ch3 PDF

3-1 An arctic explorer builds a temporary shelter from wind-pack snow.
The shelter is roughly

hemispherical with an inside radius of 1.5 meters. After completing the shelter, the explorer crawls
inside and closes off the entrance with a block of snow. Assume the shelter is now air tight and
loses negligible heat by conduction through the walls. If the air temperature when the explorer
completes the shelter is -10oC, how long will it take before the air temperature inside reaches
10oC? Assume the explorer does not freeze to death or suffocate, but sits patiently waiting for the
temperature to rise. The explorer generates body heat at a rate of 300 kJ/h.
Approach:
Use the first law to find the change in temperature.
Assumptions:
1. The air behaves like an ideal gas under these
conditions.
2. The shelter is perfectly insulated and air-tight.
3. The specific heat of the air is constant.
Solution:
Let the system be the air inside the shelter. From the first law
Q = ∆U = mcv ∆T
The mass of air can be determined from the ideal gas law
(101kPa ) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ π (1.5 ) m3 ⎞⎟ ( 28.97 kg kmol )

1 4 3
m=
PVM
=
2
⎝ ⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ = 9.46 kg
RT ( 8.314 kJ kmol ⋅ K )( −10 + 273) K
The only heat added to the air is body heat. The walls are assumed to be thick and highly insulating. The
rate of heat transfer is related to the total heat transferred by
Q = Q ∆t = mcv ∆T
Solving for elapsed time
mc (T − T )
∆t = v 2 1
Q
( 9.46 kg )( 0.717 kJ kg ⋅ K ) (10 − ( −10 ) ) K
∆t =
300 kJ h
where cv may be found in Table A-8. Evaluating
∆t =0.45 h = 27 min Answer
Comments:
In actuality, there must be some air entering and leaving the shelter or the explorer would be unable to
breathe; therefore, the rise in temperature may not be as rapid as calculated.
3- 1
3-2 A well-insulated room with a volume of 60 m3 contains air initially at 100 kPa and 25oC. A 100-W
light bulb is turned on for 3 hours. Assuming the room is air-tight, estimate the final temperature.
Approach:
Use the first law to find the change in temperature.
Assumptions:
conditions.
2. The room is perfectly insulated and air-tight.
Solution:
Let the system be the air and the light bulb. From the first law
∆U = Q − W
The room is well-insulated, so Q = 0 . The electrical work done is
⎛ 3600 s ⎞
W = −(100 W)(3h) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1h ⎠
= −1.08 × 106 J
Work is negative since it is done on the air. Because the air is assumed to be an ideal gas, the change in
internal energy may be written in terms of the specific heat. Using this in the first law produces:
mcV (T2 − T1 ) = −W
To find the mass of air, m, use the ideal gas law
PVM
m=
RT
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ 1000 Pa ⎞
(100 kPa)(60 m3 ) ⎜ 28.97 ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ kmol ⎠ ⎝ 1kPa ⎠
m=
⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ 1000 J ⎞
8.314 ⎜ ⎟ (25 + 273)K ⎜ ⎟
⎝ kmol ⋅ K ⎠ ⎝ 1kJ ⎠
= 70.2 kg
where the molecular weight of air from Table A-1 has been used. For cV, use Table A-8 at 300K. Solving
the first law for final temperature:
W
T2 = − + T1
mcV
⎛ 1kJ ⎞
−(−1.08 × 106 )J ⎜ ⎟
T2 = ⎝ 1000 J ⎠ + 25 o C
⎛ kJ ⎞
(70.2 kg) ⎜ 0.721 ⎟
⎝ kg K ⎠
= 46.3 o C Answer
Comments:
In actuality, there would be some air entering and leaving the room through doors, windows, etc. and
some conduction through the walls. Therefore, the room air would not reach this elevated temperature.
3- 2
3-3 An elevator is required to carry 8 people to the top of a 12-story building in less than 1 min. A
counterweight is used to balance the mass of the empty elevator cage. Assume that an average
person weighs 155 lbf and that each story has a height of 12 ft. What is the minimum size of
motor (in hp) that can be used in this application?
Approach:
Write the first law in rate form. Eliminate all terms except
work and potential energy.
Assumptions:
1. The motor speed is constant.
2. The elevator is isothermal.
3. The elevator is adiabatic.
Solution:
Take the elevator to be the system under study. From the first law:
dKE dPE dU
+ + = Q −W
dt dt dt
The elevator starts and stops at rest. Thus there is no net change in kinetic energy. The elevator is
isothermal and its internal energy does not change. Furthermore, there is no heat transfer to or from the
elevator. With these considerations, the first law reduces to
dPE
= −W
dt
For a 1-minute time period (assuming a constant speed elevator)
mg ∆z
= −W
∆t
Each person has a mass of 155 lbm. So
⎛ ft ⎞
(8)(155lbm) ⎜ 32.2 2 ⎟ (12)(12 ft)
⎝ s ⎠ = −W
⎛ 60s ⎞ ⎛ 32.2 lbm ⋅ ft/s ⎞
2
(1min) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 min ⎠ ⎝ 1lbf ⎠
⎛ ⎞
ft ⋅ lbf ⎜ 1hp ⎟
W = −2976 ⎜ ⎟
s ⎜ 550 ft ⋅ lbf ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ s ⎠
= −5.41 hp Answer
Comments:
Work is negative because work is being done on the elevator cage.
3- 3
3-4 A climate controlled room in a semiconductor factory contains a conveyor belt. Electric power is
supplied to the motor of the conveyor belt at 220 V and a current which varies linearly with time
as: I = 1.0 t, where I is in amps when t is in minutes. An air conditioner removes heat from the
room at a constant rate of 2 kW. The volume of air in the room is 600 m3. At t = 0, the air is at
25ºC and 101 kPa. Assume the mass of air is constant during this process and assume constant
specific heats.
a. Find the mass of air in the room (in kg).
b. Find the air temperature after 30 min. (in ºC); ignore any temperature change of the motor
or conveyor belt.
Approach:
Find mass from the ideal gas law. Write the first law in rate form.
Express rate of work as voltage times current, and substitute this
expression in the first law. Integrate over time.
Assumptions:
1. Air behaves like an ideal gas under these conditions.
2. The temperature of the conveyor belt and motor is unchanged.
3. No air enters or leaves the room.
4. The specific heat is constant.
Solution:
a) From the ideal gas law:
⎛ 1000 J ⎞
(8.314 kJ kmol ⋅ K )( 298 K ) ⎜ ⎟
v=
RT
= ⎝ 1kg ⎠ = 0.847 m3 kg
PM ⎛ 1000 Pa ⎞
(101Pa ) ⎜ ⎟ ( 28.97 kg kmol )
⎝ 1kPa ⎠
The mass of air is then
600 m3
m= = 709 kg Answer
0.847 m3 kg
b) From the first law in rate form
dE d
Q − W = = ( PE + KE + U )
dt dt
The kinetic and potential energy of the air are unchanged and may be eliminated. Integrating the first law
( )
∫ Q − W dt = ∫ dU = U 2 − U1
Heat is removed by the air conditioner and work is added in the form of electrical work. The electrical
work is
W = VI = Vt
∫ ( −2 + 220t ) dt = m ( u2 − u1 )
t2
−2t + 220 = m ( u2 − u1 ) = mcv (T2 − T1 )
2
Solving for T2, (use Table A-8, at ≈ 300 K to get cv = 0.718 kJ kg ⋅ K )
⎡ W ⎤
220
( 30 min ) ⎥ 60s
2
⎢ min
⎡ 220t 2 ⎤ ⎢ −2kW ( 30min ) + ⎥
− 2 + ⎢ 1000 W kW 2 ⎥ min
⎢ t
2 ⎦ ⎥
T2 = T1 + ⎣ = 25 C +
o ⎣ ⎦ = 29.6 o C Answer
mcv 709 kg ( 0.718 kJ kg ⋅ K )
3- 4
3-5 An interplanetary probe of volume 300 ft3 contains air at 14.7 psia and 77oF. The heaters fail and
the air begins to cool. Assume heat is dissipated from the outside of the spacecraft by radiation at
a steady rate of 60 Btu/h. On board electronics generate 12 W on average. Estimate the time
required for the air to cool to –30oF.
Approach:
Use the first law in rate form and the given values
of heat and work to find the cooling time.
Assumptions:
1. Air behaves like an ideal gas under these
conditions.
Solution:
Let the system be the air. From the first law in rate form:
dU du
=m = Q −W
dt dt
Assuming constant specific heat
dT
mc p = Q −W
dt
To find the mass of air present, use the ideal gas law in the form:
⎛ lbm ⎞
(14.7 psia)(300 ft 3 ) ⎜ 28.97 ⎟
m=
PVM
= ⎝ lbmol ⎠
= 22.2 lbm
RT ⎛ psia ⋅ ft ⎞
3
10.73 ⎜ ⎟ (77 + 460)R
⎝ lbmol ⋅ R ⎠
Separate variables in preparation for integration:
⎛ Q − W ⎞
dT = ⎜ ⎟ dt
⎝ mcv ⎠
Both the heat rate and the power are constants; therefore, this expression integrates to
⎛ Q − W ⎞
∆T = ⎜ ⎟ ∆t
⎝ mcv ⎠
Solve for ∆t and substitute values, using the specific heat of air in Table B-8 to get
( 22.2 lbm ) ⎛⎜ 0.171

Btu ⎞
⎟ ( −30 − 77 ) F
o
mcv ∆T ⎝ lbm ⋅ R ⎠
∆t = =
Q − W ⎛ Btu ⎞
Btu ⎜ 3.412 h ⎟
−60 − ( −12W ) ⎜ ⎟
h ⎜ 1W ⎟
⎝ ⎠
∆t = 21.3h Answer
Comments:
Note that heat is negative because heat leaves the system (the air). Work is also negative because
electrical work is done on the system.
3- 5
3-6 A fan is installed in a 35 m3 sealed box containing air at 101 kPa and 20oC. The exterior of the box
is perfectly insulated. The fan does 250 W of work in stirring the air and operates for one hour. Find
the final temperature and pressure of the air. Ignore the temperature change of any fan parts.
Approach:
Use the first law in rate form to find the change in
temperature. Then calculate final pressure from the
ideal gas law.
Assumptions:
conditions.
2. The box is perfectly insulated and air-tight.
4. The mass of the fan parts is negligible compared
to the mass of air in the box.
Solution:
Let the system be the air in the box. From the first law
dU du
=m = Q −W
dt dt
Assuming constant specific heat
dT
mc p = Q −W
dt
To find the mass of air present, use the ideal gas law in the form:
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ 1000 Pa ⎞
(101kPa)(35 m3 ) ⎜ 28.97 ⎟⎜ ⎟
m= 1
PVM
= ⎝ kmol ⎠ ⎝ 1 kPa ⎠ = 42 kg
RT1 ⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ 1000 J ⎞
⎜ 8.314 ⎟ ( 20 + 273) K ⎜ ⎟
⎝ kmol ⋅ K ⎠ ⎝ 1kJ ⎠
Separating variables in preparation for integration:
⎛ Q − W ⎞
dT = ⎜ ⎟ dt
⎝ mcv ⎠
Since the rates of work and heat are constants in this case, this expression integrates to
⎛ Q − W ⎞
∆T = ⎜ ⎟ ∆t
⎝ mcv ⎠
Using values of cP from Table A-8
⎛ 3600 s ⎞
0 − (−250W)(1h) ⎜ ⎟
∆T = ⎝ 1 h ⎠ = 29.9o C
⎛ kJ ⎞ ⎛ 1000 J ⎞
(42 kg) ⎜ 0.717 ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ kg ⋅ K ⎠ ⎝ 1kJ ⎠
∆T = T2 − T1 = T2 − 20 o C
T2 = 49.9 o C Answer
To find P2 , again use the ideal gas law
⎛ kJ ⎞
(42 kg) ⎜ 8.314 ⎟ (49.9 + 273)K
mRT2 ⎝ kmol ⋅ K ⎠
P2 = = = 111 kPa
VM kg
(35 m 2 )(28.97 )
kmol
P2 = 111 kPa Answer
3- 6
3-7 A room contains 4 single-pane windows of size 5 ft by 2.5 ft. The thickness of the glass is ¼ in.
If the inside glass surface is at 60oF and the outside surface is at 30oF, estimate the heat loss
through the windows.
Approach:
Use the one-dimensional conduction equation.
Assumptions:
1. The thermal conductivity of the glass is
constant.
Solution:
The surface area of the glass perpendicular to the direction of heat flow is
A = 4 ( 5ft )( 2.5ft ) = 50 ft 2
where all four windows have been accounted for. The rate of heat conduction is given by Fourier’s law as
kA (T1 − T2 )
Q =
L
Using the thermal conductivity of glass in Table B-3,
( 0.8 Btu h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ) ( 50 ft 2 ) ( 60 − 30 ) o F
Q = = 57, 600 Btu h Answer
⎛ 1ft ⎞
( 0.25in.) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 12in. ⎠
3-8 An L-shaped extrusion made of Aluminum alloy 2024-T6 is well insulated on all sides, as shown
in the figure. Heat flows axially in the extrusion at a rate of 35 W. If the cool end is at 25oC, find
the temperature at the hot end.
Approach:
Use the one-dimensional conduction
equation.
Assumptions:
1. The thermal conductivity of the
aluminum is constant.
Solution:
Heat flows axially in the bar. The surface
area of the bar perpendicular to the direction
of heat flow is
A = ( 4 )(1.5 ) + ( 4 )( 2 ) =14 cm 2
From the one-dimensional conduction
equation
kA (T1 − T2 )
Q =
L
Solving for T1, and using thermal conductivity from Table A-2,
T1 =

