling and Treatment)
53
7.2 Washing Water Recycling:
In this plant ,we need one ton of water to clean two ton of beet . Most of this
water is supplied by various in-factory sources such as condensate,
condenser water, and wastewater treatment system.
Figure 7.2 (Diagram of Washing Water Recycling)
Table 7.1 (Mass Balance)

Stream Water(ton/day) Beet(ton/day) Mud(ton/day)
1 0 3554 396
2 2370 0 0
3 0 3554 0
4 7900 0 396
5 5530 0 0
6 2370 0 396
7 1659 0 0
8 711 0 396
54
7.3 Diffusion Tower Water Recycling:
The pulp exiting from diffuser has 90% water and 10% solid . We need to
compress the pulp to extract the water in it. After that drain the pulp to be sold
as food for animals.
10
9 11 12
Figure 7.3(Diagram of diffusion tower water recycling)

Stream Water(ton/day) Pulp(ton/day)
9 639.72 71.08
10 511.78 0
11 127.94 71.08
12 0 71.08
7.4 Evaporator Water Recycling To Diffusion Tower:
13
Diffusion
Evaporator
Tower
Figure 7.4 (Diagram of Evaporator Water Recycling to Diffusion Tower)

Stream Water(ton/day)
13 3845.875
55
7.5 Cooling Water Recycling From Cooling Tower:
Figure 7.5 (Diagram of Cooling Water Recycling From Cooling Tower)
Mass balance:-
Mass flowrate of water (W) :
Cp,water at Tav= (40+25)/2= 32.5oC ,Cp,water= 4.18 (kJ/kg.oC)
ΔTwater = ( T2- T1) = (40 - 25) = 15oC
Q = mwater (Cpwater) (ΔTwater) = mwater (4.18)(15)
mwater = 14171.4 (kg/h) = 340.11 (ton/day)
Mass flowrate of air (A) :

Cp,air at Tav = (38+20)/2= 29 oC, Cp,air = 1.005 kJ/Kg.oC
Δtair = ( t2- t1) = (38 - 20) = 18oC
Q = mair (Cpair) (ΔTair) = mwater (1.005)(18)
mair = 49118.125 (kg/h)
56
7.6 Water Treatment :
The major aim of wastewater treatment is to remove as much of the
suspended solids as possible before the remaining water, called effluent, is
discharged back to the environment. There are many types of water
treatment. Chlorination is the most famous type because it is easily available
and not expensive.
 Chlorination :
Chlorination is the process of adding the element chlorine to water as a

method of water purification to make it fit for human consumption as drinking
water. Water which has been treated with chlorine is effective in preventing
the spread of waterborne diseases.
The chlorination of public drinking supplies was originally met with resistance,
as people were concerned about the health effects of the practice. The use of
chlorine has greatly reduced the prevalence of waterborne disease as it is
effective against almost all bacteria and viruses, as well as amoeba.
From flow sheet , we need to treat the amount of water exit from filter in
washing process by adding chlorine (Cl2) to get useable pure water.
57
Chapter 8.HAZOP and
Environment
8.1 HAZOP
A Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) study is a structured and systematic

examination of a planned or existing process or operation in order to identify
and evaluate problems that may represent risks to personnel or equipment, or
prevent efficient operation. The HAZOP technique was initially developed to
analyze chemical process systems, but has later been extended to other
types of systems and also to complex operations. A HAZOP is a qualitative
technique based on guide-words and is carried out by a multi disciplinary
team (HAZOP team) during a set of meetings. The hazard is any operation
that could possibly cause a catastrophic release of toxic, flammable or
explosive chemicals or any action that could result in injury to personnel. The
operability is any operation inside the design envelope that would cause a
shutdown that could possibly lead to a violation of environmental, health or
safety regulations or negatively impact profitability.
HAZOP study will be covered the following equipment :

- Reactor
- Cooling Tower
- Evaporator
- Dryer
58
8.1.1 Reactor
Table 8.1 HAZOP of Reactor
Unit Guide Word Deviation Causes Consequences Action

- Temperature -Install high
-Cooling
No flow increase in temperature
No water valve
cooling reactor alarm (TAH)
Malfunction
- Failure of
- Less cooling,
water
possible - Install check
Reverse source
Reverse runaway valve
Flow resulting in
reaction
backward
flow
- Control
valve
- Too much
More failure,
cooling, Instruct
More of cooling operator fails
reactor cool operators on
flow to take
Procedures
Reactor action
on alarm
- Check
Reactor
- More maintenance
product - Off-spec
As well as pressure in procedures
in product
reactor and
Coils
schedules
-If less
cooling, TAH
-Another
-May be cooling will
material
-Water inefffective detect. If
besides
Other than source and detected,
cooling
Contaminated effect on the isolate
water
reaction water source.
Back up
water source?
59
8.1.2 Cooling Tower
Table 8.2 HAZOP of Cooling Tower

No No flow - Failure of - Process fluid - Install
cooling inlet cooling temperature is Temperature
water not indicator
valve to open lowered before and
accordingly after the
process
fluid line
Install TAH
Less Less cooling - Pipe leakage - Process fluid - Installation
flow temperature of flow meter
too
Cooling low
tower
More More cooling - Reverse - Output of - Install
flow process fluid Process fluid Temperature
Flow temperature indicator
too low before and
after
process fluid
line
Install TAL
Reverse Reverse - Failure of - Product off - Install
cooling process fluid set check valve
Flow inlet (whether it
Valve is crucial
have to
check)
Other than Other material - -Outlet - Proper
than water Contamination temperature maintenance
in cooling too low and
water operator
alert
60
8.1.3 Evaporator
Table 8.3 HAZOP of Evaporator

No No steam flow - Failure of - Process fluid - Install
inlet steam temperature is not Temperature
valve to open increased indicator
accordingly before and
after the
process
fluid line
Install TAL
Less Less steam - Pipe - Process fluid - Installation
leakage temperature low of flow meter
Evaporator More More steam - Reverse - Output of Process - Install

flow process fluid fluid Temperature
Flow temperature too high indicator
before and
after
process fluid
line
Install TAH
Reverse Reverse - Failure of - Product off set - Install
process fluid process fluid check valve
Flow inlet
Valve
61
8.1.4 Dryer
Table 8.4 HAZOP of Dryer

No No hot Air - Failure of - Process fluid -Install
flow inlet hot air temperature is Temperature
valve to not indicator
open Increased Before and
accordingly after the
process
fluid line
Install TAL
Less Less hot Air - Pipe - Process fluid - Installation
leakage temperature of flow meter
low
Rotary More More hot Air - Reverse - Output of -Install

drum flow process fluid Process fluid Temperature
dryer flow temperature indicator
too high before and
after
process fluid
line
Install TAH
Reverse Reverse - Failure of - Product off - Install
process fluid process fluid set check valve
Flow inlet
valve
62
8.2 Environmental
"We are dependent on water and air in every minute of our life. Thus , it is the
responsibility of every one of us to not degrade the natural environment with
solid, liquid, and air pollutants. The systems for treatment of wastewater and
solid wastes for reuse and to release safe enivroment . The beet-sugar factory
produces more waste products than sugar, pulp, and molasses combined. If
beet-sugar producers are not diligent in caring and disposing of waste
products, the wastes can pollute the natural environment significantly. It
makes good business sense for producers to reduce pollution and comply
with all legally required actions and limitations with regard to the creation,
storage, treatment, and disposal of pollutants, wastes, and hazardous
compounds. Not doing so invites costly enforcement actions by the
governments and lawsuits by citizens. If comprehensive pollution reduction is
approached correctly, sugar producers not only be environmentally safe but
also can generate considerable cost savings."[1]
8.2.1 Pollution Control Strategies

