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Pipingflexibilityanalysis 1 PDF
Pipingflexibilityanalysis 1 PDF
Conducted by
MATHIMITATION TECHNOLOGIES PRIVATE LIMITED
MUMBA1
For
LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED
MUMBA1
PROGRAMME
TUESDAY, 23.07.2002
0930 - 1100 Thermal Stress Analysis TNG
1115- 1245 Thermal Stress Analysis TNG
1330 - 1515 Thermal Stress Analysis TNG
1515 - 1645 Thermal Stress Analysis TNG
WEDNESDAY, 24.07.2002
0930- 1100 Slw Demo ASP
1115- 1245 Slw Demo ASP
1330 - 1515 Expansion Joints TNG
1515 - 1645 Expansion Joints TNG
THURSDAY, 25.07.2002
0930 - 1100 Dynamic Analysis GB
1115- 1245 Dynamic Analysis GB
1330 - 1515 Dynamic Analysis GB
1515 - 1645 Dynamic Analysis GB
FRIDAY, 26.072002
0930 - 1100 Problem Solving GB
1115- 1245 Problem Solving GB
1330 - 1515 Case Studies ASPIASM
1515 - 1645 Case Studies ASPIASM
maximum and minimum i;%clps! stiesszs. ail; ihen calculate S , S and .r and some
The maximum shear stress is important to I 2 rn
r
A
r, I
8
i
8
i
8 .
i
,
Total load
A Plnned Support
+
jJ Fixed Support
-.-
Fixed Support
Fig. 6: Pointed Load
As pointed earlier, a pipe designed to If the material has a reported yield stress of
withstand primary loads and to avoid 57000, how were stresses far more than that
catastrophic failure may fail after a sufficient number created during fatigue tests on the
amount of time due to secondary cyclic load specimen as reported in the above table? This
causing fatigue failure. The secondary loads question is very common and natural for all
are often cyclic in nature. The number of those who do stress analysis and observe
cycles to failure is a property of the material of reported stresses at various nodes of a piping
construction just as yield stress is. While yield system which are often far beyond the yield
stress is cardinal to the design under primary stress. In the stress-strain curve generated for
sustained loads, this number of cycles to the specimen using uniaxial tensile load, such
failure is the corresponding material property a possibility would not be seen because for
important in design under cyclic loads aimed any stress more than the yield stress, the
at ensuring that the failure does not take place material would seem to strain more and more
within a certain period for which the system is without allowing a possibility of significantly
to be designed. increasing the stress further. This question can
be answered as follows.
While yield stress is measured by subjecting a
specimen to uniaxial tensile load, fatigue test One must always remember that stresses are
is camed out on a similar specimen subjected always derived rather than actually measured
to cycles of uniaxial tensile and compressive quantities. What is actually measured is the
loads of certain amplitude, i.e. magnitude of load or the strain. The stresses are either
the tensile and compressive loads. Normally reported as applied load divided by the
the tests are camed out with zero mean load. original load-bearing cross-section or the
This means, that the specimen is subjected to a values corresponding to the observed strain as
gradually increasing load leading to a noted on the elastic line's intersection with the
maximum tensile load of W, then the load is strain vertical. What the later gives is the
removed gradually till it passes through zero hypothetical stress that would have been
MR. T. N. GOPINATH
DATA TO BE COLLECTED TO START DESIGN
=m,,,.,n.. . ... ,
-,/T
I A I I A Anchor
nM
B
'1 6
Fig. 1.1
i: 8
6"@
Fig. 1.2
Intermediate Anchor
A3 LINE STOP
---- ---------_--- ---I
E I
2.0 THE DETERMINATION OF SUPPORT LOCATIONS
The support location is dependent on the pipe size, piping
configuration, the location of heavy valves and specialties
and the structure available for support. The simplest method
of estimating the support load and pipe stress due to weight
is to model the pipe as a beam loaded uniformly along the
length, the length of the beam equal to distance between
supports.
There are two possible ways to model the pipe,
depending upon the end conditions - the simply supported
(pinned end) beam or the fixed end beam.
For a simply supported beam , the maximum stress
and support loads are.
where,
%ax = maximum bending moment, ft-lb (N-m)
where
S is the allowable stress as per the code in psi (N/mm2)
The suggested maximum spans between the supports as
I
recommended by ASMEB 3 1.1 in Table 121.5 are as follows:
Span
Pipe Size Water Service Steam, Gas or
Air Service
NB Inch M (ft)
1 2.7 (9)
2 4.0 (13)
3 4.6 (15)
4 5.2 (17)
6 6.4 (21)
8 7.3 (30)
12 9.1 (30)
16 10.7 (35)
20 11.9 (39)
24 12.8 (42)
The above spacing is based on fixed bean
support with a bending stress not to exceed
2300 psi and insulated pipe filled with water or
the equivalent weight of steel pipe for steam,
gas or air service and 2.5mm (0.1 inch) sag is
permitted between supports.
The selection of supports should consider the following
guidelines
iii)The standard span does not apply to vertical run pipes (risers)
since no moment and no stress will develop due to gravity load
in the riser. The support should be located on the upper half of
a riser (above the center of gravity) to prevent instability in
overturning of pipe under its own weight. Guides may be placed
on long vertical risers to reduce pipe sag resulting in excessive
pipe deflection. These guides are usually placed in span intervals
of twice the normal horizontal span and do not carry any dead
weight.
iv) Support location should be selected near the existing
building steel to minimize the use of supplementary steel.