QL
+ T2 =
( 35) W (1.3 m ) + 25°C = 209 o C Answer
kA ⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ 14 ⎞
⎜177 ⎟ m2 ⎟
⎝ m ⋅ K ⎠ ⎜⎝ 10, 000 ⎠
3- 7
3-9 The wall of a furnace is a large surface of fire clay brick, which is 6.5 cm thick. The outer surface of
the brick is measured to be at 35 °C. The inner surface receives a heat flux of 2.3 W/cm2. Estimate
the temperature of the inner surface of the brick.
Approach:
Use the one-dimensional conduction equation.
Assumptions:
1. The thermal conductivity of the brick is
constant.
Solution:
For one-dimensional steady-state conduction,
kA (T1 − T2 )
Q =
L
The wall receives a heat flux of 2.3 W/cm2, so
Q W k (T1 − T2 )
= 2.3 2 =
A cm L
Solving for T1,
L ⎛ Q ⎞
T1 = ⎜ ⎟ + T2
k ⎝ A⎠
The thermal conductivity should be evaluated at the average of T1 and T2; however, T1 is unknown. We
begin by evaluating k at a reasonable temperature and iterating if necessary. From Table A-3,
k = 1.0 W/ ( m ⋅ K ) at T = 478 K. Using this value,
⎛ 1m ⎞
( 6.5 cm ) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 100 cm ⎠ ⎛ 2.3 W ⎞ ⎛ 10 cm ⎞ + 35o C = 1530 o C = 1803K
4 2
T1 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
W ⎝ cm ⎠ ⎝ 1 m ⎠
1.0
m⋅K
The average wall temperature is
T + T2 1803 + 308
Tave = 1 = = 1056 K
2 2
This is much higher then the temperature at which k was evaluated, and Table A-3 shows that k varies
with temperature. So find a new estimate for k by interpolating in Table A-3. At T = 1056 K, k = 1.572.
The revised estimate of T1 is then
( 6.5) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
1
⎝ 100 ⎠
T1 =
1.572
( 2.3 × 104 ) + 308 K = 1259 K
This is much different than the first estimate of T1 = 1803 K. Use the new value of 1259 K to find a new
average temperature and a new value of k. Iterate until T1 no longer changes. The first few iterations are:
k T1 K
1.000 1803
1.572 1259
1.344 1420
1.435 1350
1.395 1380
For greater accuracy, continue the iteration. At the last iteration,

T = 1380 K Answer
3- 8
3-10 A tungsten filament in a 60 W light bulb has a diameter of 0.04 mm and an electrical resistivity of
90 µΩ·cm. The filament loses heat to the environment, which is at 20oC, by thermal radiation.
The emissivity of the filament is 0.32 and the voltage across it is 115 V. Find the length of the
filament and the filament surface temperature. (Electrical resistance equals electrical resistivity
times filament length divided by filament cross-sectional area.)
Approach:
Calculate the resistance of the wire from the known Joule
heating losses and the applied voltage. Use resistance to find
the wire length. Then equate the Joule heating to the loss by
radiation to determine the wire surface temperature.
Assumptions:
1. The only mode of heat transfer is radiation.
2. The surface of the filament is gray and diffuse.
3. There are no reflecting surfaces near the filament.
Solution:
The electrical resistance is related to the electrical resistivity by
ρL ρe L
Re = e =
Ax π ( D / 2 )2
where Ax is the cross-sectional area. The power dissipated in the filament by Joule heating is
ξ 2
Q = ξ i =
Re
Solving for resistance:
ξ 2 (115 V) 2
Re = = = 220 Ω
Q 60 W
Therefore the filament length is
2 2
⎞ ⎛ 1m ⎞
2
⎛D⎞ ⎛ .04
Reπ ⎜ ⎟ (220 Ω)π ⎜ mm ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ = ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 mm ⎠
L=
ρe ⎛ 1 Ω ⎞⎛ 1m ⎞
(90 µΩ ⋅ cm) ⎜ 6 ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 µ Ω ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠
L = 0.308 m = 30.8 cm Answer
For radiation from a gray surface to a black environment
Q = εσ As (Ts 4 − Ta 4 )
where As is surface area, Ts is surface temperature, and Ta is the ambient temperature.
1 1
⎛ Q ⎞ 4 ⎛ Q ⎞4
Ts = ⎜ + Ta 4 ⎟ = ⎜ + Ta 4 ⎟
⎝ εσ As ⎠ ⎝ εσπ DL ⎠
1
⎡ ⎤4
⎢ ⎥
60 W
Ts = ⎢ + (20 + 273) 4 K ⎥
⎢ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ 1m ⎞ ⎥
⎢ (0.32) ⎜ 5.67 × 10 ⎟ π (.04 mm) ⎜
-8
⎟ (0.380 m) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
2
⎝ 1000 mm ⎠ ⎦⎥
Ts = 3040 K Answer
Comments:
Tungsten glows brightly at this high temperature. The filament is coiled so it fits in the bulb.
3- 9
3-11 On a cold winter day, the interior walls of a room are at 55oF. A man standing in the room loses
heat to the walls by thermal radiation. The man’s surface area in 16 ft2, his clothing has an
emissivity of 0.93 and his surface temperature is 70oF. He generates 300 Btu/h of body heat.
What percentage of the man’s body heat is transferred by radiation to the walls?
Approach:
Use Q = ε σ A (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
) to determine radiation heat transfer
from the man and compare this to his body heat.
Assumptions:
1. The man’s clothing is gray and diffuse.
2. There are no reflecting surfaces near the man.
3. The man’s temperature is uniform.
Solution:
The heat lost by radiation is
Q rad = εσ A (Ts 4 − Tsurr 4 )
Converting temperatures to absolute and substituting values
⎛ Btu ⎞
Q rad = (0.93) ⎜ 0.171× 10−8 (16 ft 2 ) ⎡( 70 + 460 ) − (55 + 460) 4 ⎤ R 4
4
4 ⎟ ⎣ ⎦
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ⎠
2
Btu
Q rad = 218
h
To find the percent transferred by radiation:
Q rad 218
= = 0.726 = 72.6% Answer
Q body 300
Comments:
Typically, radiation is an important mode of heat transfer when the only other mode is natural convection
in air.
3 - 10
3-12 The sun can be approximated as a spherical black body with a surface temperature of 5762 K. The
irradiation from the sun as measured by a satellite in earth orbit is 1353 W/m2. The distance from
the earth to the sun is approximately 1.5 x 1011 m. Assuming that the sun radiates evenly in all
directions, estimate the diameter of the sun.
Approach:
Construct an imaginary sphere around the sun
with a radius equal to the sun-earth distance. The
total energy, in watts, falling on this sphere equals
the total energy emitted by the sun. Use this total
energy and the Stefan-Boltzman law to find the
effective solar diameter.
Assumptions:
1. The sun radiates uniformly in all directions.
2. The sun radiates like a black body.
Solution:
If the sun had a radius, r, then the total heat radiated by the sun would be
Q = Asσ Ts 4
Q = 4π r 2σ T 4
s
where Q is in Watts. This heat is spread evenly over an imaginary sphere whose radius is the sun-earth
distance, R. Therefore
⎛ W⎞
Q = ⎜ 1353 2 ⎟ ( 4π R 2 ) m 2
⎝ m ⎠

Q = (1353)(4π )(1.5 × 1011 ) 2
= 3.83 × 1026 W
The effective radius of the sun is
Q
r=
4πσ Ts 4
3.83 × 1026 W
r=
⎛ W ⎞
4π ⎜ 5.67 × 10−8 2 4 ⎟ (5762 K) 4
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
r = 6.98 × 108 m
D = 2r = 1.40 × 109 m Answer
3 - 11
3-13 A high torque motor has an approximately cylindrical housing 9.5 in. long and 6 in. in diameter.
The motor delivers 1/8 hp in steady operation and has an efficiency of 0.72. All the heat generated
by motor losses is removed by natural convection and radiation from the outer surface of the
housing. The convective coefficient is 1.68 Btu/h·ft2 · oF and the housing emissivity is 0.91. If the
surroundings are at 58oF, what is the housing’s outer surface temperature?
Approach:
Use the definition of efficiency to calculate the
electrical work input to the motor. Then
determine the rate of heat lost to the environment
and set this rate equal to the sum of the radiative
and convective heat losses.
Assumptions:
1. The emissivity is not a function of temperature.
2. The heat transfer coefficient is not a function of
temperature.
3. The emissivity is uniform over the surface of
the housing.
4. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform over
the surface of the housing.
5. The rate of heat loss is uniform over the surface
of the housing.
6. The surface of the housing is gray and diffuse.
Solution:
Because the motor has an efficiency of 0.72, 72% of the input electric power is converted into
mechanical power,
1
0.72W = hp
8
Solve for electric power and convert units to Btu/h,
1 ⎛ Btu ⎞
hp ⎜ 2544
W = 8 h ⎟ = 442 Btu
⎜ ⎟
0.72 ⎜ 1 hp ⎟ h
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The energy lost as heat from the outer casing is
⎛ Btu ⎞ Btu
Q loss = (1 − 0.72 ) ⎜ 442 ⎟ =123.8
⎝ h ⎠ h
The surface area of the housing is
A = 2π r 2 + 2π rl
= 2π ( 3in.) + 2π ( 3in.)( 9.5in.) = 236in 2 = 1.64 ft 2
2
The surrounding temperature is

Tsurr = 58 + 460 = 518 R
Heat is lost by both convection and radiation, that is
Q loss = Q rad + Q conv = εσ A (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
) + hA (Ts − Tsurr )
Substituting values
Btu ⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎛ Btu ⎞
4 ⎟(
124 = ( 0.91) ⎜ 0.1714 × 10−8 1.64 ft 2 )(Ts4 − 5184 ) + ⎜1.68 ⎟ (1.64 ft ) (Ts − 518 )
2
h ⎝ h ⋅ ft 2
⋅ R ⎠ ⎝ h ⋅ ft 2
⋅ R ⎠
Solving
Ts = 547 = 87 o F Answer
3 - 12
3-14 A flat plate solar collector 6 ft by 12 ft is mounted on the roof of a house. The outer surface of the
collector is at 110oF and its emissivity is 0.9. The outside air is at 70oF and the sky has an effective
temperature for radiation of 45oF. The collector transfers heat by natural convection to the air
with a heat transfer coefficient of 3.2 Btu/h·ft2· oF and also transfers heat by radiation to the sky.
Calculate the total heat lost from the solar collector.
Approach:
Use the fundamental rate equations for convective and radiative
heat transfer and add to get the total heat transfer.
Assumptions:
1. The emissivity is not a function of temperature.
2. The heat transfer coefficient is not a function of
temperature.
3. The emissivity is uniform over the surface of the collector.
4. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform over the surface of
the collector.
5. The surface of the collector is gray and diffuse.
Solution:
The surface area of the collector is
A = (6 ft)(12 ft) = 72 ft 2
The heat lost by convection is
Q conv = hA (Ts − Tair )
⎛ Btu ⎞
= ⎜ 3.2 ⎟ (72 ft )(110 − 70) F
2 o
⎝ h ⋅ ft 2 ⋅ F ⎠
Btu
= 9216
h
The heat lost by radiation is
Q rad = ε σ A (Ts4 − Tsky 4
)
Btu ⎡
Q rad = (0.9)(0.171 × 10−8 ) (110 + 460 ) − ( 45 + 460 ) ⎤⎦
4 4
h ⋅ ft 2 ⋅ R 4 ⎣
Btu
= 4490
h
The total heat transferred is
Q tot = Q conv + Q rad = 9216 + 4490
Btu
= 13, 700 Answer
h
Comments:
The effective temperature of the sky depends on the cloud cover. A clear sky will be much colder than an
overcast one.
3 - 13
3-15 A CPU chip with a footprint of 3 cm by 2 cm is mounted on a circuit board. The chip generates
0.31 W/cm2 and rejects heat to the environment at 28oC by convection and radiation. The outer
casing of the chip has an emissivity of 0.88 and the heat transfer coefficient is 48 W/m2·K.
Neglecting the thickness of the chip and any conduction into the circuit board, calculate the chip
surface temperature.
Approach:
Equate the heat generated to the sum of the heat removed
by convection and radiation. Express the rates of
convection and radiation in terms of surface temperature
and solve for surface temperature.
Assumptions:
1. No heat is removed from the chip by conduction.
2. All heat leaves from the top of the chip; the surface area
of the sides of the chip is very small and will be
neglected.
3. The surface of the chip is gray and diffuse.
4. The heat transfer coefficient and emissivity are not
functions of temperature.
5. The heat transfer coefficient and emissivity are uniform
over the surface of the chip.
Solution:
The heat generated by the chip is
⎛ W ⎞
Q gen = ⎜ 0.31 2 ⎟ (3cm)(2 cm) = 1.86 W
⎝ cm ⎠
This heat is removed by convection and radiation; i.e.
Q gen = Q conv + Q rad
Q gen = hA(Ts − T f ) + εσ A(Ts 4 − Tsurr 4 )
The area of the top of the chip is
⎛ 1m 2 ⎞
A = (3cm)(2 cm) ⎜ 4 2 ⎟ = 0.0006 m 2
⎝ 10 cm ⎠
The surroundings are at the same temperature as the air. The air temperature is
T f = 28 + 273 = 301K
Substituting values:
⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ W ⎞
⎟ (0.0006 m )(Ts − 301)K+(0.88) ⎜ 5.67 × 10 ⎟ (0.0006 m )(Ts − 301 )K
2 -8 2 4 4 4
1.86 W= ⎜ 48 2
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠ m ⋅ K4 ⎠
2
⎝
By trial and error or using an equation-solving program
Ts = 357 K = 84.2 o C Answer
3 - 14
3-16 A metal plate 16 cm by 8 cm is placed outside on a clear night. The plate, which has an emissivity
of 0.7, exchanges heat by radiation with the night sky, which is at – 40oC. Air at –10oC flows over
the top of the plate, cooling it with a heat transfer coefficient of 42 W/m2·K. The plate is insulated
on its underside and heated by an electric resistance heater. How much electric power must be
supplied to maintain the plate at 55oC?
Approach:
Calculate the radiation and convection from the
fundamental rate equations. The sum of these rates
equals the heat generated, by the first law.
Assumptions:
1. The metal plate is gray and diffuse.
2. The plate is perfectly insulated on the back side.
3. Emissivity is uniform over the plate.
4. Emissivity is independent of temperature.
5. Heat transfer coefficient is uniform over the
plate.
6. Heat transfer coefficient is independent of
temperature.
Solution:
The heat removed by radiation is
Q rad = Aεσ (Tp 4 − Ts 4 )
where Tp is the plate temperature and Ts is the sky temperature.
Tp = 55 + 273 = 328 K
Ts = −40 + 273 = 233K
⎛ 1m 2 ⎞ ⎛ W ⎞
Q rad = (16)(8)cm 2 ⎜ 4 2 ⎟ (0.7) ⎜ 5.67 × 10−8 2 4 ⎟ (3284 − 2334 )K
⎝ 10 cm ⎠ ⎝ m K ⎠
Q = 4.38 W
rad
The heat removed by convection is