"Managers at each facility have to determine what combination of strategies
makes sense for their situation. Weather, soil types, ground and surface
water, facility age, current equipment,local population, local regulatory
interests, costs and return on investment are some of the factors that
managers must balance when selecting and implementing pollution control
strategies. Pollution control strategies fall into one of the following four
categories:
■ Prevention
■ Treatment
■ Measured release
■ Storage
After management has selected and implemented a strategy, plant personnel
must operate and maintain the systems to economically perform the required
63
functions. One way to control pollution is to not create polluting compounds
or conditions through energy efficiency, better controls on operations,
changes in processes, and reduced wasting. Increasing energy efficiency
reduces pollutants associated with energy generation. Facilities can reduce
the amount of waste water through changes in beet transport and washing."[1]
8.2.2 Emissions to Air

"Air emissions in sugar manufacturing are primarily related to particulate
matter generated from bagasse-fired steam boilers,dust from unpaved access
roads and areas, and sugar drying or packing activities. In addition, odor
emissions are generated from beet processing activities and storage facilities.
Beet factory juice clarification produces a sweet odor, which can be irritating.
Inadequate cleaning of the raw material may result in fermented juice, which
will also create a foul smell."[12]
64
8.2.3 Safety :
Table 8.5 MSDS for Sugar Factory *
- First aid measures : Swallowed: Give water to drink.
Eye: Flush thoroughly with copious
amounts of running water. If
symptoms persist, seek medical
attention.
Skin: Wash thoroughly with soap and
water.
Inhaled: Remove to fresh air.
Advice to Doctor: Treat
symptomatically. People with
diabetes may need stabilization.
- Flammability : Low, product will burn in surrounding

fire situation.
- Extinguishing Media : Water, dry chemical, carbon dioxide,
foam.
- Handling : Material can ferment if excessive
moisture contamination is allowed.
Fermentation can yield carbon
dioxide with possible traces of ethanol
or volatile fatty acids (e.g. acetic,
propionic, lactic, or butyric) and if
exposed to a spark or flame may
result in an explosion. These
conditions should be avoided. If
maintenance of tank requires entry by
personnel, confined space
precautions should be complied with.
Insufficient oxygen may be present in
vessels containing the product due to
the generation of carbon monoxide
65
during fermentation.
- Storage: This product should be stored in its
factory packaging in a dry area.
- Personal protection: Eye Protection : Ventilated non-

fogging goggles should be worn if
dust is generated.
Skin Protection : Direct skin contact

should be avoided by wearing long
sleeved shirts and long trousers, a
cap or hat, and gloves Work clothes
should be washed regularly.
- Chemical Stability: Stable.

- Toxicity Data : Non-toxic .
- Health Effects: Swallowed : No health effects under

normal conditions of industrial use,
but ingestion may destabilise people
with diabetes.
Eye: Irritating to the eyes and may
cause watering and redness .
Skin: Skin contact may result in mild
skin irritation .
* MSDS : Material Safety Data Sheet for (white sugar – pulp – molasses)
66
Chapter 9. Control Loop
9.1 Overview :
Control Unit is an important process to observe the conduct of operations in
the factory.
There are three forms of control operations:
o Flow control (FC).
o Temperature control (TC).
o Concentration control (CC).[6]
Figure 9.1 Control Flow Sheet
67
9.2 Diffusion Tower Control :
Figure 9.2 Diffusion Tower Control
9.3 Mixer Control :
Figure 9.3 Mixer Control
68
9.4 Heater(1) Control :
Figure 9.4 Heater1 Control
9.5 Liming Control :
Figure 9.5 Liming Control
69
9.6 Clarifier Control :
Figure 9.6 Clarifier Control
9.7 Heater(2) Control :
Figure 9.7 Heater2 Control
9.8 Filter Control :
Figure 9.8 Filter Control
70
9.9 Evaporator Control :
Figure 9.9 Evaporator Control
9.10 Sulfitation Control :
Figure 9.10 Sulfitation Control
9.11 Crystallizer Control :
Figure 9.11 Crystallizer Control
71
9.12 Cooler Control :
Figure 9.12 Cooler Control
9.13 Centrifuge Control :
Figure 9.13 Centrifuge Control
9.14 Dryer Control :
Figure 9.14 Dryer Control
72
9.15 Cooling Tower Control :
Figure 9.15 Cooling Tower Control
73
Table 9.1 : Control Overview
Equipment Manipulated Controlled Action

Variables Variables
Diffusion Tower St.14 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B1 )
Mixer St.1 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B2 )
Liming St.7 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B4 )
St.8 Flow rate Exit composition Control Valve ( B5)
Clarifier St.8 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B6)
Filter St.13 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B8 )
Evaporator St.13 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B8 )
St.15 Flow rate Temperature Control Valve ( B9)
Sulfitation St.16 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B10)
Crystallizer St.16 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B10)
St.18 Flow rate Temperature Control Valve ( B11)
Centrifuge St.20 Flow rate Flow rate Control Valve ( B13)
Dryer St.21 Flow rate Temperature Control Valve ( B14 )
Cooling Tower St.22Flow rate Temperature Control Valve ( B15 )
Heater (1) St.6 Flow rate Temperature Control Valve ( B3 )
Heater (2) St.11Flow rate Temperature Control Valve ( B7 )
Cooler St.19 Flow rate Temperature Control Valve ( B12 )
74
Chapter 10. Cost Analysis
10.1 Overview
The cost is a rough estimate to evaluate a preliminary cost for the equipment
of the sugar production to make quick decision to the project evaluation .
The cost of equipment can be found by the following formula : [7]
(10.1)
10.2 Methods for estimating capital investment
Various methods can be employed for estimated capital investment. The

choice of any one methods depends on the amount of available information
and the accuracy desired. Seven methods are listed below :
1. Detailed-Item Estimate Method.
2. Unit-Cost Estimate Method.
3. Percentage of Delivered Equipment Cost Method.
4. Lang Factor for Approximation of Capital Investment Method.
5. Power Factor Applied to Plant/Capacity Ratio Method.
6. Investment Cost per Unit of Capacity Method.
7. Turnover Ratio Method.[7]
10.3 Equipment cost purchased in 2007 [14]
Diffusion Tower = $ 77200

Mixer 1 = $ 681800
Heater 1 = $ 61,100
Liming tank = $ 512,600
75
Reactor 2 = $ 627,900
Clarifier = $ 389,900
Heater = $ 32,200
Filter = $ 380,800
1st Evaporator = $ 3,253,000
2nd Evaporator = $ 2,489,700
3rd Evaporator = $ 2,690,800
Crystallizer = $ 152,300
Sulfitation Tank = $ 36300
Cooler 1 = $ 205,100
Centrifuge = $ 203,500
Dryer = $ 519,400
Cooler 2 = $ 79,300
Storages = $ 321,600
Total purchased equipment = $ 12,699,800
Cost index at 2007 = 525
Cost index at 2012 = 580
Cost of equipment in KSA in 2012 =
(2007 (10.2)[7]
Location factor = 1.4 "because the plant location in KSA"
10.4 Equipments In KSA at 2012 :
Diffusion Tower :
Type Diffuser
Pressure 2 atm
Volume 310.65 m3
Material Carbon steel
Cost of diffuser at 2012 in KSA = 77200*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 119402
76
Static Mixer :
Pressure 2 Atm
Volume 85.95 m3
Cost of mixer at 2012 in KSA = 681800*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 1,054,517
Heater 1 :
Type Shell and tube floating head
Pressure 2 Atm
Area 175.5 m2
Cost of heater at 2012 in KSA = 61100*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 94,501
Reactor 1 :
Type Continuous stirred tank reactor
Pressure 2 atm
Volume 84.46 m3
Material Stainless steel
Cost of reactor at 2012 in KSA = 627900*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 971,152
Liming Tank :
Pressure 2 atm
Volume 64 m3
Cost of tank at 2012 in KSA = 512600*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 792,821
Clarifier :
Type Dorr rake
Pressure 2 atm
Diameter 2.5 m
Cost of clarifier at 2012 in KSA = 389900*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 603,045
77
Heater 2 :
Type Shell and tube floating head
Pressure 2 atm
Area 68.56 m2
Cost of heater at 2012 in KSA = 32200*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 49,803
Filter :
Type Rotary drum (continuous)
Pressure 1 atm
Area 67.7 m2
Cost of filter at 2012 in KSA = 380800*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 588,971
Evaporator 1 :
Type Robert (vertical tube)
Pressure 1 atm
Area 947.79 m2
st
Cost of 1 effect evaporator at 2012 in KSA = 3253000*(580/525)*1.4
= $ 5,031,307
Evaporator 2 :
Pressure 1 atm
Area 640.36 m2
Cost of 2nd effect evaporator at 2012 in KSA = 2489700*(580/525)*1.4
= $ 3,850,736
78
Evaporator 3 :
Pressure 1 atm
Area 717.6 m2
Cost of 3rd effect evaporator at 2012 in KSA = 2690000*(580/525)*1.4
= $ 4,160,533
Crystallizer :
Type Batch
Pressure 1 atm
Volume 31.11 m3
Cost of crystallizer at 2012 in KSA = 152300*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 235,557
Sulfitation Tank :
Pressure 1 atm
Volume 32.4 m3
Cost of tank at 2012 in KSA = 36300*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 56144
Cooler 1 :
Type Cooling tower , natural draft
Pressure 1 atm
Area 293.7 m2
Cost of cooler at 2012 in KSA = 205100*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 317,221
79
Centrifuge :
Type Vertical , Batch
Pressure 1 atm
Diameter 1.981 m
Cost of centrifuge at 2012 in KSA = 203500*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 314,747
Dryer :
Type Rotary drum
Area 89.87 m2
Cost of dryer at 2012 in KSA = 519400*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 803,339
Cooler 2 :
Type Cooling tower , natural draft
Pressure 1 atm
Area 17.55 m2
Cost of cooler at 2012 in KSA = 79300*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 122,651
Storages :
Type Silos
Number 12
Pressure 1 atm
Volume 115.45 m3/silos
Cost of 12 storage at 2012 in KSA = 321600*(580/525)*1.4 = $ 497,408
TOTAL PURCHASED EQUIPMENTS AT 2012 IN KSA = $ 19,544,453
80
10.5 Total Capital Investment (TCI) :
Total Capital Investment divided into Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) and
Working Capital Investment (WCI) as follows in equation (10.3) : [7]
= (10.3)
Where : Fixed Capital Investment = Direct Costs + Indirect Costs (10.4)
Direct Costs = $ 59,024,247
Indirect Costs = $ 24,626,011
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = $ 83,650,258
Working Capital Investment = 75% of Purchased equipments cost
Working Capital Investment (WCI) = (0.75 * 19,544,453) = $ 14,658,340
Total Capital Investment (TCI) = FCI + WCI
TCI = $ 83,650,258 + $ 14,658,340 = $ 98,308,598
81
Table 10.1 : The Total Capital Investment In Sugar Factory[7]
Item Cost Capital % Cost ($)

Direct Costs
Purchased equipments cost 100 19,544,453
Purchased equipments installation 39 7,622,337
Instrumentation and controls 26 5,081,558
Piping (installed) 31 6,058,780
Electrical system (installed) 10 1,954,445
Buildings (including service) 29 5,667,891
Yard improvement 12 2,345,334
Service facilities 55 10,749,449
Total direct plant costs 302 59,024,247
Indirect Costs
Engineering and supervision 32 6,254,225
Construction expenses 34 6,645,114
Contractor's fee 19 3,713,446
Contingency 37 7,231,448
Legal expenses 4 781,778
Total indirect costs 126 24,626,011
FCI $ 428 83,650,258

Working capital (15% T.C.I) 75 14,658,340
Total Capital Investment 503 98,308,598
82
10.6 Total Production Cost (TPC) :
Total production cost is divided into the manufacturing cost (MC) and general
expenses (GE).
= (10.5)
Annual production = (300 ton/day) * (180 day/year) = 54,000 ton/year
Our plant will be operating for 6 months :
Table 10.2 : Raw Material Cost

Raw Material Cost ($/ton) ton/year $/year
Beet 41 711,000 29,151,786
Water 0.267 1,422,000 379,200
CO2 11 24,562 270,182
SO2 2.12 180 381.6
Lime (CaCO3) 80 24,080 1,926,400
Total Raw Material Cost (TRMC) 31,727,164
83
Table 10.3 : The Total Production Cost[7]
Item Cost capital % Cost ($)
MANUFACTURE COST
Direct Production Cost (DPC)
Raw Material 31,727,164 31,727,164
Operating Labor (OL) 10% TPC 0.1 TPC
Direct supervisory and Electrical Labor 10% OL 0.01 TPC
Utilities 10% TPC 0.1 TPC
Maintenance and Repairs 4% FCI 3,346,010
Operation Supplies 0.5% FCI 418,251
Laboratory Supplies 10% OL 0.01 TPC
Patents and Royalties 3% TPC 0.03 TPC
Fixed Charges (FC) 11,711,036
Depreciation 10% FCI 8,365,026
Local Taxes --- ---
Insurance 0.4% FCI 3,346,010
Plant Overhead Cost (POC) 6% TPC 0.06 TPC
GENERAL EXPENSES
Administration Cost 2 % TPC 0.02 TPC
Distribution and Marketing Cost 5% TPC 0.05 TPC
Research and Development Costs 5% TPC 0.05 TPC
TOTAL PRODUCTION COST (TPC) 47,202,461 + 0.43 TPC
From table above :