Q conv = hA(TP − Ta )
where Ta is air temperature.
Ta = −10 + 273 = 263K
⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ 1m 2 ⎞
Q conv = ⎜ 42 2 ⎟ (16)(8)cm 2 ⎜ 4 2 ⎟ (328 − 263)K
⎝ m K⎠ ⎝ 10 cm ⎠
= 34.9 W
Q = Q + Q = 4.38 + 34.9 = 39.3 W
tot rad conv
By the first law,

dU
= Q −W
dt
The plate is in steady-state; therefore, there is no change in internal energy and the first law reduces to
Q = W
The electrical work (power to the heater) equals the heat lost from the plate
W = Q tot = 39.3 W Answer
3 - 15
3-17 A home freezer is 1.8-m wide, 1-m high, and 1.2-m deep. The interior surface of the freezer must
be kept at –10 °C. The walls of the freezer are made of polystyrene insulation sandwiched
between two thin layers of steel. The combined convective/radiative heat transfer coefficient on
the exterior is 8.2 W/m2·K and the ambient is at 25oC. If the power of the refrigeration unit is
limited to 150 W, what thickness of polystyrene is needed? Assume the conduction resistance of
the thin metal wall panels is very small and can be neglected and that the bottom of the freezer is
perfectly insulated.
Approach:
Use the resistance analogy to find the resistances due to
conduction and convection. All resistances add in series.
Assumptions:
1. Thermal conductivity is independent of temperature.
2. The resistance of the steel is negligible.
3. No heat is conducted into the floor.
4. The thickness of the insulation is small compared to the
size of the freezer.
5. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform over the surface
of the freezer and independent of temperature.
Solution:
To maintain the freezer in steady state, the heat
transfer into the freezer from the outside air must be
no more than the freezer can remove. To find the
heat transferred into the freezer, use the resistance
analogy. The exposed surface area of the freezer
(neglecting the bottom) is
A = 2(1)(1.8) + 2(1)(1.2) + (1.2)(1.8) = 8.16 m 2
Assume the interior and exterior of the freezer have
about the same area, since the insulation thickness
is small compared to the size of the freezer. The
heat entering the freezer is
T −T T −T
Q = a i = a i
R1 + R2 L 1
+
kA hA
Solving for L
⎡T − T 1 ⎤
L = kA ⎢ a i − ⎥

⎣ Q hA ⎦
using k from Table A-4
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢ [ 25 − ( −10) ] C
o
⎛ W ⎞ 1
⎟ ( 8.16 m ) ⎢
L = ⎜ 0.027 − ⎥
⎝ m⋅K ⎠ 250 W ⎛ W ⎞ 2
⎥
⎢ ⎜ 5.2 2 ⎟ (8.16 m ) ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ m K⎠ ⎦⎥
= 0.0481m = 4.81cm Answer
3 - 16
3-18 The windshield of an automobile is heated on the inside by a flow of warm air. Cold air at –15°F
flows over the exterior of the windshield. The heat transfer coefficient on the inside is 16
Btu/h·ft2·°F and the heat transfer coefficient on the outside is 49 Btu/h·ft2·°F. The glass of the
windshield has a thickness of 0.25 inch. What temperature should the inside air be so that the
exterior surface temperature of the windshield is 3°F?
Approach:
Use the resistance analogy, adding all resistances in
series.
Assumptions:
1. Thermal conductivity is independent of
temperature.
2. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform over the
surface of the windshield and independent of
temperature.
Solution:
Heat is convected from the inside of the windshield
with resistance R3, conducted through the glass with
resistance R2 and convected from the outside of the
windshield with resistance R1. All resistances add in
series. Perform the calculation for a unit area of 1 ft2.
The result is independent of area. The resistances are
1 1 o
F⋅h
R1 = = = 0.0204
h1 A ⎛ Btu ⎞
2 o ⎟(
1 ft 2 )
Btu
⎜ 49
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠
( 0.25 in.) ⎛⎜
1 ft ⎞
⎟
⎝ 12 in. ⎠ = 0.026 F ⋅ h
o
L
R2 = =
kA ⎛ Btu ⎞
o ⎟(
1 ft 2 )
Btu
⎜ 0.8
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠
1 1 o
F⋅h
R3 = = = 0.0625
h2 A ⎛ Btu ⎞
2 o ⎟(
1 ft 2 )
Btu
⎜16
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠
By the resistance analogy, heat is
∆T
Q=
R
From the resistance circuit, the heat through each resistance is the same, and
T3 − T1 T1 − T0
=
R2 + R3 R1
Solving for T3,
( R + R3 )(T1 − T0 ) ( 0.026 + 0.0625 ) ( 3 − ( −15) )
T3 = 2 + T1 = +3
R1 0.0204
T3 = 81 o F Answer
3 - 17
3-19 A copper busbar of length 40 cm carries electricity and produces 4.8 W in joule heating. The
cross-section is square as shown in the figure and is covered with insulation of thermal
conductivity 0.036 W/m·K. All four sides are cooled by air at 20oC with an average heat transfer
coefficient of 18 W/m2·K. Assuming the copper is isothermal, estimate the maximum temperature
of the insulation.
Approach:
Use the resistance analogy, adding all
resistances in series.
Assumptions:
1. Thermal conductivity is
independent of temperature.
2. The heat transfer coefficient is
uniform over the surface of the
insulation and independent of
temperature.
3. Heat transfer is planar and one-
dimensional.
Solution:
The heat transferred through each side of the bar is
4.8 W
Q = = 12 W
4
The area of the inside of the insulation is
A1 = ( 8cm )( 40 cm ) = 320 cm 2
The area of the outside of the insulation is
A2 = (12 cm )( 40 cm ) = 480 cm 2
For conduction through the insulation, use the average of the inner and outer areas as an approximation
480 + 320
Aave = = 400 cm 2
2
The conduction resistance is
L 2 cm
R1 = = = 13.9 K W
2 ⎛ 1m ⎞
( 0.036 W m ⋅ K ) ( 400 cm ) ⎜
kAave
⎟
⎝ 100 cm ⎠
The convection resistance is
1 1
R2 = = = 1.16 K W
2 ⎛ 1m 2 ⎞
(18 W m ⋅ K )( 480 cm ) ⎜ 10, 000 cm2 ⎟
hA2 2
⎝ ⎠
The total resistance is the sum of the two resistances in series
Rtot = R1 + R2 = 15.1K W
The maximum temperature of the insulation occurs next to the copper and is given by
Tmax − T∞ = Rtot Q
Tmax = (15.1K W )(1.2W ) + 20o C
Tmax = 38.1 o C Answer
3 - 18
3-20 A freezer maintains one side of a slab of ice 3 cm thick at –10oC. The other side exchanges heat
with the ambient at 15oC by combined natural convection and radiation. In steady state, the ice
does not melt. Find the highest possible value of heat transfer coefficient on the ice surface
exposed to the ambient.
Approach:
Use the resistance analogy to relate the
surface temperature to the heat transfer
coefficient.
Assumptions:
1. The combined radiative/convective
heat transfer coefficient does not
depend significantly on temperature.
2. The thermal conductivity is constant.
3. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform
over the surface of the ice.
Solution:
When the ice surface temperature, T2 , is 0D C , the heat transfer coefficient has its maximum value. If the
heat transfer coefficient is higher than this value, the ice would begin to melt. Conduction through the ice
occurs in series with combined convection/radiation at the outer surface, as shown in the figure. The
conduction resistance is:
L
R1 =
kA
The heat conducted through the ice is
T − T kA(T2 − T1 )
Q = 2 1 =
R1 L
For the combined convection and radiation, the resistance is
1
R2 =
hA
The heat conducted through the ice is equal to the heat arriving by convection and radiation; therefore,
T −T
Q = 3 2 = hA(T3 − T2 )
R2
Eliminating Q gives
kA(T2 − T1 )
= hA(T3 − T2 )
L
Solving for h, and using the thermal conductivity of ice from Table A-3,
⎛ W ⎞
k (T2 − T1 ) ⎝⎜ 1.88 ⎟ [ 0 − (−10) ]
mK⎠
h= =
L(T3 − T2 ) (0.03 m) (15-0 )
W
= 41.8 Answer
m ⋅ oC
2
3 - 19
3-21 The door of a kitchen oven contains a window made of a single pane of 1/4 in. thick Pyrex glass.
The interior oven temperature is 550oF and the room air is at 68oF. The combined
convective/radiative heat transfer coefficient on the oven interior is 1.7 Btu/h·ft2·oF and on the
oven exterior, it is 0.88 Btu/h·ft2·oF. A toddler comes by and touches the window. Calculate the
temperature of the surface that the child's hand contacts.
Approach:
Assumptions:
2. The thermal conductivity is
constant.
glass.
4. Heat transfer is one-dimensional.
Solution:
From the resistance network in the figure,
T −T T −T
Q = win room = oven win
R3 R1 + R2
Substituting values, with thermal conductivity from Table B-3,
(Twin − 68) o F (550 − Twin ) o F
=
1 ⎛ 1ft ⎞
(0.25in.) ⎜ ⎟
⎛ Btu ⎞ 1 ⎝ 12 in. ⎠
⎜ 0.88 2 o ⎟
A +
⎝ h ⋅ ft F ⎠ ⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎛ Btu ⎞
⎜1.7 2 o ⎟
A ⎜ 0.7 ⎟A
⎝ h ⋅ ft F ⎠ ⎝ h ⋅ ft o F ⎠
Solving for the window temperature, Twin, yields

Twin = 380 o F Answer
3 - 20
3-22 An electronic device may be modeled as three plane layers, as shown in the figure. The entire
package is cooled on both sides by air at 20°C. Heat is generated in a very thin layer between two
contacting surfaces at a rate of 500 W/m2, as shown. The heat transfer coefficient on both sides is
8.7 W/m2·K. Assume the layers are very large in extent in the direction not shown. Using data in
the figure below, calculate the temperature T2.
Approach:
Assumptions:
2. The thermal conductivity is
constant.
device.
4. Heat is generated in a layer of
negligible thickness.
Solution:
The resistance network that can be used to model this device is:
where T0 is the air temperature. Now calculate the resistances for an area of 1 m2. The resistances may be
calculated as
L 0.003m K
R1 = 1 = = 0.00882
k1 A ⎛ W ⎞
⎟ (1m )
2 W
⎜ 0.34
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
1 1 K
R2 = = = 0.1149
hA ⎛ W ⎞
⎟ (1m )
2 W
⎜ 8.7 2
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
L 0.0194 m K
R3 = 2 = = 0.1213
k2 A ⎛ W ⎞
⎟ (1m )
2 W
⎜ 0.16
⎝ m ⋅ K ⎠
Another way to represent the resistance network is
shown in the figure to the right, where R4 is given by
K
R4 = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.245
W
and R5 is
K
R5 = R1 + R2 = 0.1237
W
For two resistors in parallel,
3 - 21
1 1 1 R4 R5
= + or Rtot =
Rtot R4 R5 R4 + R5
Substituting values gives
K
Rtot = 0.0822
W
From the resistance analogy,
∆T = QR
tot = T2 − T0
Solving for T2,