TPC = 47,202,461 + 0.43 TPC  TPC = (47,202,461) / (0.57)
= $ 82,811,335
84
Table 10.4 : The calculations of Total Production Cost
Item Cost ($)
MANUFACTURE COST = 72,873,974
Direct Production Cost (DPC) 56,194,259
Raw Material 31,727,164 31,727,164
Operating Labor (OL) 10% TPC 8,281,134
Direct supervisory and Clerical Labor 10% OL 828,113
Utilities 10% TPC 8,281,134
Maintenance and Repairs 4% FCI 3,346,010
Operation Supplies 0.5% FCI 418,251
Laboratory Supplies 10% OL 828,113
Patents and Royalties 3% TPC 2,484,340
Fixed Charges (FC) 11,711,036
Depreciation 10% FCI 8,365,026
Local Taxes --- ---
Insurance 0.4% FCI 3,346,010
Plant Overhead Cost (POC) 4,968,680
GENERAL EXPENSES = 9,937,361
Administration Cost 2 % TPC 1,656,227
Distribution and Marketing Cost 5% TPC 4,140,567
Research and Development Costs 5% TPC 4,140,567
TOTAL PRODUCTION COST (TPC) 82,811,335
85
10.7 Profitability Analysis :
Rate of Return can be calculated in equation (10.6) as follows : [7]

–
( = 100 (10.6)
Sales = [White Sugar] + [Molasses] + [Pulps]

White Sugar = 54,000,000 (Kg/year) * 1 ($/Kg) = 54,000,000 $/year
Molasses = 8,526,600 (Kg/year) * 10 ($/Kg) = 85,266,000 $/year
Pulps = 12,794,400 (Kg/year) * 0.19 ($/Kg) = 2,430,936 $/year
Sales = 54,000,000 + 85,266,000 + 2,430,936 = $ 141,696,936/year
Net profit = Sales – Total Production Cost
= 141,696,936 – 82,811,335 = $ 58,885,601/year
( = 100 = 59.89 %
Since the plant operates for 6 months per year :

59.89 / 2 = 29.95 %
10.8 Payback Period (PBP)
Payback Period = (10.7)[7]
Annual Cash Flow = Annual Profits + Depreciation

Depreciation = $ 8,365,026
Annual Cash Flow = 58,885,601 + 8,365,026
Annual Cash Flow = $ 67,250,627/year
Payback Period = (10.8)[7]
Payback Period = = 1.46
The plant operates for (6 months)/year

.
Payback Period = = 2.92
(
86
Table 10.5 : Summary for Economics Calculations
1 Total capital Investment $ 98,308,598
2 Fixed Capital Investment $ 83,650,285
3 Working Capital Investment $ 14,658,340
4 Total Production Costs $ 82,811,335
5 Rate of Return 29.95 %
6 Payback Period 2.92 Year
87
CHAPTER 11. Conclusion
This project is related with production of sugar from beets using the
carbonation process . The production rate was fixed to 300 ton/day of sugar.
The main product consists of 150 ton of normal sugar and 150 ton of specially
sugar (powder). The pulp of the slicing beet after diffusing will be sold as by-
product used as animals food.
The overall and individual material and energy balances have been performed
. Furthermore, the HAZOP, safety and environmental analysis has been
conducted for the major equipments.
On the other hand, the control loop has been carried out for the overall flow-
sheet and individual major equipments where both the control and
manipulated variables have been specified.
The treatment and recycling of the large amount of water requested in
different parts of the process (especially in the washing and diffusion steps)
have reduced the total cost of the plant.
Based on this study and since the raw materials are not very expensive, the
cost estimation confirms the profitability of the carbonation process.
88
REFERENCES :
Books :
[1] Mosen Asadi (2007). “Beet-Sugar Handbook”.
[2] Felder and Rousseau (2005). "Elementary Principles of Chemical

Process". 3rd edition.
[3] Fogler and Gurmen (2011). "Essentials of Chemical Reaction

Engineering". 4th edition.
[4] Christie John Geankoplis (2008). "Transport Process and Separation

Process Principles". 4th edition.
[5] McCabe, Smith and Harriott (2005). "Unit Operation of Chemical

Engineering". 7th edition.
[6] Stephanopoulos, G (2003). "Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to

Theory and Practice".
[7] Peters and Timmerhaus (1991). "Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineering". 4th edition.
89
Websites :
[8] http://www.food-info.net/uk/products/sugar/history.htm
[9]http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/grains__oilseeds/sugarcane
profile.cfm
[10] (http://blog.ub.ac.id/spiritgumilang/2012/10/05/single-multiple-effect-
evaporator/)
[11] www.westernstates.com/centrifuge
[12] http://ar.scribd.com/doc/6749495/Sugar-Safety
[13] www.klmtechgroup.com
[14] www.matche.com/equipment
90
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A : MASS BALANCE

A.1 Diffusion balance
Water
14
(C12H22O12)
Juice diff.
XDS = 0.15
beet Diffusion Xw = 0.85
1 5
Pulp
Xp= 0.2 onbeet
Overall M.B. :
m1+ m14= m4 + m5  m1+ 3845.87= m4 + 6689.05
m4=0.2m1
 m1+3845.87= 0.2m1 + 6689.05
 0.8m1=6689.05-3845.87
 m1=3554 ton/day = 148083.33 kg/h
 m4= (0.2)(3554)=710.8 ton/day = 29616.67 kg/h
Component M.B. :
STREAM 5 :
m5DS = 0.15 (6689.05) = 1003.36 ton/day =41806.67 kg/h
m5S = 1003.36 (0.88) = 883 ton/day = 36791.67 kg/h
m5NS = 1003.36 (0.12) = 120.36 ton/day = 5015 kg/h
m5w = 0.85 (6689.05) = 5685.7 ton/day = 236904.2 kg/h
91
A.2 Mixer balance :
Juice tower
(C12H22O12)
3 XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85
Mixer
Beet Beet
1 2 +
0.8 juice (on
5 beet)
Juice diff.
(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85
DS= Dry substance (88% S , 12% NS)

W = Water
(Purity = 88 %)
Overall M.B. :
m1+ m3 = m2 + m5  3554+ m3 = m2 + 6689.05
 m2= m1+ 0.8m5  m2=3554+(0.8)(3554)= 6397.2 ton/day = 266550 kg/h
 m3=m2+m5-m1= 6397.2+ 6689.05- 3554= 9532.25 ton/day =397177.1 kg/h
92
At (88%) purity
STREAM (3) :
m3 = 9532.25 ton/day =397177.1 kg/h
m3DS = 9532.25 (0.15) = 1429.84 ton/day = 59576.67 kg/h (88% S, 12% NS)
m3S = 1429.84 (0.88) = 1258.26 ton/day = 52427.5 kg/h
m3NS = 1429.84 (0.12) = 171.58 ton/day = 7149.17 kg/h
STREAM (5) :
m5S = 1003.36 (0.88) = 883 ton/day = 36791.67 kg/h
m5NS = 1003.36 (0.12) = 120.36 ton/day = 5015 kg/h
m5W = 0.85 (6689.05) = 5685.7 ton/day = 236904.2 kg/h
STREAM (2)
m2DS = 6397.2 (0.15) = 959.58 ton/day = 39982.5 kg/h
m2W = 6397.2(0.85) = 5437.62 ton/day = 226567.5kg/h
93
A.3 Diffuser balance :
Water
Beet
+ 14
2
0.8 juice
Pulp
(on beet)
4
Xp= 0.2
diffuser
Juice tower onbeet
(C12H22O12) 3
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85
Overall M.B. :
STREAM (2)
m2DS = 6397.2 (0.15) = 959.58 ton/day = 39982.5 kg/h
m2W = 6397.2(0.85) = 5437.62 ton/day = 226567.5kg/h
STREAM (3) :
m3 = 9532.25 ton/day =397177.1 kg/h
m3S = 1429.84 (0.88) = 1258.26 ton/day = 52427.5 kg/h
m3NS = 1429.84 (0.12) = 171.58 ton/day = 7149.17 kg/h
STREAM(4):
m4=710.8 ton/day = 29616.67 kg/h
STREAM(14):
m14=3845.87 ton/day =160244.58 kg/h
94
A.4 Liming balance :
MOL
(Ca(OH)2)
Xl = 0.02
(C12H22O12) 6 8 (C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15 XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85 Liming Xw = 0.85
(Purity = 88 %)
Overall M.B. :
m6+ m7 = m8  m6+ m7 = 6822.83  m6 +0.02 m6 = 6822.83
 1.02m6 = 6822.83
 m6 = 6689.05 ton/day = 278710.42 kg/h
m6DS = 6689.05 (0.15) =1003.36 ton/day = 41806.67 kg/h(88% S,12% NS)
m6S = 1003.36 (0.88) = 883 ton/day = 36791.67 kg/h
m6NS = 1003.36 (0.12) = 120.36 ton/day = 5015 kg/h
m6W = 0.85 (6689.05) = 5685.7 ton/day = 236904.2 kg/h
At (STREAM 7) Hence, the amount of milk of lime can be calculated as
follows : m 7 = m 8 – m6
= 6822.83 – 6689.05 = 133.78 ton/day = 5574.2 kg/h
95
A.5 Clarifier balance :
8 10
(C12H22O12) CLARIFIER (C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15 XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85 Xw = 0.85
Slurry (Mud)
XDS = 0.7
XW = 0.3

W = Water
(Purity = 88 % and m9 = 25 % m8 and 70 % of m9 DS )
Overall M.B. :
m8 = m9 + m10  m8 = m9 + 5117.12
m8 = 0.25 m8 + 5117.12  0.75 m8 = 5117.2
 m8 = 6822.83 ton/day = 284284.5833 kg/h
 m9 = m8 – m10 = 6822.83 – 5117.12 = 1705.71 ton/day = 71071.25 kg/h
Component M.B. :
STREAM 8 :
m8DS = 0.15 (6822.83) = 1023.42 ton/day = 42642.5 kg/h
m8S = 0.88 (1023.42) = 900.6096 ton/day = 37525.4 kg/h
m8NS = 0.12 (1023.42) = 122.8104 ton/day = 5117.1 kg/h
m8w = 0.85 (6822.83) = 5799.4055 ton/day = 241641.8958 kg/h
STREAM 9 :
m9DS = 0.7 (1705.71) = 1193.997 ton/day = 49749.875 kg/h
m9w = 0.3 (1705.71) = 511.713 ton/day = 21321.375 kg/h
96
A.6 Filter balance :
(C12H22O12) 11 FILTER 13 (C12H22O12)

XDS = 0.15 XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85 Xw = 0.85
12
REJECT
XDS = 0.15
Xw = 0.85

W = Water
(Purity = 92 %)
Overall M.B. :
m11 = m12 + m13  m11 = m12 + 4894.75  m12 = m11 – 4894.75
At (92%) purity (STREAM 13) :
m13 = 4894.75 ton/day = 203947.9167 kg/h
m13DS = 4894.75 (0.15) = 734.2125 ton/day = 30592.1875 kg/h (92% S, 8%
NS)
m13S = 734.2125 (0.92) = 675.4755 ton/day = 28144.8125 kg/h
m13NS = 734.2125 (0.08) = 58.737 ton/day = 2447.375 kg/h
In filtration , the inlet has (88%) purity , the filtrate has (92%) purity , so we
can find the mass flow rate of the inlet (STREAM 11) as follows :
m11T = m11DS + m11W
m11DS = (675.4755/0.88) = 767.585 ton/day = 31982.708 kg/h (88% S,
12%NS)
97
m11S = 767.585 (0.88) = 675.474 ton/day = 28144.7833 kg/h
m11NS = 767.585 (0.12) = 92.11 ton/day = 3837.925 kg/h
m11T = (767.585/0.15) = 5117.2 ton/day = 213218.1 kg/h
m11w = m11T – m11DS = 4349.6 ton/day = 181233.95 kg/h
STREAM 12 :
m12 = m11 – 4894.75  m12 = 222.45 ton/day = 9268.75 kg/h
m12w = 0.85 (222.45) = 189.0825 ton/day = 7878.4375 kg/h
m12DS = m12NS = 0.15 (222.45) = 33.368 ton/day = 1390.3125 kg/h
98
A.7 Evaporator balance :
VAPOR
XDS = 0.0
Xw = 1.0
14
(C12H22O12) 13 15 (C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.15 XDS = 0.7
Xw = 0.85 Evaporator Xw = 0.3
(Purity = 92 %)
Overall M.B. :
m13 = m14 + m15  m13 = m14 + 1048.875  m14 = m13 – 1048.875
Component M.B. :
For water : (STREAM 13)
0.85 m13 = (m13 – 1048.875) + 0.3(1048.875)
-0.15 m13 = -734.2125
 m13 = 4894.75 ton/day = 203947.9167 kg/h
m13DS = 4894.75 (0.15) = 734.2125 ton/day = 30592.1875 kg/h (92% S, 8%
NS)
m13S = 734.2125 (0.92) = 675.4755 ton/day = 28144.8125 kg/h
m13NS = 734.2125 (0.08) = 58.737 ton/day = 2447.375 kg/h
m13W = 0.85 (4894.75) = 4160.5375 ton/day = 173355.7292 kg/h
At (STREAM 14) XDS = 0 and XW = 1.0
Hence, the amount of water vaporized during evaporation can be calculated
as follows :
m14 = m13 – m15
= 4894.75 – 1048.875 = 3845.875 ton/day = 160244.7917 kg/h
99
A.8 Sulfitation balance :
SO2
15 16 (C12H22O12)
(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.7
XDS = 0.7
Xw = 03
Xw = 0.3 SULFITATION
(Purity = 92 %)
Overall M.B. :
m15= m16  1048.875 ton/day (43703.125 Kg/h)
Component M.B. :
(STREAM 15 = STREAM 16)
0.7 m16 = m16DS = m15DS = 43703.125(0.7) = 30592.1875 Kg/h
m15S = m16S = 30592.1875 (0.92) = 28144.8125 kg/h
m15NS = m16NS = 30592.1875 (0.08) = 2447.375 kg/h
0.3m16 = m16W = m15W = 0.3 (43703.125) = 13110.9375 kg/h
100
A.9 Crystallizer balance :
17 H2O
16 18 (C12H22O12)
(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.7 XDS = 0.93
Xw = 0.3 CRYSTALLIZER Xw = 0.07
(Purity = 92 %)
Overall M.B. :
m16 = m17 + m18  m16 = m17 + 798.45 ton/ day (32893.75 Kg/hr)
m17 = m16 – 32893.75
Component M.B. :
( STREAM 16)
mT = 43703.125=
m16DS = 43703.125(0.7) = 30592.1875 Kg/h
m16S = 30592.1875 (0.92) = 28144.8125 kg/h
m16NS = 30592.1875 (0.08) = 2447.375 kg/h
m16W = 0.3 (43703.125) = 13110.9375 kg/h
( STREAM 18)
m18= 32893.75 Kg/hr
m18DS = m16DS = 30592.1875 Kg/h
m18S = m16S = 28144.8125 kg
m18NS = m16NS = 2447.375 kg/h
m18W = m18 - m18DS = 2301.5625 Kg/hr
m17 (Only water):
m17W= 43703.125 - 32893.75 = 10809.375 Kg/hr
101
A.10 Cooler balance :
(C12H22O12) (C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.93 COOLER XDS = 0.93
Xw = 0.07 Xw = 0.07
m18=m19 = 32893.75 Kg/hr
A.11 Centrifuge balance :
(C12H22O12) 19 20 Other
XDS = 0.93 processes
Xw = 0.07 CENTRIFUGE XDS = 0.94
Xw = 0.06
21
(C12H22O12)
XDS = 0.95
XW = 0.05