⎛ K⎞
T2 = ( 500 W ) ⎜ 0.0822 ⎟ + 20 o C
⎝ W⎠
T2 = 61 o C Answer
3 - 22
3-23 A cardboard box is used to ship flowers on a summer day when the ambient temperature is 80oF.
The air inside the box is maintained at 45oF by the use of cold packs. The box is lined with a layer
of styrofoam (ks = 0.015 Btu/h·ft·R) one half inch thick. The cardboard itself is 1/8-inch thick and
has kc = 0.13 Btu/h·ft·R. The box measures 8 in. by 8 in. by 2.5 ft. Assume h on the inside is 2.0
Btu/h·ft2·R and h on the outside is 9.3 Btu/h·ft2·R. Calculate the rate of heat transfer into the box.
Neglect heat transfer on the ends.
Approach:
series.
Assumptions:
1. The heat transfer coefficient does not depend
significantly on temperature.
2. The thermal conductivity of both materials is
constant.
surface of the box.
Solution:
The area of the inside of the box (neglecting the ends) is
⎛ 6.75 ⎞
A1 = ( 2.5ft ) ⎜ ⎟ ft ( 4 ) = 5.625ft
2
⎝ 12 ⎠
The area of the outside of the styrofoam is
⎛ 7.75 ⎞
A2 = ( 2.5ft ) ⎜ ⎟ ft ( 4 ) = 6.46 ft
2
⎝ 12 ⎠
The outer area of the box is
⎛8⎞
A3 = ( 2.5ft ) ⎜ ⎟ ft ( 4 ) = 6.67 ft 2
⎝ 12 ⎠
All resistances add in series. To find the inside convective resistance, use
1 1
R1 = = = 0.075 h ⋅ o F Btu
h1 A1 ( 2.0 Btu h ⋅ ft ⋅ F )( 5.625ft 2 )
2 o
For conduction through the foam, the area is different on inside and out. Estimate the appropriate area by
taking the average of inner and outer areas.
0.5
ft
L 12
R2 = = = 0.417 h ⋅ o F Btu
kA ( 0.015 Btu h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ) ( 6.04 ft 2 )
Likewise for the cardboard, take the average in inner and outer areas to get
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ft
R3 =
L
= ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ = 0.012 h ⋅ o F Btu
kA ( 0.13Btu h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ) ( 6.56 ft 2 )
The exterior convective resistance is
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ft
R3 =
L
= ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 12 ⎠ = 0.012 h ⋅ o F Btu
kA ( 0.13Btu h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ) ( 6.56 ft 2 )
Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 0.577 h ⋅ o F Btu
∆T 80 − 45 Btu
Q = = = 60.7 Answer
Rtot 0.577 h
3 - 23
3-24 A living room floor 3 m by 4.5 m is constructed of a layer of oak planks 1.2 cm thick laid over
plywood 2.0 cm thick. In winter, the basement air is at 15oC while the living room air is at 20oC.
The heat transfer coefficient on the living room floor and the basement ceiling are 3.6 and 6.8
W/m2·K, respectively. If the home is heated electrically and the cost of electricity is $0.08 per
kWh, estimate the cost per month of the energy lost through the floor. If the room is carpeted with
wall-to-wall carpeting 1.6 cm thick (k = 0.06 W/m·K), what would the energy cost be?
Approach:
Use the resistance analogy, adding all resistances
in series.
Assumptions:
1. Neglect conduction through the floor joists
(not shown).
2. Conduction is one-dimensional.
3. Thermal conductivity is constant.
Solution:
First consider the case without the carpet. The
thermal resistances for convection and conduction
are: (using Table A-3 and A-5 for thermal
conductivities)
1 1 K
R1 = = = 0.0206
hA ⎛ W ⎞ W
⎜ 3.6 2 ⎟ (3)(4.5)m
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
L 0.012m K
R2 = = = 0.00523
kA ⎛ W ⎞ 2 W
⎜ 0.17 ⎟ (3)(4.5)m
⎝ m ⋅ K ⎠
L 0.02 m K
R3 = = = 0.0124
kA ⎛ W ⎞ 2 W
⎜ 0.12 ⎟ (3)(4.5)m
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
1 1 K
R4 = = = 0.0109
hA ⎛ W ⎞ 2 W
⎜ 6.8 2 ⎟ (3)(4.5)m
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
All these resistances add in series
K
Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 0.0206 + 0.00523 + 0.0124 + 0.0109 = 0.049
W
The heat transfer rate is given by
∆T (20 − 15) o C
Q = = = 102 W
Rtot K
0.049
W
⎛ 30 days ⎞ ⎛ 24 h ⎞ ⎛ $.08 ⎞ ⎛ 1kW ⎞
cost = (1 month) ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (102 h)
⎝ 1 month ⎠ ⎝ 1 day ⎠ ⎝ kWh ⎠ ⎝ 1000 W ⎠
= $5.87 Answer
3 - 24
The carpet adds a resistance to the system. The resistance of the carpet is:
L 0.016 cm
R5 = =
kA ⎛ W ⎞ 2
⎜ 0.06 ⎟ (3)(4.5)m
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
K
= 0.0198
W
Adding this resistance to the previous total resistance gives a revised total resistance of
K
R*tot = Rtot + R5 = 0.049 + 0.0198 = 0.0688
W
The new heat transfer rate is
20 − 15
Q * = = 72.7 W
0.0688
The ratio of the new cost to the old cost is
new cost 72.7 W
=
old cost 102 W
Solving for new cost:
⎛ 72.7 ⎞
new cost = ⎜ ⎟ (5.87) = $4.19 Answer
⎝ 102 ⎠
Comments:
The carpet may improve appearance or comfort in the room; however, it does not contribute substantially
to energy savings.
3 - 25
3-25 The wall of a furnace must be designed to transmit no more than 220 Btu/h·ft2. Two types of
bricks are available for construction: one with a thermal conductivity of 0.38 Btu/h·ft·R and a
maximum allowable temperature of 1400oF and the other with a thermal conductivity of 0.98
Btu/h·ft·R and a maximum allowable temperature of 2300oF. The inside wall of the furnace is at
2100oF and the outside wall is at 300oF. Both types of bricks have dimensions of 9 by 4.5 by 3 in.
and both are the same cost per brick. If the bricks can be laid up in any manner, determine the
most economical arrangement of bricks.
Approach:
Use the resistance analogy to find the temperature
drop across the layers of brick. Use as few high
temperature bricks as possible since these have
poor insulation properties.
Assumptions:
1. The thermal conductivity of the bricks is not a
function of temperature.
2. Heat conduction is one-dimensional.
3. The wall is very large.
Solution:
First calculate the necessary thickness of the high temperature layer, which is made of high conductivity
bricks. This thickness is found from
∆T ∆T
Q = =
R L
kA
Taking A = 1ft 2 and Q = 220 Btu/h
⎛ Btu ⎞
o ⎟(
(2200 − 1400) o F ⎜ 0.98 1ft 2 )
∆Tk1 A ⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠
L= = = 3.12 ft = 37.4in.
Q 220
Btu
h
Because of the integral size of the bricks, we cannot design a layer with exactly this dimension. The
actual layer must be at least 37.4 in. Given the size of the bricks, the layup which uses the fewest number
of bricks and exceeds 37.4 in. by the least amount is:
which gives an actual thickness of 39 in. The two-layer wall may be represented as:
To find the thickness of the second layer, L2 , use
3 - 26
∆T (2100 − 300) o F h ⋅ oF
Rtot = = = 8.18
Q 220
Btu Btu
h
The total resistance is the series combination of the resistances of each layer:
L L
Rtot = 1 + 2
k1 A k2 A
Solving for L2,
⎡ ⎛1⎞ ⎤
⎢ (39) ⎜ ⎟ ft ⎥
⎛ L1 ⎞ ⎛ Btu ⎞ h ⋅ o
F ⎝ 12 ⎠ ⎥
L2 = k2 A ⎜ Rtot − ⎟ = ⎜ 0.38 o ⎟
(1ft 2 ) ⎢8.18 −
⎝ k1 A ⎠ ⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠ ⎢ Btu (0.98)(1 ft 2 ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 1.85ft = 22.2 in.
The layup of the second layer must be:
In summary, the most economical layup which satisfies all constraints is
Comments:
In actual application, the mortar would provide additional insulating value. The bricks could also have
been laid in the other direction with three bricks of edge length 3 in. spanning what is shown as one 9-in.
brick in the diagram or two bricks of edge length 4.5 in. spanning what is shown as one 9-in. brick. This
would result in the same total number of bricks when the third dimension is considered.
3 - 27
3-26 A chemical reactor is in the shape of a long cylinder, as shown in the figure. The reactor is
covered with a layer of insulation 17.7 cm thick. The reactor loses heat through the insulation at a
rate of 15.3 W per meter of length. The thermal conductivity of the insulation is 0.04 W/m·K. On
the outside of the insulation, air at 26oC removes heat by forced convection, with a heat transfer
coefficient of 32 W/m2·K. Find the maximum temperature of the insulation. Neglect radiation.
Approach:
Use the electrical resistivity analogy adding all
resistances in series. The maximum temperature is
at the inner radius of the insulation.
Assumptions:
2. The thermal conductivity of the insulation is
constant.
surface of the insulation and independent of
temperature.
Solution:
The reactor is hot inside and the air is cool outside.
The maximum temperature of the insulation will be
at r = r1
1.3m
r1 = − 0.177 m = 0.473m
2
The outer radius of the insulation is
r2 = r1 + 0.177 m = 0.65 m
The resistance across the insulation is
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 0.65 ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟ K
R1 = ⎝ 1 ⎠ = ⎝ 0.473 ⎠
r
=1.265
2π Lk ⎛ W ⎞ W
2π (1m ) ⎜ 0.04 ⎟
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
where L=1m because the value of Q is given for a one-meter length. The resistance for convection is
1 1 K
R2 = = = 0.00765
hA ⎛ W ⎞ W
⎜ 32 2 ⎟ ( 2π )( 0.65 m )(1m )
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
K
Rtot = R1 + R2 =1.265 + 0.00765 =1.273
W
From the resistance analogy
∆T = QR =T −T
T 1 2
Rearranging

T1 = T2 + QR T
⎛ K⎞
= 26°C + (15.3W ) ⎜1.273 ⎟
⎝ W⎠
= 45.5°C Answer
3 - 28
3-27 An insulated copper wire with a length of 1.2 m carries 20 A of current. The copper is 1 mm in
diameter and the insulation (k = 0.13 W/m·oC) has a thickness of 0.8 cm. Air at 25oC blows in
crossflow over the wire to produce an external convective heat transfer coefficient of 219 W/m2·K.
Assuming the copper is isothermal, find the copper temperature. Take the electrical resistivity of
copper to be constant at 2.1 x 10-8 Ω·m.
Approach:
Use the electrical resistivity of the wire to find the
wire’s electrical resistance. Then calculate the
power dissipated by Joule heating. Finally add the
conductive resistance across the insulation to the
convective resistance and use the total resistance to
compute the wire temperature.
Assumptions:
1. The copper is a perfect conductor and hence,
isothermal.
2. The thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity
are constant.
surface of the wire and independent of
temperature.
Solution:
The radii of the inner and outer surfaces of the insulation are
.5 mm
r1 = = 0.0005 m
(1000 mm/m )
⎛ 1m ⎞
r2 = r1 + 0.8cm ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0005 + 0.008 = 0.0085 m
⎝ 100 cm ⎠
The cross-sectional area, Ax , of the copper is
Ax = π r12 = π (0.0005) 2 = 7.85 × 10−7 m 2
The electrical resistance of the wire is
ρ L (2.1× 10−8 Ω ⋅ m)(1.2 m)
Re = = = 0.0321 Ω
Ax 7.85 × 10-7 m 2
The power produced by Joule heating in the wire is
Q = i 2 R = (20 A) 2 (0.0321 Ω) = 12.8 W
The thermal resistances are
ln ( r2 / r1 ) ln ( 0.0085/0.0005 ) K
R1 = = = 2.89
2π Lk ⎛ W ⎞ W
2π (1.2 m) ⎜ 0.13 ⎟
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
1 1 K
R2 = = = 0.0712
hAs ⎛ W ⎞ W
⎜ 219 2 ⎟ 2π (0.0085 m)(1.2 m)
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
where As is the surface area of the outside of the insulation. Temperature is found from
T −T
Q = 3 1 or T3 = T1 + Q ( R1 + R2 )
R1 + R2
K
T3 = 25D C+(12.8 W)(2.89+0.0712) = 63 o C Answer
W
3 - 29
3-28 The wall of a submarine is 1-in. thick stainless steel (AISI 304) insulated on the interior with a
1.5-in. layer of polyurethane foam (k = 0.017 Btu/h·ft·ºF). The heat transfer coefficient on the
interior is 3.7 Btu/h·ft·oF. At full speed, the exterior heat transfer coefficient is 135 Btu/h·ft·oF. The
sub is approximately cylindrical with the length 240 ft and outer diameter 30 ft. If the seawater is a
40oF, at what rate must heat be added to the interior air to keep it at 70oF? As a first
approximation, neglect heat transfer through the ends.
Approach:
series.
Assumptions:
1. The combined radiative/convective heat transfer
coefficient does not depend significantly on
temperature.
surface of the submarine.
Solution:
The radii that will be needed in the calculation are
r3 = 15 ft
r2 = 15 – 1/ 12 = 14.917 ft
r1 = r2 – 1.5 /12 = 14.792 ft
Heat transfer from the 70ºF interior air to the 40ºF exterior water can be calculated using the following
resistance network:
The convective resistance on the interior is