W = Water
(Purity = 92 % and m19 = 60 % m18 and m20 = 40 % of m18)
Overall M.B. :
m19 = m20 + m21  m19 = m20 + 315.78
m19 = 0.6m19 + 315.78  0.4m19 = 315.78
 m19 = 789.45 ton/day = 32893.75 Kg/h
 m20 = m19 - m21 = 789.45 – 315.78 = 473.7 ton/day = 19737.5 Kg/h
102
Component M.B. :
STREAM 19 :
m19DS = 0.93 (789.45) = 734.2 ton/day = 30591.7 kg/h
m19S = 0.92 (734.2) = 675.46 ton/day = 28144.33 kg/h
m19NS = 0.08 (734.2) = 58.736 ton/day = 2447.33 kg/h
m19w = 0.07 (789.45) = 55.26 ton/day = 2302.56 kg/h
STREAM 20 :
m20DS = 0.94 (473.7) = 445.278 ton/day = 18553.25 kg/h
m20w = 0.06 (473.7) = 28.422 ton/day = 1184.25 kg/h
STREAM 21 :
m21DS = 0.95 (315.78) = 300 ton/day = 12500 kg/h
m21W = 0.05 (315.78) = 15.78 ton/day = 657.5 kg/h
103
A.12 Dryer balance :
(C12H22O12) DRYER (C12H22O12)

21 23 XDS = 1
XDS = 0.95
Xw = 0.05 Xw = 0.00
22
WATER
XDS = 0.00
Xw = 1

W = Water
(Purity = 100 %)
Overall M.B. :
m23 = 300 ton/day = 12500 kg/h
m21 = m22 + m23  m21 = m22 + 300
0.95m21 = 0 + 300  m21 = 315.78 ton/day = 13157.5 kg/h
m22 = 315.78 – 300 = 15.78 ton/day = 657.5 kg/h
104
A.13 Storage balance :
(C12H22O12) 24 25 STOREHOUSE
XDS = 1 STORAGE XDS = 0.5
Xw = 0.00 Xw = 0.00
26
SPECIALTY
SUGARS
XDS = 0.5
Xw = 0.00

W = Water
(Purity = 100 %)
Overall M.B. :
m26 = 150 ton/day = 6250 kg/h
m24 = m25 + m26  m24 = m25 + 150
0.5m24 = 150  m24 = 300 ton/day = 12500 kg/h
m25 = 300 – 150 = 150 ton/day = 6250 kg/h
105
APPENDIX B : ENERGY BALANCE
B.1) Energy Balance on mixer :
(C12H22O12)
2 T= 65oC
H2
beet 1
T= 25oC mixer
3
H1
(C12H22O12)
T= 70oC
H3
5
(C12H22O12)
T= 35oC
H5
Water @ 25oC Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kmol .oC) = 75.4*10-3
H1=m1cp ∆T  ∆T = 25-25=0  H1=0

H2 = H2DS + H2W
CPDS at 65oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.8775 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H2DS = (959.58 *103)( 3.8775)(65-25) = 148830858kJ/day = 6201285.75 kJ/h
.
H2W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [65-25]
= 9111034440 kJ/day = 379626435 kJ/h

H2 = 9259865298 kJ/day = 385827720.8 kJ/h
106
H3 = H3DS + H3W
H3DS = (1429.84*103)(3.88)(70-25) = 249650064 kJ/day = 10402086 kJ/h
.
H3W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [70-25]
= 1527308055 kJ/day = 63637835.63 kJ/h

H3 = 1776958119 kJ/day = 74039921.63 kJ/h
H5 = H5DS + H5W
H5DS = (1003.36*103)(3.835)(30-25) = 19239428 kJ/day = 801642.83 kJ/h
.
H5W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [30-25]
= 137933618.3 kJ/day = 5747234.1 kJ/h

H5 = 157173046.3 kJ/day = 6548876.93 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H5 + H2) – (H1+H3)

Q = 7640080225 kJ/day = 318336676.1 kJ/h
107
B.2) Energy Balance on Heater :
(C12H22O12) 5 6 (C12H22O12)
T= 30oC T= 88oC
H5 H6
H5 = 157173046.3 kJ/day = 6548876.93 kJ/h

H6 = H6DS + H6W
CPDS at 88oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.905 kJ/kg.oC
H6DS = (1003.36*103)(3.905)(88-25) = 246841610.4 kJ/day = 10285067.1 kJ/h
.
H6W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [88-25]
= 1500393055 kJ/day = 62516377.29 kJ/h

H6 = 1747234665 kJ/day = 72801444.38 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H6) – (H5)
Q = 1590061619 kJ/day = 66252567.46 kJ/h
108
B.3) Energy Balance on Diffuser:
water
T=90oC
H14
Beet+(C12H22O12)
T=65oC 2
H2 4
(C12H22O12)
(C12H22O12) Diffuser T=70oC
H4
T=70oC
H3 3
H2 = 9259865298 kJ/day = 385827720.8 kJ/h

H3 = 1776958119 kJ/day = 74039921.63 kJ/h
H14 = H14W
.
H14W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [90-25]
= 1046931278 kJ/day = 43622136.58 kJ/h

H4 = H4DS + H4W
H4DS = (106.6*103)(3.88)(70-25) = 18612360 kJ/day = 775515 kJ/h
.
H4W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [70-25]
= 113891700 kJ/day = 4745487.5 kJ/h

H4=52179026.67 kJ/day = 2174126.11 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H3 + H4) – (H2+ H14)
Q = -8477659430 kJ/day = -353235809.6 kJ/h
109
B.4) Energy Balance on Liming :
MOL(ca(OH)2)
T=40oC
H7
6 8
(C12H22O12) (C12H22O12)
T=88oC liming T=88oC
H6 H8
H6 = 1747234665 kJ/day = 72801444.38 kJ/h
Ca(OH)2 @ 25oC Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kg .oC) = 89.5*10-3
.
H7 = CPdT = [89.5*10-3] [40-25]
= 2423746.96 kJ/day = 100989.46 kJ/h

H8 = H8DS + H8W
CPDS at 88oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.905kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H8DS = (1023.42*103)(3.905)(88-25) = 251776671.3 kJ/day=10490694.64 kJ/h
H8W = 1530466938 kJ/day = 63769455.75 kJ/h
H8 = 1782243609 kJ/day = 74260150.38 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H8) – (H6 + H7)
Q = 32585197.04 kJ/day = 1357716.54 kJ/h
110
B.5) Energy Balance on Clarifier :
(C12H22O12) 8 CLARIFIER 10 (C12H22O12)

T= 88oC T= 88oC
H8 H10
SLURRY
T= 88oC
H9
H8 = H8DS + H8W
H8DS = (1023.42*103)(3.905)(88-25) = 251776671.3 kJ/day = 10490694.64
kJ/h
.
H8W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [88-25]
= 1530466938 kJ/day = 63769455.75 kJ/h

H8 = 1782243609 kJ/day = 74260150.39 kJ/h
H9 = H9DS + H9W
H9DS = (1193.997*103)(2.87)(88-25) = 215886597.6 kJ/day = 8995274.899
kJ/h
.
H9W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [88-25]
111
= 135041060.7 kJ/day = 5626710.863 kJ/h
H9 = 350927658.3 kJ/day = 14621985.76 kJ/h
H10 = H10DS + H10W

H10DS = (767.568*103)(3.905)(88-25) = 188833241.5 kJ/day = 7868051.73
kJ/h
.
H10W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [88-25]
= 1147846773 kJ/day = 47826948.87 kJ/h

H10 = 1336680015 kJ/day = 55695000.6 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H10 + H9) – (H8)

Q = -94635935 kJ/day = -3943163.963 kJ/h
112
B.6) Energy Balance on Heater :
(C12H22O12) 10 11 (C12H22O12)
T= 88oC T= 92oC
H10 H11
H10 = 1336680015 kJ/day = 55695000.6 kJ/h
H11 = H11DS + H11W

CPDS at 92oC (90% purity)(15%DS) (From App D.1)
By Interpolation : x1 = 90 , x2 = 100 , x= 92 , y1 = 3.905 , y2 = 3.92 , y = ?
( −
= ( −
( −
( .92 − .90
= .90 (92 − 90
(100 − 90
=3.908
H11DS = (767.568*103)(3.908)(92-25) = 200976934.8 kJ/day = 8374038.952
kJ/h
.
H11W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [92-25]
= 1220725933 kJ/day = 50863580.54 kJ/h

H11 = 1421702868 kJ/day = 59237619.49 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H11) – (H10)

Q = 85022853 kJ/day = 3542618.875 kJ/h
113
B.7) Energy Balance on Filter :
11 13
(C12H22O12) FILTER (C12H22O12)
T=92oC T=92oC
H11 H13
12
REJECT
T=92oC
H12
H11 = 1421702868 kJ/day = 59237619.49 kJ/h

H12 = H12DS + H12W
CPDS at 92oC (90% purity)(15%DS) = 3.908 kJ/kg.oC (By Interpolation in
previous page)
H12DS = (33.368*103)(3.908)(92-25) =8736943.648 kJ/day = 364039.3187 kJ/h
.
H12W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [92-25]
= 53067054.08 kJ/day = 2211127.253 kJ/h

H12 = 61803997.73 kJ/day = 2575166.572 kJ/h
H13 = H13DS + H13W
H13DS =(734.2125*103)(3.908)(92-25)= 192243264.2kJ/day=8010136.006 kJ/h
.
H13W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [92-25]
= 1167677963 kJ/day = 48653248.48 kJ/h

H13 = 1359921227 kJ/day = 56663384.47 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H13 + H12) – (H11)
Q = 22356.73 kJ/day = 931.5304 kJ/h
114
B.8) Energy Balance on Evaporator :
VAPOR
T=100oC
H14
14
13 15
(C12H22O12) (C12H22O12)
T=92oC Evaporator T=95oC
H13 H15
H13 = 1359921227 kJ/day = 56663384.47 kJ/h
H14 = H14W (Only vapor)

.
H14W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [100-25]
= 1208245729 kJ/day = 50343572.05 kJ/h
H15 = H15DS + H15W

H15DS =(734.2125*103)(2.985)(95-25)=153413701.9 kJ/day=6392237.578 kJ/h
.
H15W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [95-25]
= 92266037.5 kJ/day = 3844418.229 kJ/h

H15 = 245679745.4 kJ/day = 10236656.06 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H14 + H15) – (H13)
Q = 94004247.4 kJ/day = 3916843.642 kJ/h
115
B.9) Energy Balance on Crystallizer :
Water
T=100oC
H17
(C12H22O12) (C12H22O12)
T=95oC CRYSTALLIZER T=100oC
H16 H18
H16 = H16DS + H16W

CPDS at 95oC (90% purity)(70%DS)= 2.985kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)
H16DS=(734.2125*103)(2.985)(95-25)=153413701.9kJ/day=6392237.578 kJ/h
.
H16W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [95-25] = 92266037.5 kJ/day =
3844418.229 kJ/h
H16T = 245679745.4 kJ/day = 10236656.06 kJ/h
.
H17W= CpdT = [75.4*10-3] [100-25]= 81494833.33 kJ/day
= 3395618.055 kJ/h
CPDS at 100oC (90% purity)(90%DS) = 2.43 kJ/kg.oC (From App A.4)
H18DS = (734.2*103)(2.43)(100-25) = 133807950 kJ/day = 5575331.25 kJ/h
.
H18W= CpdT = (75.4*10-3) (100-25)= 173608500 kJ/day
= 7233687.5 kJ/h
H18T= 12809018.75 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H18 + H17) – (H16)
Q = 5967980.745 kJ/h
116
B.10) Energy Balance on cooler :
(C12H22O12) (C12H22O12)
T=100oC T=75oC
H18 COOLER H19

H18DS = (734.2*103)(2.43)(100-25) = 133807950 kJ/day = 5575331.25 kJ/h
.
H18W= CpdT = (75.4*10-3) (100-25)= 173608500 kJ/day
= 7233687.5 kJ/h
H18T= 12809018.75 kJ/h
CpDS at 75 (90% purity)(90%DS) = 2.39 kJ/kg.oC (From App D.1)

H19DS= (734.2*103)(2.39)(75-25) = 87736900 kJ/day = 3655704.167 kJ/h
.
H19W= CpdT = (75.4*10-3) (75-25)= 115739000 kJ/day =
= 482245.83 kJ/h
H19T= 8478162.497 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H19)– (H18)
Q = - 4330856.253 kJ/h
117
B.11) Energy Balance on Centrifuge :
(C12H22O12) 19 CENTRIFUGE 20 Other processes

T= 75oC T= 60oC
H19 H20
21
(C12H22O12)
T= 60oC
H21
Water @ 25oC Cp = Ai + BTi + CT2 ( kJ/kg .oC) = 75.4*10-3 kJ/kmol.oC
H19 = H19DS + H19W

CPDS at 75oC (92% purity)(93%DS)
By Interpolation : x1 = 70 , x2 = 80 , x= 75 , y1 = 2.36 , y2 = 2.42 , y = ?
( −
= ( −
( −
(2.42 − 2. 6
= 2. 6 (7 − 70
(80 − 70
=2.39
118
H19DS = (734.2*103)(2.39)(75-25) = 1754788 kJ/day = 73116.166 kJ/h
.
H19W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [75-25]
= 11573900 kJ/day = 482245.833 kJ/h

H19 = 13328688 kJ/day = 555362 kJ/h
H20 = H20DS + H20W

H20DS =(445.278*103)(2.175)(60 - 25)=33896787.75 kJ/day=1412366.156 kJ/h
.
H20W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [60-25]
= 4166.981 kJ/day = 173.624 kJ/h