1 1 1 h ⋅ oF
R1 = = = = 1.21× 10−5
h1 A1 h1 2π r1 L ⎛ Btu ⎞ Btu
⎜ 3.7 2 o ⎟
2π (14.792ft)(240 ft)
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠
The conductive resistance through the polyurethane foam is
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 14.917 ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟ h ⋅ oF
R2 = ⎝ 1 ⎠ = ⎝ 14.792 ⎠
r
= 3.28 × 10−4
2π Lk1 ⎛ Btu ⎞ Btu
2π (240 ft) ⎜ 0.017 o ⎟
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠
The conductive resistance through the stainless steel (with thermal conductivity from Table B-2) is
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜ 3 ⎟ ln ⎛⎜ 15 ⎞⎟
h ⋅ oF
R3 = ⎝ 2 ⎠ = ⎝
r 14.917 ⎠
= 4.30 × 10−7
2π Lk2 2π (240)(8.6) Btu
Finally, the convective resistance on the exterior is
1 1 h ⋅ oF
R4 = = = 3.27 × 10−7
h3 2π r3 L (135)2π (15)(240) Btu
Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 3.49 × 10−5
∆T 70 − 40 Btu
From the resistance analogy Q = = −4
= 8.79 × 104 Answer
Rtot 3.41 × 10 h
3 - 30
3-29 An aluminum wire 2.5 m long conducts 12 A with an imposed voltage of 1.5 V. The wire, which
has a diameter of 2.4 mm, is covered with a layer of insulation 2 mm thick. The thermal
conductivity of the insulation is 0.15 W/m·oC. Air at 40oC flows over the exterior of the wire to
give a convective heat transfer coefficient of 32 W/m2·oC. Assume the aluminum is isothermal
and compute the temperature on the inside surface and also on the outside surface of the
insulation.
Approach:
Calculate the power dissipated by Joule heating.
Use the thermal resistance analogy to find the
unknown temperatures.
Assumptions:
1. The aluminum is a perfect conductor
and hence, isothermal.
surface of the wire and independent of
temperature.
Solution:
The radii of the inner and outer surfaces of the insulation are
⎛ 1m ⎞
r1 = 1.2 mm ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0012 m
⎝ 1000 mm ⎠
⎛ 1m ⎞
r2 = r1 + 2 mm ⎜ ⎟ = 0.0012 + 0.002 = 0.0032 m
⎝ 1000 mm ⎠
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 0.0032 ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟ K
R1 = ⎝ 1 ⎠ = ⎝ 0.0012 ⎠
r
= 0.416
2π kL ⎛ W ⎞ W
2π ⎜ 0.15 ⎟ (2.5 m)
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
1 1 1 K
R2 = = = = 0.622
hA h(2π r2 L) ⎛ W ⎞ W
⎜ 32 2 ⎟ 2π (0.0032 m)(2.5 m)
⎝ m ⋅ K ⎠
The heat generated by Joule heating is
Q = ξ i = (1.5 V)(12 A) = 18 W
From the thermal resistance analogy,
T −T
Q = 3 2
R1 + R2
K
T3 = T1 + Q ( R1 + R2 ) = 40 o C + (18 W ) (0.416+0.622) = 58.7 o C Answer
W
This is the temperature at the interior of the insulation. Similarly, at the exterior, temperature is
K
T2 = T1 + Q R2 = 40 o C + (18 W ) (0.622) = 51.2 o C Answer
W
3 - 31
3-30 An insulated steel pipe carries hot water at 80oC. The outer surface of the insulation loses heat to
the environment by convection and radiation. For convection, assume hconv = 5.8 W/m2·oC. The
emissivity of the insulation is 0.88. The surroundings are at 30oC. Assume the inner surface of
the insulation is at the water temperature. What is the surface temperature of the insulation? Use
data on the figure below.
Approach:
Use the thermal resistance analogy to find the
unknown temperature.
Assumptions:
surface of the pipe and independent of
temperature.
4. The insulation is gray and diffuse.
Solution:
The total heat transfer coefficient is the sum of radiative and convective heat transfer coefficients, thus
htot = hconv + hrad = hconv + εσ (Ts + Tsurr )(Ts 2 + Tsurr 2 )
From the resistance circuit
Tw − Ts Ts − Tsurr
=
R1 R2
which becomes
Tw − Ts T −T
= s surr
⎡ ⎛ r2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢ ln ⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
⎢ ⎥ ⎝ 2htotπ r2 L ⎠
⎢ 2π Lk ⎥
⎣ ⎦
It is not possible to solve this equation directly for
the unknown temperature Ts because htot is a
function of Ts. By trial and error, the solution is
Ts = 42.8 o C Answer
Comments:
Equation-solving software is very useful in problems of this type. Remember to use absolute
temperauture (Kelvin) in the computations.
3 - 32
3-31 A cylinder of radius r1 is covered with a layer of insulation of thermal conductivity, k. A fluid
flows over the outside of the insulation, exchanging heat with a heat transfer coefficient, h. Let r2
be the radius at the outer surface of the insulation. Cooling of the cylinder is controlled by the
combination of conduction and convection resistances. If r2 is small, the conduction resistance is
small. As r2 increases, the conduction resistance increases, but the surface area of exposed
insulation also increases, and this results in a decrease in convective resistance. As a result, there
is an optimal value of r2 which produces the largest possible total resistance to heat transfer.
Derive an expression for the optimum value of r2 as a function of r1, k, and h.
Approach:
Write an equation for the total resistance due to
conduction through the insulation and convection
from the outer surface. To find the maximum value
of resistance, take the derivative with respect to the
outer radius, r2 and set it equal to zero.
Assumptions:
surface of the insulation and independent of
temperature.
Solution:
We assume the length, L, of the cylinder is very large compared to the radius, so that heat transfer is one-
dimensional. In that case, the total resistance is
Rtot = Rcond + Rconv
where Rcond is conduction resistance and Rconv is convection resistance. These resistances are given by
ln ( r2 / r1 ) 1
Rtot = +
2π Lk hA
Expressing the total resistance explicitly as a function of r2 gives
ln ( r2 / r1 ) 1
Rtot (r2 ) = +
2π Lk h2π r2 L
To find the optimum value of r2 , for which Rtot is maximized, take the derivative of Rtot with respect to r2
and set the result equal to zero.
r1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
dRtot r2 ⎝ r1 ⎠ ( −r2 )
⎜ ⎟ −2
= +
dr2 2π Lk 2π hL
Let r0 be the optimal value of r2 ; then
r0 −1 r −2
0= − 0
2π Lk 2π hL
1 1
0= −
k r0 h
Solving for r0,
k
r0 = Answer
h
Comments:
Note that r0 is independent of r 1 , but that r0 > r1 . If the cylinder radius is greater than r0 , there is no
optimal value of outer radius, and increasing insulation thickness always increases total resistance.
3 - 33
3-32 A frozen pipe is filled with ice at 0oC. A heating tape wrapped around the pipe provides 90 W per
meter of pipe length. Insulation is placed over the heating tape. The insulation has a thickness of
0.5 cm and a thermal conductivity of 0.082 W/m·oC. Convection and radiation occur from the
outside of the insulation to the environment, which is at –15oC. The heat transfer coefficient is 7.7
W/m2·oC and the emissivity is 0.94. The pipe wall remains at 0oC during the heating and the
heating tape is very thin. The pipe has as I.D. of 3 cm and a wall thickness of 4 mm. How much
time is required to completely melt the ice? (heat of fusion = 3.34 x 105 J/kg, density = 921 kg/m3)
Approach:
Use a thermal resistance network. The heat
from the heating tape is a source term added
at the node for the pipe wall, which is held at
a constant temperature of 0ºC. Determine
how much heat conducts through the
insulation and subtract this from the heat
added by the tape. The result is the rate of
heat transfer into the ice. Using the latent
heat of fusion, the time to melt the ice can be
calculated.
Assumptions:
1. The pipe wall is a perfect conductor
and hence, isothermal.
2. The thermal conductivity of the insulation
is constant.
over the surface of the insulation and
5. The insulation is gray and diffuse.
Solution:
The process may be modeling using the following thermal resistance network:
where Q 3 is the heat supplied by the heating tape and Ts is the surface temperature of the insulation. The
heat added by the tape splits into two directions – part travels through the insulation ( Q ) and the other
1
part ( Q 2 ) acts to melt the ice. First find Q1 . We will need the following radii:
3cm
r1 = = 1.5cm = 0.015 m
2
4
r2 = 0.015 m + m = 0.019 m
1000
0.5
r3 = 0.019 m + m = 0.024 m
100
3 - 34
where L = 1m because the heat rate of the tape is given per meter of pipe length. The resistance to
conduction is
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 0.024 ⎞
ln ⎜ 3 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟ K
R1 = ⎝ 2 ⎠ = ⎝ 0.019 ⎠
r
= 0.453
2π Lk ⎛ W ⎞ W
2π (1m ) ⎜ 0.082 ⎟
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
The resistance to convection is
1 1 1 K
R2 = = = = 0.861
hconv A hconv 2π r3 L ⎛ W ⎞ W
⎜ 7.7 2 ⎟ 2π ( 0.024 m )(1m )
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
The radiative resistance is
1 1
R3 = = where hrad = εσ (Ts + Tair )(Ts 2 + Tair 2 )
hrad A hrad 2π r3 L
The surface temperature, Ts, is unknown, so hrad cannot be determined. It is necessary to do an iterative
calculation. We will assume a value of Ts = 266 K, which happens to be the right answer. Of course, it is
very unlikely that a person would pick that exact number as an initial guess; however, any reasonable
guess (something between 0ºC and –15ºC) will give a result close to the correct answer. The guess can be
adjusted and the calculation repeated if greater accuracy is desired. With the assumed temperature,
⎛ W ⎞ W
hrad = ( 0.94 ) ⎜ 5.67 × 10−8 2 4 ⎟ ( 266 + 258 ) K ( 2662 + 2582 ) K 2 = 3.84 2
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠ m ⋅K
1 K
R3 = = 1.73
⎛ W ⎞ W
⎜ 3.84 2 ⎟ 2π ( 0.024 m )(1m )
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
Define R23 as the parallel combination of R2 and R3, that is
RR
R23 = 2 3 =
( 0.861)(1.73) = 0.575 K
R2 + R3 0.861 + 1.73 W
K
Rtot = R1 + R23 = 0.453 + 0.575 = 1.03
W
The heat traveling through the insulation is
T −T
Q1 = ice air =
( 273 − 258) K = 14.5 W
Rtot K
1.03
W
The heat available to melt the ice is
Q 2 = Q 3 − Q1 = 90 − 14.5 = 75.5 W
The total amount of heat needed to melt the ice is
⎛ J ⎞ ⎛ kg ⎞
⎟ π ( 0.015 m ) (1m ) ⎜ 921 3 ⎟ = 2.17 × 10 J
2
Q2 = hif Vice ρice = hif π r12 L ρice = ⎜ 3.34 × 105 5
⎝ kg ⎠ ⎝ m ⎠
Q
Q 2 = 2
∆t
Therefore
Q 2.17 × 105 J
∆t = 2 = = 2878s = 48 min Answer
Q 2 75.5 W
3 - 35
3-33 Show that the conduction thermal resistance of a spherical shell of inner radius r1 and outer radius
r2 is given by:
r2 − r1
Rsphere =
4π r1r2 k
Approach:
Start with Fourier’s law. Write surface area, A, in
terms of the radius of the sphere and integrate from
the inner radius to the outer radius of the spherical
shell. Compare the resulting equation to a resistive
circuit.
Assumptions:
Solution:
From Fourier’s law
dT
Q = −kA
dr
Separate variables and integrate from the inner to the outer radius
r2 Q T2
∫r1 Adr = −k ∫T1 dT
To perform this integration, we need A in terms of r ( Q is a constant). Substituting the formula for the
surface area of a sphere and integrating the right hand side,
r2 dr
Q ∫ = −k (T2 − T1 )
r1 4π r 2
Q
4π
( −r −1 ) rr21 = −k (T2 − T1 )
Q ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟ = k (T2 − T1 )
4π ⎝ r2 r1 ⎠
Q ⎛ r1 r ⎞
⎜ − 2 ⎟ = k (T2 − T1 )
4π ⎝ r1r2 r1r2 ⎠
Compare this result to a resistive circuit to obtain
T −T r −r
Rsphere = 1 2 = 2 1 Answer
Q 4π kr1r2
3 - 36
3-34 A hollow sphere made of pure aluminum has an inner radius of 3 cm and an outer radius of 18 cm.
The temperature at the inner radius is maintained at 0oC. The outer surface is exposed to air at
25oC. The convective heat transfer coefficient is 65 W/m2·K, and radiation may be neglected.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer and the temperature of the outer surface of the sphere.
Approach:
Use the resistance analogy to determine the heat
transfer rate and the surface temperature.
Calculate the conductive and convective thermal
resistances and add them to find the total
resistance.
Assumptions:
surface of the sphere and independent of
temperature.
Solution:
Approach this problem by using the resistance analogy. The conduction resistance is
r −r
Rcond = 2 1
4π r1r2 k
The value for thermal conductivity of aluminum is available in Table A-2. Using this and given values:
(0.18 − 0.03) m K
Rcond = = 0.00933
⎛ W ⎞ W
4π (0.18)(0.03)m 2 ⎜ 237 ⎟
⎝ m ⋅ K ⎠
The convection resistance is
1 1 1 K
Rconv = = = = 0.0378
hA h ( 4π r2 ) ⎛2
W ⎞ W
⎟ 4π (0.18) m
2 2
⎜ 65 2
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
Heat is first conducted through the aluminum and then convected from the surface. The conduction and
convection occur in series; therefore, add the resistances to get total resistance. The heat transfer
becomes:
T −T T1 − T∞ (0 − 25) o C
Q = 1 ∞ = =
Rtot Rcond + Rconv (0.00933 + 0.0378) K
W

Q = −1811W Answer
Heat rate is negative because heat is flowing in the negative r-direction (from outside to inside). To find
surface temperature, T2 , note that the total heat is equal to the heat removed by convection, so that
T −T
Q = 2 ∞
Rconv
Solving for T2:
T = QR +T
2 conv ∞
⎛ K⎞
T2 = (−1811W) ⎜ 0.0378 ⎟ + 25 o C
⎝ W⎠
= 4.95 C
o
Answer
3 - 37
3-35 A bathosphere of inside diameter 3.4 m is at an ocean depth where the water temperature is 5oC.
The wall of the bathosphere is made of 5 cm thick steel. The convective heat transfer coefficient
between the air and the inside wall is 9.2 W/m2·K and that between the water and the outside wall
is 860 W/m2·K. After the divers return to the surface they complain to the designer that the
bathosphere was chilly. If the maximum power of the heater is 2.5 kW, estimate the air
temperature inside the bathosphere.
Approach:
Use the thermal resistance analogy.
Assumptions:
1. Neglect body heat generated by the divers.
2. The bathosphere is spherical in shape.
3. Neglect heat dissipated by any on-board
electronics.
6. The heat transfer coefficients are uniform over
the sphere and independent of temperature.
Solution:
The inside and outside radii of the bathosphere are
r1 = 1.7 m r2 = 1.7 + 0.05 = 1.75 m
The inside and outside surface areas, are, respectively
A1 = 4π r12 = 4π (1.7) 2 m 2 = 32.3 m 2
A2 = 4π r2 2 = 4π (1.75) 2 m 2 = 38.5 m 2
The thermal conductivity of steel is available in Table A-2. The thermal resistances are:
1 1 K
R1 = = = 0.00299
h1 A1 ⎛ W ⎞ 2 W
⎜ 9.2 2 ⎟ (32.3m )
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
(r − r ) (1.75 − 1.7)m K
R2 = 2 1 = = 2.21× 10−5
4π r1r2 k ⎛ W ⎞ W
4π (1.7 m)(1.75 m) ⎜ 60.5 ⎟
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
1 1 K
R3 = = = 3.02 × 10−5
h2 A2 ⎛ W ⎞
⎟ ( 38.5 m )
2 W
⎜ 860 2
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
K
Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.00305
W
Note that the only resistance that matters is the interior convection resistance. The rate of heat transfer is
T −T
Q = air water
Rtot
Solving for the bathosphere air temperature

Tair = QR tot + Twater
⎛ 1000 W ⎞⎛ K⎞ o
= 2.5 kW ⎜ ⎟⎜ 0.00305 ⎟ + 5 C
⎝ 1 kW ⎠⎝ W⎠
= 12.6 o C = 54.7 o F Answer
Comment:
It is rather chilly in the bathosphere.
3 - 38
3-36 A high-pressure chemical reactor contains a gas mixture at 1000oF. The reactor is made of AISI
1010 carbon steel and is spherical, with an inner diameter of 3.2 ft and a wall thickness of 0.75 in.
The outer wall of the reactor is encased in a 2.5 in. thick layer of insulation (k = 0.03 Btu/h·ft·R).
The convective heat transfer coefficient on the inside wall of the reactor is 8.3 Btu/h·ft2·oF and on
the outside of the insulation, the combined convective/radiative heat transfer coefficient is 11.7
Btu/h·ft2·oF. If the ambient is at 80oF, find the rate of heat transfer from the reactor to the
surroundings.
Approach:
Use the resistance analogy to find the
resistances due to conduction and
convection. All resistances add in series.
Assumptions:
1. Thermal conductivity is independent of
temperature.
over the surface of the reactor and
Solution:
The various radii needed to solve the problem, as shown in the figure, are:
3.2 ft 0.75
r1 = = 1.6 ft r2 = r1 + L1 = 1.6 + = 1.66 ft
2 12
2.5
r3 = r2 + L2 = 1.66 + = 1.87 ft
12
The convective resistance on the inside is
1 1 1 o
F⋅h
R1 = = = = 0.00374
h1 A1 h1 4π r1 2
⎛ Btu ⎞ Btu
⎟ 4π (1.6 ft)
2
⎜ 8.3
⎝ h ⋅ ft 2 ⋅ o F ⎠
For conduction, the resistances are (using k for steel at 1440 R from Table B-2)
r −r (1.66 − 1.6)ft o
F⋅h
R2 = 2 1 = = 0.000165
2π r1r2 k1 ⎛ Btu ⎞ Btu
2π (1.66)(1.6)ft 2 ⎜ 22.7 ⎟
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ o F ⎠
r −r 1.87 − 1.66 o
F⋅h
R3 = 3 2 = = 0.356
2π r2 r3 k2 2π (1.87)(1.66)(0.03) Btu
The convective resistance on the outside is
1 1 1 o
F⋅h
R4 = = = = 0.00194
h2 A2 h2 4π r32 (11.7)4π (1.87) 2 Btu
As you can see, the conduction resistance through the insulation dominates. The total resistance is
o
F⋅h
Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 = 0.00374 + 0.000165 + 0.356 + 0.00194 = 0.361
Btu
The heat transferred is
∆T (1000 − 80) o F Btu
Q = = = 2550 Answer
Rtot o
F⋅h h
0.361
Btu
3 - 39
3-37 A novelty drink container is made of plastic in the shape of a sphere. The container has an outside
diameter of 6.5 cm and a wall thickness of 2.5 mm. The container is initially filled with soda and
crushed ice. The ice occupies 30% of the volume of the drink. The plastic has a conductivity of
0.07 W/m·K and an emissivity of 0.92. The inside surface of the container may be assumed to be
at the freezing temperature of water. The heat transfer coefficient due to convection on the outside
of the container is 9.4 W/m2·K. Ambient temperature is 18°C. The latent heat of fusion of water is
333.7 kJ/kg and the density of ice is 921 kg/m3. Neglecting any transient effects, estimate the time
until all the ice has just melted.
Approach:
Use the thermal resistance analogy to determine
the heat transfer to the soda and ice mixture. Since
the surface temperature is unknown and radiation
depends on this temperature, it will be necessary to
iterate. As a final step, calculate the mass of ice
and use the heat of fusion of the ice to determine
the melting time.
Assumptions:
1. Soda has the properties of water.
4. The heat transfer coefficients are uniform over
the sphere and independent of temperature.
5. The outer surface is gray and diffuse.
Solution:
First find the steady-state rate of heat transfer
from the ambient to the soda and ice. The relevant
radii are
6.5
r2 = = 0.0325 m
( )(100 )
2
2.5
r1 = r2 − = 0.03m
1000
The conductive resistance through the plastic is given by
r −r 0.0325 − 0.03 K
R1 = 2 1 = = 2.91
4π r1r2 k 4π ( 0.03)( 0.0325 )( 0.07 ) W
The area of the outside is
A = 4π r22 = 0.0133 m 2
The resistance for the convection and radiation on the outside of the container is,
1
R2 =
( hconv + hrad ) A
The resistance R2 depends on the radiative heat transfer coefficient, which is
hrad = εσ (T2 + T3 )(T2 2 + T32 )
This cannot be calculated until T2 is known or assumed. Since the heat that is transferred to the outer
surface by convection and radiation must conduct through the plastic,
T3 − T2 T2 − T 1
=
R2 R1
The last three equations are solved simultaneously for T2, R2 and hrad (iteration is necessary). All
temperatures must be expressed in Kelvin. The result is
3 - 40
W K
hrad = 4.69 R2 = 5.346 T2 = 279.4 K
m ⋅K
2
W
The rate of heat transfer into the soda and ice mixture is thus
T − T 279.4 − 273
Q = 2 1 = = 2.18 W
R1 2.915
The volume of the drink is
4 4
V = π r13 = π ( 0.03) = 1.13 × 10−4 m3
3
3 3
The volume of ice is 30% of total volume, so
Vice = ( 0.3) V = 3.39 × 10−5 m3
⎛ kg ⎞
mice = ρ Vice = ⎜ 921 3 ⎟ ( 3.39 × 10−5 m3 ) = 0.03125 kg
⎝ m ⎠
The first law for the ice is
Q = ∆H = m∆h
Q ∆t = mhif
where hif is the heat of fusion of the ice. Solving for time
⎛ kJ ⎞
( 0.0132 kg ) ⎜ 333.7 ⎟
m hif ⎝ kg ⎠
∆t = =
Q ⎛ 1 kJ ⎞
( 2.18 W ) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1000 J ⎠
= 4786s = 1.33h Answer
3 - 41
3-38 A small rod made of pure copper is 0.5 cm in diameter and 1.4 cm long. The rod is initially at
10oC. It is then exposed to a hot air flow at 30oC. The heat transfer coefficient between the rod
and the air is 25 W/m2·oC. What will the rod temperature be after 45 seconds?
Approach:
Calculate the Biot number to see if the lumped
system approximation is valid. Then use the
lumped system approximation to determine final
temperature.
Assumptions:
1. The lumped system approximation is valid.
surface of the rod and independent of
temperature.
3. The specific heat and thermal conductivity of
the copper are constant.
Solution:
Check the Biot number to see if the lumped-system approximation is valid. A representative length is
V
Lchar = =
π R2 L
=
RL
=
( 0.25cm )(1.4 cm ) = .106 cm
A ( 2π RL + 2π R ) 2 ( L + R ) (2)(0.25+1.4) cm
2
The thermal conductivity of pure copper is found in Table A-2

⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ 1m ⎞
⎜ 25 ⎟ (0.106 cm) ⎜ ⎟
hLchar ⎝ m 2 ⋅ o C ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠ = 6.61 × 10−5
Bi = =
k ⎛ W ⎞
⎜ 401 ⎟
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
Since Bi 0.1 , the lumped-system approximation is valid. The temperature of the rod as a function of
time is
⎛ −ht ⎞
T = (Ti − T f ) exp ⎜ +T
⎜ ρ c L ⎟⎟ f
⎝ p char ⎠
Using values for the properties of copper from Table A-2
⎛ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎞
⎜ − ⎜ 25 2 o ⎟ (45s) ⎟
T = (10 − 30) o C exp ⎜ ⎝ m ⋅ C⎠ ⎟ + 30 o C
⎜⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞ ⎛ 1m ⎞ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎜ 8933 3 ⎟ ⎜ 385 ⎟ (0.106 cm) ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝⎝ m ⎠⎝ kg ⋅ K ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠ ⎠
T = 15.3 C
o
Answer
3 - 42
3-39 A slab of aluminum (2024-T6), which measures 16 cm × 16 cm × 1.5 cm is initially at 750 K. The
slab is then annealed by a water spray at 15°C, which strikes both sides of the slab. The convective
heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be 1500 W/m2·K. How much time is required to cool the
slab to 320 K? Neglect convection off the edges of the slab since almost all the surface area is on
the two 16 cm x 16 cm sides.
Approach:
Calculate the Biot number to see if the
lumped system approximation is
valid. Then use the lumped system
approximation to determine the time
required.
Assumptions:
1. The lumped system approximation
is valid.
uniform over the surface of the slab
and independent of temperature.
3. The specific heat and thermal
conductivity of the aluminum are
constant.
4. Heat transfer on the edges is
negligible.
Solution:
V sA s (1.5cm )
Lchar = = s = = = 0.75cm
A 2 As 2 (2)
where s is the thickness of the slab and As is the surface area of one 16 cm × 16 cm side. The thermal
conductivity of 2024-T5 aluminum alloy depends on temperature, as shown in Table A-2. Assume an
average slab temperature of Tave = ( 750 + 320 ) K / 2 = 535 K. The Biot number then becomes
⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ 1m ⎞
⎜ 1500 2 ⎟ (0.75cm) ⎜ ⎟
hL ⎝ m ⋅ K ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠ = 6.05 × 10−2
Bi = char =
k ⎛ W ⎞
⎜ 186 ⎟
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
Since Bi 0.1 , the lumped-system approximation is valid. The time to cool the slab is given by
ρ c p Lchar ⎡ T ( t ) − T f ⎤
t=− ln ⎢ ⎥
h ⎢⎣ Ti − T f ⎥⎦
Using values for the properties of 2024-T5 aluminum alloy from Table A-2 at 535 K (interpolating for
cp), and expressing final temperature in Kelvin,
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞ ⎛ 1m ⎞
− ⎜ 2770 3 ⎟ ⎜1004 ⎟ ( 0.75 cm ) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ kg ⋅ K ⎠ ⎝ 100 cm ⎠ ⎛ 320 − 288 ⎞
t= ln ⎜ ⎟
⎛
1500
W ⎞ ⎝ 750 − 288 ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ m2 ⋅ K ⎠
t = 37.1 s Answer
3 - 43
3-40 Buckshot initially at 450oF is quenched in an oil bath at 85oF. The buckshot is spherical with a
diameter of 0.2 in. and is made of lead. The shot falls through the bath, reaching the bottom after
20 s. The convective heat transfer coefficient between buckshot and oil is 36 Btu/h·ft2·oF.
Calculate the temperature of the shot just as it reaches the bottom of the bath.
Approach:
lumped system approximation to determine final
temperature.
Assumptions:
2. The temperature of the oil is constant.
3. The specific heat and thermal conductivity of
the lead is constant.
4. The heat transfer coefficient is independent of
temperature and uniform over the surface of the
shot.
Solution:
( 0.2in.) ⎛⎜
4 1ft ⎞
π R3 ⎟
V 3
Lchar = = =
R
= ⎝ in. ⎠ = .00278ft
12
A 4π R 2 3 (2)(3)
The thermal conductivity of lead is found in Table B-2
⎛ Btu ⎞
36 (0.00278ft)
hLchar ⎜⎝ h ⋅ ft 2 ⋅ o F ⎟⎠
Bi = =
k ⎛ Btu ⎞
⎜ 20.4 ⎟
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ o F ⎠
Bi = 0.0049
Since Bi 0.1 , the lumped-system approximation is valid. The temperature of the buckshot is
⎛ −ht ⎞
T = (Ti − T f ) exp ⎜ +T
⎜ ρ c L ⎟⎟ f
⎝ p ⎠
Using values for the properties of lead from Table B-2
⎛ ⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎛ 1h ⎞ ⎞
⎜ - ⎜ 36 h ⋅ ft 2 ⋅ o F ⎟ (20s) ⎜ 3600 s ⎟ ⎟
T = (450 − 85) F exp ⎜
o ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎟ + 85 o F
⎜ ⎛ lbm ⎞⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎟
⎜ 708 ⎜ ft 3 ⎟ ⎜ 0.03 lbm ⋅ R ⎟ (0.00278ft) ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎠
= 97.3 o F Answer
3 - 44
3-41 A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device which relies on quantum mechanical effects.
Thermocouples are constructed of two thin wires of different metals welded together to form a
spherical bead. Consider a thermocouple 0.1 mm in diameter which is suddenly immersed in ice
water. Ideally, the thermocouple bead should immediately drop to 0oC, but in practice, there is a
time delay. The heat transfer coefficient between the thermocouple and the ice water is 32
W/m2·oC. The density, specific heat, and thermal conductivity of the bead are 8925 kg/m3, 385
J/kg·K, and 23 W/m·K, respectively. Assuming no conduction in the thermocouple wires and an
initial thermocouple temperature of 25oC, estimate the time required for the bead to reach 0.1oC.
Approach:
lumped system approximation to determine the
unknown time.
Assumptions:
2. There is no conduction in the thermocouple
wires.
3. The thermophysical properties of the
thermocouple are constant.
Solution:
Check the Biot number to see if the lumped-system approximation is valid. The characteristic length is
4 3
πr
V 3 r
Lchar = = =
A 4π r 2 3
0.05 mm ⎛ 1m ⎞ −5
Lchar = ⎜ ⎟ = 1.67 × 10 m
3 ⎝ 1000 mm ⎠
The Biot number is given by
⎛ W ⎞
32
hLchar ⎜⎝ m 2 ⋅ K ⎟⎠
(1.67×10-5m )
Bi = = = 2.32 × 10−5
k W
23
m⋅K
Since Bi 0.1, the lumped system approximation is valid. The time to reach a specified temperature is
− ρ cP L ⎛ T (t ) − T f ⎞
t= ln ⎜ ⎟⎟
h ⎜ T −T
⎝ i f ⎠
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞ −5
⎜ 8925 3 ⎟ ⎜ 385 ⎟ (1.67 × 10 m)
⎝ m ⎠⎝ kg ⋅ K ⎠ ⎛ 0.1-0 ⎞
t=− ln ⎜ ⎟
W ⎝ 25-0 ⎠
32 2 o
m ⋅ C
= 9.88 s Answer
3 - 45
3-42 A long uninsulated Nichrome wire of diameter 1/16 in. is cooled convectively by air at 70oF. The
heat transfer coefficient is 6.6 Btu/h·ft2·oF. Current runs through the wire, generating heat at a rate
of 1.9 W per foot.
a. Find the steady state temperature of the wire.
b. Assume the wire is initially at 70oF. After the current is turned on, how long will it take for
the wire temperature to rise to 90% of the difference between its initial temperature and its
steady-state temperature?
Approach:
For part a, set heat generated equal to heat convected and
solve for temperature. For part b, use the lumped system
approximation. Start from the first law and include both
generation and convection in the heat term. The first law
becomes a differential equation which must be solved to find
the required time.
Assumptions:
1. The wire is very long so that there is no conduction down
the wire.
2. The specific heat and thermal conductivity are constant.
3. The heat transfer coefficient is uniform over the surface of
the thermocouple and independent of temperature.
Solution:
a) In steady state, the heat generated equals the heat convected from the wire, or
Q gen = hA (Ts − T f )
For a 1-ft length of wire
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1ft ⎞
A = π dL = π ⎜ in. ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (1ft) = 0.0164 ft
2
⎝ 16 ⎠ ⎝ 12 in. ⎠
Solving for surface temperature
⎛ Btu ⎞
3.41
⎛ W ⎞⎜ h ⎟
⎜ 1.9 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ft ⎠ ⎜ 1 W ⎟
Q gen ⎝ ⎠
Ts − T f = = + 70D F = 130 o F Answer
hA ⎛ Btu ⎞ 2
⎜ 6.6 ⎟ (0.0164 ft )
⎝ h ⋅ ft 2 ⋅ o F ⎠
b) Check to see if the lumped system approximation is valid by finding the Biot number for the wire.
The characteristic length is
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1ft ⎞
in.
V π r L r ⎜⎝ 16 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 12 in. ⎟⎠
2
Lchar = = = = = 0.0013ft
A 2π rL 2 4
⎛ Btu ⎞
6.6 ⎟ (0.0013ft)
hLchar ⎜⎝ h ⋅ ft 2 ⋅ o F ⎠
Bi = = = 0.00125
K ⎛ Btu ⎞
⎜ 6.9 ⎟
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ o F ⎠
where the thermal conductivity of Nichrome is found in Table B-2. The Biot number is less than 0.1;
therefore, the lumped system approximation is reasonable. Apply the first law to the wire
dU
= Q −W
dt
By the lumped system approximation, the entire wire is at the same temperature so that internal energy is
only a function of time and not a function of space. The heat term includes the heat generated and the
3 - 46
heat convected from the wire. Since we account for the current in the wire as generated heat, we set
W = 0. With these simplifications, the first law becomes
dT
mc p = Qgen − hA(T − T f )
dt
Separating variables
dT dt
=

Qgen − hA(T − T f ) mc p
Integrating both sides
T dT t dt
∫Ti Q − hA (T − T ) = ∫0 mc p
gen f
Let ξ = Q gen − hA(T − T f )

dξ = −hAdT
Using these substitutions on the left hand side and integrating the right hand side produces
T dξ t
∫Ti ( −hAξ ) = mc p
hAt
ln ξ =−
T
Ti
mc p
Evaluating at the limits:
hAt
ln ⎡⎣Q gen − hA(T − T f ) ⎤⎦ = −
T
Ti mcP
⎡ Q gen − hA(T − T f ) ⎤ hAt
ln ⎢
⎥=−
⎣⎢ gen
Q − hA(Ti − T )
f ⎦⎥ mc p
We are asked for the time t at which T = 0.9 Ts = (0.9)(130) = 117 o F . Solving for t
mc p ⎡ Q gen − hA(T − T f ) ⎤
t=− ln ⎢ ⎥
hA ⎣⎢ Q gen − hA(Ti − T f ) ⎦⎥
If L is the length of wire ( L =1ft)
ρ Lπ r 2 c p ⎡ Q gen − hA(T − T f ) ⎤
t=− ln ⎢ ⎥
h2π rL ⎢⎣ Q gen − hA(Ti − T f ) ⎥⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1ft ⎞
A = 2π rL = 2π ⎜ in. ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (1ft) = 0.0164 ft
2
⎝ 32 ⎠⎝ 12in. ⎠
using the density and specific heat of Nichrome from Table B-2,
⎧ ⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎫
⎪ ⎜ 3.41 h ⎟ ⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎪
⎛ lbm ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1ft ⎞⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎪1.9W ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ 6.6 2 D ⎟
(0.0164 ft 2 )(117 − 70) o F ⎪
− ⎜ 524 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ in. ⎜ ⎪ ⎜ 1W ⎟ ⎝ h ⋅ ft F ⎠ ⎪
⎟⎜ 0.1 ⎟
⎝ ft ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 12 in. ⎠⎝ lbm ⋅D R ⎠ ⎪ ⎝ ⎠ ⎪
t= × ln ⎨ ⎬
⎛ Btu ⎞ ⎪ (1.9)(3.41) − (6.6)(0.0164)(70 − 70) ⎪
⎜ 6.6 2 o ⎟
2
⎪ ⎪
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎩ ⎭
t = 0.0158 h = 56.9 s Answer
3 - 47
3-43 A copper sphere 3 cm in diameter is painted black so that it has an emissivity very close to 1. The
sphere is heated to 700oC and then placed in a vacuum chamber whose walls are very cold. How
long will it take for the sphere to cool to 300oC? Use the lumped system model.
Approach:
Calculate the Biot number to see if the lumped system
approximation is valid. Then use the first law to express the
energy balance is terms of temperatures. It will be necessary to
integrate to find the final temperature.
Assumptions:
2. The painted copper is a black body.
3. The thermal conductivity and specific heat of the sphere are
constant.
Solution:
Check the Biot number to see if the lumped-system approximation is valid. The radiation heat transfer
coefficient is (with Ts = 700 + 273 = 973K and Tsurr = 300 + 273 = 573K )
⎛ W ⎞
hrad = εσ (Ts + Tsurr )(Ts 2 + Tsurr 2 ) = (1) ⎜ 5.67 × 10−8 2 4 ⎟ ( 973 + 573) K ( 9732 + 5732 ) K 2
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
W
hrad = 112 2
m ⋅K
The representative length for use in the Biot number is
( 3.0 cm ) ⎛⎜
4 3 1m ⎞
πr ⎟
Lchar = =
V 3
=
r
= ⎝ 100 cm ⎠
= .005 m
A 4π r 2 3 (2)(3)
The thermal conductivity of copper at the average temperature of 500oC is found in Table A-2. With this
⎛ W ⎞
112 2 ⎟ (0.005 m)
hLchar ⎜⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
Bi = = = 0.00145
k ⎛ W ⎞
⎜ 386 ⎟
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
Since Bi 0.1 , the lumped-system approximation is valid. From the first law:
dU
= Q −W
dt
Since W = 0
dT
mc p = σ AT 4
dt
Separating variables
T dT t σ Adt
∫Ti T 4 = ∫ 0 mc p
Integrating both sides
T
T −3 σ At
=
( ) T mc p
− 3
i
Evaluating at the limits

1 1 3σ At
3
− 3 =−
T Ti mc p
Solving for t
3 - 48
4
−mc p ⎛ 1 − ρ π r 3c p ⎛
1 ⎞ 3 1 1 ⎞
t= ⎜ − ⎟= ⎜ − ⎟
3σ A ⎝ T 3 Ti 3 ⎠ 3σ ( 4π r 2 ) ⎝ T 3 Ti 3 ⎠
which simplifies to
− ρ rc p ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
t= ⎜ 3− 3⎟
9σ ⎝ T Ti ⎠
Using properties of pure copper from Table A-2 at the average temperature of 500 K,
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ .03 ⎞ ⎛ J ⎞
− ⎜ 8933 3 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ m ⎜ 385 ⎟
⎝ m ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ kg ⋅ K ⎠ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
t= ⎢ − ⎥
⎛ W ⎞ ⎢⎣ ( 300 + 273) ( 700 + 273) ⎥⎦
3 3
9 ⎜ 5.67 × 10-8 2 4 ⎟
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
= 428s = 7.13 min Answer
Comments:
The radiative heat transfer coefficient changes as the sphere cools, since it depends on temperature.
Evaluating hrad at the final sphere temperature of 300oC gives a Biot number of 0.000553. Thus the Biot
number is small enough to justify using the lumped system approximation throughout the entire cooling
process.
3 - 49
3-44 The roof of a house is partially covered with snow. The roof is made from plywood covered with
shingles (ksh = 0.4 Btu/h·ft·oF). In the attic space, the heat transfer coefficient between the air and
the plywood is 3.1 Btu/h·ft2·oF. The heat transfer coefficient over the snow and the exposed
shingles on the outside of the roof is 7.6 Btu/h·ft2·oF. Assume the snow has a density of 12 lbm/ft3
and it covers 64% of the roof area. Calculate the thermal resistance from the attic air to the
outside air for the 30-ft by 60-ft roof panel shown below.
Approach:
Use the thermal resistance
analogy, adding resistances in
parallel and series as necessary.
Assumptions:
1. The roof is very large so edge
effects may be neglected.
2. The plywood and shingles
are isothermal.
3. The heat transfer coefficient
is uniform and independent of
temperature.
constant.
Solution:
A thermal resistance model for transport from the attic air at Tin to the ambient air at Tout is:
The area of the roof panel is

A = ( 30 ft )( 60 ft ) = 1800 ft 2
With properties from Tables B-4 and B-5, the resistances are
1 1
Ro = = = 1.79 × 10−4 ( h ⋅ o F ) ( Btu )
hA ( )
3.1Btu ( h ⋅ ft ⋅ o F ) (1800 ft 2 )
⎛ 0.75 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ft
R1 =
L
= ⎝ 12 ⎠ = 4.96 × 10−4 ( h ⋅ o F ) Btu
kA ( 0.07 Btu ( h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ) ) (1800 ft 2 )
⎛ 0.5 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
R2 =
L
= ⎝ 12 ⎠ = 5.79 × 10−5 ( h ⋅ o F ) Btu
kA ( 0.4 )(1800 )
3 - 50
⎛ 3⎞
⎜ ⎟
R3 =
L
= ⎝ 12 ⎠ = 48.2 × 10−4 h ⋅ o F Btu
kA ( 0.045 )(1800 )( 0.64 )
1 1
R4 = = = 1.14 × 10−4 h ⋅ o F Btu
hA ( 7.6 )(1800 )( 0.64 )
1 1
R5 = = = 2.03 × 10−4 h ⋅ o F Btu
hA ( 7.6 )(1800 )( 0.36 )
Adding resistances in series and parallel gives
R ( R + R4 )
Rtot = Ro + R1 + R2 + 5 3 = 9.28 × 10−4 h ⋅ o F Btu Answer
R5 + R3 + R4
3 - 51
3-45 A dining area has a glass ceiling built of square units. Each unit consists of two glass panes
supported by a steel frame, as shown below. The space between the panes contains a gas. The heat
transfer coefficients, as shown on the figure, are
h1 = 4.11 W/m2·oC (inside the room)
h2 = 3.63 W/m2·oC (between the panes)
h3 = 7.45 W/m2·oC (outside the room)
The air in the room is at 26oC and the exterior air is at 15oC. The glass has a thermal conductivity
of 1.4 W/m·K and the steel has a thermal conductivity of 37.7 W/m·K. Using dimensions on the
figure, find the total heat loss through one unit.
Approach:
Assumptions:
1. All heat flow is perpendicular
to the ceiling.
2. The heat transfer coefficients
are uniform and independent
of temperature.
constant.
Solution:
The heat transport may be modeled with the
resistance network shown, where
R1 – Convection on inside steel surface

R2 – Conduction in the steel
R3 – Convection on outside steel surface
R4 – Convection on inside glass surface
R5 – Conduction in the glass
R6 – Convection in interior gas space
R7 – Convection of outside glass surface
The areas needed for the calculation are

A1 = (0.73m) 2 = 0.533m 2
A2 = ⎣⎡ 0.73 + 2 ( 0.041) ⎦⎤ − A1
2
= 0.1264 m 2

1 1 °C
R1 = = =1.92
h1 A2 ⎛ W ⎞
⎜ 4.11 2 o ⎟ ( 0.1264 m )
2 W
⎝ m ⋅ C⎠
L 0.084 m °C
R2 = = = 0.0176
k2 A2 ⎛ W ⎞ W
⎜ 37.7 o ⎟ ( 0.1264 ) m
2
⎝ m ⋅C ⎠
3 - 52
1 1 °C
R3 = = =1.06
h3 A2 ( 7.45 )( 0.1264 ) W
1 1 °C
R4 = = = 0.457
h1 A1 ( 4.11)( 0.533) W
L 0.084 °C
R5 = = = 0.00804
k1 A1 (1.4 )( 0.533) W
1 1 °C
R6 = = = 0.517
h2 A1 ( 3.63)( 0.533) W
1 1 °C
R7 = = = 0.252
h3 A1 ( 7.45 )( 0.533) W
We now combine the three resistances on the left leg of the circuit into
°C
R8 = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3.003
W
We also combine the resistances on the right leg to get
°C
R9 = R4 + 2 ( R5 + R6 ) + R7 =1.76
W
The parallel combination of the last two resistances is
RR
RT = 8 9 =
( 3)(1.76 ) =1.11 °C
R8 + R9 3 + 1.76 W
Finally, the rate of heat loss may be determined as
∆T ( 26 −15 ) C
o
Q = = = 9.92 W Answer
Rtot °C
1.11
W
3 - 53
3-46 A man is wearing a shirt and a jacket which is unzipped in front. His skin temperature is 70oF. The
convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients on the outside of the jacket and exposed part of the shirt
are estimated as 0.8 and 0.43 Btu/h·ft2·oF respectively. Model the man’s torso as a cylinder of diameter 1.3 ft
and height 2 ft. Assume the shirt is a layer of cloth of thickness 0.05 in. with ks = 0.12 Btu/h·ft·R. The jacket
is 0.4-in. thick with kj = 0.094 Btu/h·ft·R. Assume the jacket covers half the man’s torso. The surroundings
are at 45oF. Calculate the total rate of heat loss from the man’s torso. Neglect the thermal resistance due to
any air layers between the shirt and the skin, or the shirt and the jacket.
Approach:
Assumptions:
1. The resistance due to trapped
air layers is small.
are uniform and independent
of temperature.
constant.
4. The jacket and shirt are gray
and diffuse.
Solution:
The radii that will be needed, as shown in the
figure above, are
r1 = 0.65ft
0.05
r2 = 0.65 + = 0.65416 ft
12
0.4
r3 = r2 + = 0.6875ft R1 – conduction in the shirt
12
A thermal resistance network is shown to the R2 – convection and radiation from the exposed part
right. The resistances are: of the shirt
R3 – conduction in the jacket
R4 – convection and radiation from the jacket
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 0.65416 ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟
R1 = ⎝ 1 ⎠ = ⎝ 0.65 ⎠
r
= 0.00424 R ⋅ h Btu
2π Lk s 2π ( 2 ft )( 0.12 Btu h ⋅ ft ⋅ R )
1 1
R2 = =
π D2 L ⎞
htot A
( hrad + hconv ) ⎛⎜
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
where D2 is the diameter at radius r2. Substituting values
1
R2 = = 0.198 R ⋅ h Btu
( 0.43 + 0.8)(π )( 0.65416 )( 2 )
In evaluating the conduction in the jacket, we recognize that the jacket covers only half the body, so the
area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow is only half that of a cylindrical shell. The resistance to
conduction in the jacket is, therefore, twice, the resistance of a cylindrical shell (less area implies higher
resistance). This resistance is
3 - 54
⎡ ⎛ r3 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 0.687 ⎞ ⎤
⎢ ln ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ ln ⎜ 0.65416 ⎟ ⎥
R3 = 2 ⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥ = 2 ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥ = 0.0842 R ⋅ h Btu
r
⎢ 2π Lk ⎥ ⎢ 2π ( 2 )( 0.094 ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦
1 1 1
R4 = = = = 0.188 R ⋅ h Btu
π D3 L ( 0.43 + 0.8 ) π ( 0.687 ) 2
htot A
( hvrad + hcon )
2
The thermal circuit may now be solved as
R ( R + R4 ) 0.198 ( 0.0842 + 0.188 )
RT = R1 + 2 3 = 0.00424 + = 0.119 R ⋅ h Btu
R2 + R3 + R4 0.198 + 0.0842 + 0.188
The rate of heat transfer from the man is
∆T 70 − 45
Q = = = 210 Btu h Answer
R 0.119
3 - 55
3-47 The inside wall of a machine is covered with acoustic tile 3.5 cm thick for noise abatement. The
tile increases the thermal resistance of the wall, and, as a result, the interior air temperature rises to
unacceptable levels. An engineer suggests drilling holes in the tile and welding steel rods 3.5 cm
long and 1.8 cm in diameter to the wall, so as to increase its effective thermal conductivity, as
shown in the figure. The rods are in a square array on 10 cm centers. The machine dissipates 150
W per square meter of wall area through its outer wall. The heat transfer coefficients on the
interior and exterior are 4.6 and 11.4 W/m2·K respectively. If the exterior air temperature is 25oC,
calculate the interior air temperature with and without the rods.
Approach:
Assumptions:
1. The inside wall of the machine is
very large so that edge effects
may be neglected.
2. The steel wall is isothermal.
Solution:
Select a “unit cell” of wall which contains one rod, as
shown to the right. Defining q as the heat transfer per
unit area and A3 as the surface area of the unit cell, the
rate of heat transfer through the unit cell is
⎛ ⎛ 1m 2 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ (10 cm)(10 cm) ⎜ 4 2 ⎟ ⎟
⎛ 150 W ⎞ ⎜ ⎝ 10 cm ⎠ ⎟ = 1.5 W
Q = qA3 = ⎜ 2 ⎟⎜
⎝ 1m ⎠ ⎜ 1m 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
Note that there are 100 of these “unit cells” in 1 square
meter. Assuming that the steel wall is isothermal, the
thermal resistance network is
Ro – inside convective resistance R3 – conduction in the steel wall