H20 = 33900954.73 kJ/day = 1412539.78 kJ/h
H21 = H21DS + H21W
CP=4.187−DS (0.0297−4.6.10−5 P)+7.5*10−5 DS T (1.18)
o
by integral the equation from (25 - 60 C) we find CPDS∆T(100%
purity)(95%DS) = 68.24 kJ/kg
H21DS = (300*103)(68.24) = 23415000 kJ/day = 975625 kJ/h
.
H21W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [60-25]
= 2313523.33 kJ/day = 96396.8055 kJ/h

H21 = 22784501.46 kJ/day = 949354.23 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H20 + H21) – (H19)
Q = 43356768.19 kJ/day = 1806532.008 kJ/h
119
B.12) Energy Balance on Dryer :
(C12H22O12) 21 DRYER 23 (C12H22O12)

T= 60oC T= 65oC
H21 H23
22
WATER
T= 65oC
H22
H21 = H21DS + H21W

CPDS at 60oC (100% purity)(95%DS)
We can calculate the specific heat of pure sucrose

solutions by using the following equation (Bubnik et al. 1995):
CP=4.187−DS (0.0297−4.6.10−5 P)+7.5*10−5 DS T (1.18)
DS Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)
T Temperature (oC)
P Purity (for pure solutions, P = 100)
o
by integral the equation from (25 - 60 C) we find CPDS∆T(100%
purity)(95%DS) = 68.24 kJ/kg
H21DS = (300*103)(68.24) = 20470978.13kJ/day = 852957.42 kJ/h
.
H21W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [60-25]
= 2313523.33 kJ/day = 96396.8055 kJ/h

H21 = 22784501.46 kJ/day = 949354.23 kJ/h
120
H22 = H22W
CPW at 65oC (0%DS) = 3.016 kJ/mol .oC
.
H22W = CPdT = [75.4*10-3] [65-25]
= 2644026.667 kJ/day = 110167.778 kJ/h

H22 = H22W= 2644026.667 kJ/day = 110167.778 kJ/h
H23 = H23DS
CPDS∆T from (25 – 65oC) (100% purity)(100%DS) = 74.16 kJ/kg (From
equation)
H23DS = H23 = (300*103)(74.16) = 22248000 kJ/day = 927000 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H22 + H23) – (H21)
Q = 2107525.207 kJ/day = 87813.55 kJ/h
121
B.13) Energy Balance on Cooler :
(C12H22O12) 23 COOLER 24 (C12H22O12)

T= 65oC T= 30oC
H23 H24
H23 = H23DS
CPDS∆T from (25 – 65) (100% purity)(100%DS) = 74.16 kJ/kg (From
equation)
H23DS = (300*103)(74.16) = 22248000 kJ/day = 927000 kJ/h
H24 = H24DS
CPDS∆T from (25 – 30) (100% purity)(100%DS) = 8.5 kJ/kg (From equation)
H24DS = (300*103)(8.5) = 2548687.5 kJ/day = 106195.31 kJ/h
Q = ∑Hout - ∑Hin = (H24 – H23)
Q = -19699312.5 kJ/day = - 820804.69 kJ/h
122
APPENDIX C : Mass balance of water recycling and treatment
C.1 Mass balance of washing water recycling :
m1= 3950 ton/day (beet)

m2= 7900 ton/day (water)
m2(recycled water) = 5530 ton/day
m2 (fresh water) = 7900-5530= 2370 ton/day
m3= 3554 ton/day (beet after washing)
m4= 8296 ton/day (waste water)
m4(mud)= m1- m3 = 3950-3554= 396 ton/day
m4(water) = m4- m4(mud)= 8296-396= 7900 ton/day
m5= 0.67(8296) = 5530 ton/day (recycled water)
m6= 0.33(8296)= 2766 ton/day (water +mud)
m6(water)=m6-m(mud)= 2766-396= 2370 ton/day
m7= 0.7(2370)= 1659 ton/day (water)
m8= 0.3(2370)+396= 1107 ton/day (water +mud)
C.2 Mass balance of Diffusion Tower water recycling :
m9= 710.8 ton/day ( pulp)

m9(water)= 0.9(710.8)= 639.72 ton/day
m9(pulp)= 0.1(710.8)= 71.08 ton/day
m10= 0.8(639.72)= 511.78 ton/day (water recycled)
m11= m9- m10= 710.8-511.78=199.02 ton/day
m11(water)= 0.2(639.72)= 127.94 ton/day
m11(pulp)= m9(pulp)=m12(pulp)= 71.08 ton/day
123
APPENDIX D (Physical properties of sugar )
D.1) Heat capacity :
124
125
D.2) Density :
126

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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

King Saud University

SUGAR PRODUCTION USING THE

1433 – 1434 H (2012 – 2013 G)

First of all, we would like to show our great thanks to our

The carbonation process using sugar-beet has several benefits and

 The Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) ,

The remaining units have been sized.

As the sugar process requires an large quantity of water, we have also

Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................. 3

2.1 Block Diagram ...................................................................................... 12

3.1 The General Equation of Mass Balance. .............................................. 15

4.1 Heat Capacities…….. ........................................................................ 21

6.1 Sizing of Mixer (Unit -1). .................................................................... 45

7.1 Overview. ........................................................................................... 53

8.1 HAZOP……. ......................................................................................... 58

9.1 Overview: ...................................................................................... 67

10.1 Overview… ......................................................................................... 75

Country 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13

Figure 1.1 Beet and Cane Distribution in The World [8]

1.2 History of Beet-Sugar

1.3 By – Products of The Beet-Sugar Factory

1.3.2 Carbonation-Lime Residue

1.4.1 Sucrose Formation

Table 1.2 Sucrose Properties

Chemical Formula C12H22O11

Figure 1.2 The Relationship Between Solubility with Temperature[1]

"Sucrose (a non polar substance) is soluble in polar solvents, such as water,

CP = 4.187 − DS × (0.0297 − 4.6 × 10−5 × P ) + 7.5 × 10−5 × DS × T (1.1)

DS: Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)

 SUCROSE SPECIFIC ENTHALPY:

H = T {4.187 − DS ( 0.0297− 4.6 × 10−5 × P ) +3.75 × 10−5 × DS × T} (1.2)

DS: Dry substance content (for pure sucrose solutions, DS = S)

Bioethanol is produced in countries such as Brazil, the United States (ethanol

In Brazil, ethanol is produced from sugarcane juice, molasses, or mix of both

European countries have become interested in ethanol production from sugar

Carbohydrates (from carbon hydrates) are saccharides, starches, and dietary

"The agricultural department of the sugar factory is responsible for

2.1 Block Diagram :

Figure 2.1 Block Diagram of Process [1]

Figure 2.2 Flow sheet of Process

2.3 Description of Flow sheet

3.1 The General Equation of Mass Balance :

Accumulation in process equal zero .

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Diffuser – Unit 2 : To extract sucrose from cossette by using water.

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Heater – Unit 3: In this unit the juice will be heated from 30 to 88 oC .

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Heater – Unit 6 : In this unit the juice will be heated from 88 to 90 oC .

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Filter – Unit 7 : In this unit the purity increased to 90 .

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Crystallizer – Unit 10 : In this unit the crystals of sugar will be formed .

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Stream Water(kg/h) Sugar(kg/h) Non Sugar(kg/h)

Cooler – Unit 14 : In this unit the sugar will be cooled from 65 to 30 oC

AT = 1.066 [(2.701010 )(0.309510-3)]/[233.3510342140.710.4(1/240)]0.5