R1 – conduction through the tile R4 – outside convective resistance
R2 – conduction through the rod
3 - 56
The areas across which heat flows are:
⎛ 1 m2 ⎞
A3 = (10 cm)(10 cm) ⎜ 4 2 ⎟ = 0.01m 2
⎝ 10 cm ⎠
A2 = π r 2 = π (0.009 m) 2 = 2.54 × 10−4 m 2
A1 = A3 − A2 = 0.00975 m 2
With these areas, the resistances may be calculated as:
1 1 K
RD = = = 21.7
hin A3 ⎛ W ⎞ 2 W
⎜ 4.6 2 ⎟ (0.01m )
⎝ m K ⎠
L1 0.035 m K
R1 = = = 61.0
k1 A1 ⎛ W ⎞ 2 W
⎜ 0.058 ⎟ (0.00975 m )
⎝ m ⋅ K ⎠
L1 0.035 m K
R2 = = = 2.27
k2 A2 ⎛ W ⎞ −4 W
⎟ (2.54 × 10 m )
2
⎜ 60.5
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
L 0.0075 m K
R3 = 2 = = 0.0124
k2 A3 ⎛ W ⎞ 2 W
⎜ 60.5 ⎟ (0.01m )
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
1 1 K
R4 = = = 8.77
hout A3 ⎛ W ⎞ 2 W
⎜ 11.4 2 ⎟ (0.01m )
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
where the thermal conductivity of steel and acoustic tile are found in Tables A-2 and A-5, respectively.
For the parallel combination of R1 and R2:
RR
R5 = 1 2 =
( 61.9 )( 2.27 ) = 2.19 K
R1 + R2 61.9 + 2.27 W
This resistance now combines in series with the other three resistances, i.e.,
Rtot = RD + R5 + R3 + R4
K
= 21.7 + 2.19 + 0.0124 + 8.77 = 32.7
W
The basic rate equation is
∆T Tin − Tout
Q = =
Rtot Rtot
Solving for Tin,

Tin = Tout + QRtot
Substituting values:
⎛ 32.7 K ⎞
Tin = 25 o C + 1.5 W ⎜ ⎟ = 74.1 C
o
with rods Answer
⎝ W ⎠
To find the interior temperature without the steel rods, repeat the analysis, but set the thermal
conductivity of the rods to that of acoustic tile. The result is
Tin = 161 o C without rods Answer
Comments:
The rods make a big difference. The engineer might also think about thinner tiles.
3 - 57
3-48 In a certain localized area, the earth can be approximately represented by areas of stone, soil, and
iron ore, as shown below. Using data on the figure and assuming the geometry is two-dimensional,
find the “effective” thermal conductivity in the vertical direction. This is the conductivity that the
earth would have if it were all made of the same material.
Approach:
parallel and series as
necessary.
Assumptions:
1. All heat flow is in the
vertical direction.
constant.
Solution:
The heat transport may be modeled with the resistance network
shown. For the soil (for a 1 ft. depth of earth),
L 4 ft h⋅R
R1 = = = 2.42
kA ⎛ Btu ⎞ Btu
⎜ 0.3 ⎟ (1.5 + 2.5 + 1.5 ) ft (1ft )
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ⎠
For the iron core,
L 4 ft
R2 = = = 0.32
kA ⎛ Btu ⎞
⎜ 25 ⎟( 0.25 + 0.25 ) ( )
ft 1ft
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ⎠
For the stone,
L 0.5ft
R3 = = = 0.052
kA ⎛ Btu ⎞
⎜ 1.6 ⎟ ( 6 ) ft (1ft )
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ R ⎠
The total resistance may be calculated as
RR
Rtot = R3 + 1 2 = 0.052 +
( 2.42 )( 0.32 ) = 0.335 h ⋅ R
R1 + R2 2.42 + 0.32 Btu
The effective thermal conductivity must satisfy

L
Rtot =
keff A
L 4.5 Btu
Therefore keff = = = 2.24 Answer
Rtot A ( 0.335)( 6 )(1) h ⋅ ft ⋅ R
3 - 58
3-49 A drinking glass with an outside diameter of 3.5 in. and a wall thickness of 0.125 in. is filled to
the height of 6.2 in. with a mixture of soda and ice. The glass is placed in an insulated soft rubber
sleeve 0.75 in thick. (cut-away view shown in figure) The exposed top surface of the drink is at
32°F and gains heat by natural convection and radiation from the surroundings, which are at 85°F.
On the top surface, the heat transfer coefficients for convection and radiation are 1.6 Btu/h·ft2·oF
and 0.7 Btu/h·ft2·oF, respectively. The natural convective heat transfer coefficient between the
soda-ice mixture and the inside wall of the glass is 57 Btu/h·ft2·oF. On the outside of the rubber
sleeve, the heat transfer coefficients for convection and radiation are 2.3 Btu/h·ft2·oF and 0.85
Btu/h·ft2·oF, respectively. Assume no heat is transferred through the bottom of the glass. The
initial mass of ice in the drink is 0.09 lbm. The latent heat of fusion of water is 143.5 Btu/lbm.
Assuming a steady-state temperature profile in the glass wall and rubber, calculate the time
required for the ice to completely melt. (Assume no one takes a sip from the glass.)
Approach:
Assumptions:
are uniform and independent of
temperature.
constant.
3. The bottom of the glass is
4. Steady-state conditions prevail.
5. The glass is a cylinder (not
slightly conical as shown).
Solution:
The heat transport may be modeled with the resistance network shown above. The resistances in this
circuit are defined as
R0 – Convection between the soda and the glass
R1 – Conduction through the glass (not shown actually within the glass due to space constraints).
R2 – Conduction in the rubber sleeve
R3 – Convection on the outside of the rubber sleeve
R4 – Radiation on the outside of the rubber sleeve
R5 – Convection on the top of the soda
R6 – Radiation on the top of the soda
To evaluate these resistances, the following radii will be needed (see the figure):
3.5 − 2 (.125 )
r0 = =1.625 in.
2
3.5
r1 = =1.75 in.
2
3.5
r2 = + 0.75 = 2.5 in.
2
To calculate R0, we need the lateral surface area of the inside of the glass
A1 = π D0 L = π ⎡⎣3.5 − 2 (.125 ) ⎤⎦ ( 6.2 ) = 63.3 in.2
3 - 59
⎛ in.2 ⎞
1⎜144 2 ⎟
1 ⎝ ft ⎠ h ⋅ oF
R0 = = = 0.04
h1 A1 ⎛ Btu ⎞
2 o ⎟(
63.3 in.2 )
Btu
⎜ 57
⎝ h ⋅ ft ⋅ F ⎠
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 1.75 ⎞
ln ⎜ 1 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1.625 ⎠ = 0.0285 h ⋅ F
o
R1 = ⎝ 0 ⎠ =
r
2π Lk ⎛ 6.2 ⎞ Btu
2π ⎜ ⎟ ( 0.8 )
⎝ 12 ⎠
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 2.5 ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ ln ⎜ ⎟ h ⋅ oF
R2 = ⎝ 1 ⎠ = ⎝ 1.75 ⎠
r
=1.465
2π Lk ⎛ 6.2 ⎞ Btu
2π ⎜ ⎟ ( 0.075 )
⎝ 12 ⎠
To find R3 and R4, we need the outer area of the rubber sleeve
A2 = π D2 L = π ( 3.5 + 0.75 + 0.75 )( 6.2 ) = 97.4 in.2
1 1(144 ) h ⋅ oF
R3 = = = 0.643
h2 A2 ( 2.3)( 97.4 ) Btu
R4 =
1
=
(144 ) =1.74 h ⋅ o F
h3 A2 ( 0.85 )( 97.4 ) Btu
To calculate R5, we need the area of the exposed top surface of the soda
A3 = π r02 = π (1.625 ) = 8.30 in.2
2
144 h ⋅ oF
R5 = =10.8
(1.6 )(8.30 ) Btu
1 144 h ⋅ oF
R6 = = = 24.8
h5 A3 ( 0.7 )( 8.30 ) Btu
Combine parallel resistances and rearrange the circuit as
shown. R7 is the parallel combination of R3 and R4, so
1 1 1
= + → R7 = 0.469
R7 R3 R4
Similarly, R8 is the parallel combination of R5 and R6, so
1 1 1
= + → R8 = 7.54
R8 R5 R6
1 1 1 h ⋅ oF
= + =1.58
Rtot ( R0 + R1 + R2 + R7 ) R8 Btu
∆T ( 85 − 32 ) F
o
Btu
Q = = = 33.5
Rtot h ⋅ oF h
1.58
Btu
⎛ Btu ⎞
⎜ 143.5 ⎟ ( 0.09 lbm )
Therefore t = ⎝
lbm ⎠
= 0.386 h = 23.1 min Answer
Btu
33.5
h
3 - 60
3-50 A reacting gas is contained in a cubical tank of side length 33 cm. The gas is stirred by a
paddlewheel which rotates at 60 rpm under a torque of 37 J. The convective heat transfer
coefficient on the interior wall of the tank is 62 W/m2·K and, on the exterior, the combined
convective/radiative heat transfer coefficient is 7 W/m2·K. The tank wall is 0.5 cm thick and is
made of AISI 347 stainless steel. The bottom of the tank rests on a highly-insulating surface. Due
to chemical reaction, 180 W of heat are generated in the tank. The ambient temperature is 25oC.
Find the steady-state temperature of the gases in the tank.
Approach:
Apply the first law choosing the gas to be
the system under consideration. Add the
thermal resistance due to convection on the
inside of the tank, conduction through the
wall of the tank, and convection on the
outside of the tank. Use this total resistance
to determine the heat removed.
Assumptions:
1. The bottom of the tank is perfectly
insulated.
2. The gas is well stirred and therefore
isothermal
Solution:
From the first law
dE
= Q −W
dt
In steady state
0 = Q − W
Taking the system to be the gas in the tank, the first law becomes
0 = Q gen + Q lost − W
W is due to shaft work. It is
W = −τω
⎛ rev ⎞ ⎛ 2π rad ⎞ ⎛ 1min ⎞
W = (−37 J) ⎜ 60 ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ 1 rev ⎠ ⎝ 60 s ⎠
= −233W
This is negative because work is being done on the system (i.e. the gas)
The heat lost is
−(T1 − T2 )
Q lost =
Rtot
where T1 is the reacting gas temperature, T2 is the ambient temperature, and Rtot is the total thermal
resistance. Note that T > T and Q must be negative since Q is leaving the system. The convective
1 2 lost lost
resistance on the inside wall is

1
R1 =
h1 A
The area of the five exposed sides is
A = 5(0.33)(0.33)m 2 = 0.545 m 2
3 - 61
1 K
R1 = = 0.0296
⎛ W ⎞ W
⎜ 62 2 ⎟ (0.545)
⎝ m K⎠
The conduction resistance is (using the thermal conductivity of stainless steel from Table A-2)
L 0.005 m K
R2 = = = 0.000647
kA ⎛ W ⎞
⎟ ( 0.545 m )
2 W
⎜ 14.2
⎝ m⋅K ⎠
The exterior convection / radiation resistance is
1 1 K
R3 = = = 0.262
h2 A ⎛ W ⎞
⎟ ( 0.545 m )
2 W
⎜7 2
⎝ m ⋅K ⎠
Note that the exterior resistance is the important one, that is, the one that plays the biggest role in
determining temperature. The same area has been used for both interior and exterior because the wall is
thin and these areas and not very different. There is no net radiation on the inside walls because all the
walls are at the same temperature. The total resistance is
Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3
K
= 0.0296 + 0.000647 + 0.262 = 0.293
W
The heat lost is
(T − 25) C o
Q lost = − 1
K
0.293
W
Substituting this in the first law
0 = Q + Q + −W
gen lost
(T1 − 25) o C
0 = 180 W − − (−233 W)
K
0.293
W
Solving for T1 results in
T1 = 146 o C Answer
3 - 62
3-51 A piston-cylinder assembly is filled with carbon dioxide gas at 250oC, 390 kPa. The piston and
the curved walls of the cylinder are perfectly insulated. The bottom wall is maintained at 325oC
by an external heater. Initially, the piston is 11 cm above the bottom of the cylinder, which has an
inside diameter of 6 cm. As heat is transferred by convection to the CO2 from the cylinder base, a
control system lifts the piston so as to keep the average CO2 temperature constant. If the piston
rises 3 cm in 11 seconds, determine the convective heat transfer coefficient.
Approach:
Use the first law to calculate the heat transferred
during this process. Then use the convective rate
equation to find the heat transfer coefficient.
Assumptions:
1. The CO2 behaves like an ideal gas under these
conditions.
2. The piston and side walls of the cylinder are
Solution:
Let the system be the CO2 in the cylinder. Find the mass of CO2 from the ideal gas law:
⎛ 103 Pa ⎞ ⎛ kg ⎞
⎟ π (0.03m) (0.11m) ⎜ 44.01
2
390 kPa ⎜ ⎟
PVM ⎝ 1 kPa ⎠ ⎝ kmol ⎠
m= = = 0.00123kg
RT ⎛ kJ ⎞
⎜ 8.314 ⎟ (250 + 273)K
⎝ kmol ⋅ K ⎠
The work done in an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas is
⎛ kJ ⎞
(0.00123kg) ⎜ 8.314 ⎟ (250 + 273)K ⎡ (π r 2 )(0.11)cm ⎤
mRT V2 ⎝ kmol ⋅K ⎠
W= ln = ln ⎢ ⎥ = −29.3 J
⎛ kg ⎞ ⎛ 1kJ ⎞ ⎣ (π r )(0.14)cm ⎦
2
M V1
⎜ 44.01 ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ kmol ⎠ ⎝ 1000 J ⎠
From the first law
∆U = Q − W
cV ∆T = Q − W
Because there is no temperature change, ∆T = 0 , and
Q = W = −29.3 J
Heat is negative because it is being added to the system. The convective heat transfer from the base of
the cylinder is
Q c = hA(Tw − Tg )
where Tw is the base wall temperature, and Tg is the CO2 (gas) temperature.
Q −29.3J
Q = = = −2.66 W
∆t 11 s
By common practice, Q c , the convective heat transfer, is positive. Therefore
Q = −Q
c
Q c 2.66 W
h= =
A (Tw − Tg ) π (.03 m) 2 (325 − 250) o C
W
h = 12.5 Answer
m2 ⋅ K
3 - 63

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3-1 An arctic explorer builds a temporary shelter from wind-pack snow.

The shelter is roughly

(101kPa ) ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ π (1.5 ) m3 ⎞⎟ ( 28.97 kg kmol )

∆t =0.45 h = 27 min Answer

( 22.2 lbm ) ⎛⎜ 0.171

For greater accuracy, continue the iteration. At the last iteration,

D = 2r = 1.40 × 109 m Answer

The surrounding temperature is

By trial and error or using an equation-solving program

Ts = 357 K = 84.2 o C Answer

The heat removed by convection is

By the first law,

Tmax = 38.1 o C Answer

Solving for the window temperature, Twin, yields

Solving for T2,

To find the thickness of the second layer, L2 , use

In summary, the most economical layup which satisfies all constraints is

The convective resistance on the interior is

The thermal conductivity of pure copper is found in Table A-2

Let ξ = Q gen − hA(T − T f )

t = 0.0158 h = 56.9 s Answer

Evaluating at the limits

The area of the roof panel is

R1 – Convection on inside steel surface

The areas needed for the calculation are

The thermal resistances are

Ro – inside convective resistance R3 – conduction in the steel wall

The effective thermal conductivity must satisfy

resistance on the inside wall is

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Let ξ = Q gen − hA(T − T f )