Nm::
EOlJlPMENT NOZZLE AT 'A' MOVES UP BY 5 0 m m FROM COLD TO HOT.
EOUIPMENT NOZZLE AT ,B. MOVES UP BY 25mm FROM COLD TO HOT. ILLUSTRATED
EXAMPLE- PIPE HANGER DESIGN
PIPE- 150 NB SCH 160 ASTM A335 Gr P12.
OPERATING TEMP 550' C
ALL ELBOWS ARE L R ELBOWS
.*.-\
For the illustrated problem, the following vertical movements
are known,
H, - 0 mm Cold to Hot
..,~.,>,:..,
,.
y multiplying the
Coefficient of expansion by the vertical distance of each point
from the position of zero movement on the riser CD.
aX(~1)
A X =
a
+ A2
CASE- 3
Step I1
>,
' (Refer Case 3 o f Distributiot~
of movements")
2 >
(Pefer Case 1 of Distribution
of m o v e m e n t s " )
= -42.99 mm say -43 mm
Vertical movement at H4 =43 mm down
= -20.81 mm say 21 mm
Vertical movement at H7 = 2 1 mm up
For easy reference, when selecting the appropriate
hanger, let us make a simple table of hanger movement.
Hanger Number Movement (mm)
47 up
30 up
0
43 down
20 down
3 down
21 up
ThLh t step in the solution is to prep~1.ea table of weights
-- - -
- --
calculation
150NB Sch
160 pipe
150 NB Sch
160 90° BW
LR Elbow
150 NB BW
1500 Ib class
Gate Value
Taking moments about HI,
m x kg- -
- kg.m
461.01
Reaction at the point A =
0.9
161.10
Reaction at H2 -
1.95
= 82.62 kg
' Reaction at H3 = 411.57 - 82.62
328.95 kg.
=
Fig.4.3: DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD BETWEEN H2 & H3
I
The various distances to the center of gravity of the
bend can be calculated using the formula as below
>,,,.!.>..~.* ,
R Sin 8
Applying the above formula for the distance of CG from the center of the
arc for 150 NB LR elbow.
Distance of the CG forrn the center line of the straight
pipe = 229.0 - 145.8
= 83.2 mm
Taking moments about H4
M
- : x & - - ICE M
404.88
404.88
Reaction at H3 -
0.750
- 539.84 kg
- 32.26 kg.
= 211.25 kg.
M x Kg- -
-
.356.2
Reaction at H5 =
2.5
= 142.48 kg
4
I
2600 300>00
5200
5350
5800
1, i
6100
4 i
1226.8 5697.93
As the nozzle B is relieved of load
5697.93
Reaction at H7 -
5.2
-- 13'1.04kg.
Fig. 4.7: DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD BETWEEN H6 & H7 TO MAINTAIN ZERO REACTION AT NOZZLE B
SUMMARY OF LOADING
L
O CP
T
i
im ! .. ... ..
REACTIO
.
N FO R m AD
.
ING HANGER
m K G
-
512.23
486.42
TOTAL
WEIGHT OF PIPNG SYSTEM
*When vertical displacement occurs as a result of
therrnal expansion it is necessary to provide a
flexible support which apply supporting force
throughout the contraction and expansion cycle of
the system.
Constant Spring
Variable Spring.
1Pivot (P)
LOW P~5IUIOW
A Z
- -
- -
Sina Sin$ Sinp
Considering, Y z
- - -
Sina Sinp
Since Y Sinp = X
Substituting in Eqn.
The Load 'L' is suspended from the lever at point 'A'
and at any point within the load travel range the moment
of the load about the main lever-pivot 'P' is equal to the
load times its moment arm.
Thus load moment =L (WSin$), where WSin4 is the load
moment arm.
The spring is attached to one of its ends to the
fixed pivot "B". The free end of the spring is attached by
means of a rod to the lever-pivot 'D". This spring
arrangement provides a spring moment about the main
lever-pivot "P" which opposes the load moment and is
equal to the spring force, "F' times its moment arm.
Thus F = KE
KE (YZSin4)
Spring Moment=
A
To obtain PERFECT constant spring, the load
moment must always equal to spring moment.
KEY2 Sin 4
LW Sine =
By proper design 4 and 8 are made equal
KEY2
Therefore LW =
Therefore LW = KYZ
This equation holds true for all position of load within its
travel range and "K", "Y", "2" and " W remain constant. It
is therefore true that perfect constant support is obtained.
MODEL - S
MODEL - P
=mw, . w c a . . t ~ !
First select the basic model best suited for piping layout and the
physical structure available for mounting.
2. Establish the total travel by giving a positive allowance of about
20% to the calculated actual travel and in no case less than 25 mm
in order to allow for a possible discrepancy between calculated and
actual piping movement.
i.e. Total travel = actual travel + Over travel
3. Use the selection table supplied by manufacturer and locate the total
travel required at the corresponding table.
4. Move along the line until load nearest to the operating load to be
supported is located such that the load fits within a reserve range of
f 10% of the average of the maximum and minimum loads
specified.
5. If the total travel lies between the two indicated figures, the loads
between the successive travels can be incorporated.
6. The corresponding hanger size can be read fiom the respective
column.
-
Size
.- ... . ..
A,
B . i
i
l3
B
A
C 4
I/
. ..J
Al
I
I
~ 1 5
I
Ci
- D!
A
6
B
~.
.. .
A
7
B
The following data is required to be specified while
inquiringlordering for a constant spring,
The exact Hot or Operating load required to be
. supported during the working condition.
. Hydrostatic test load.
. The total travel and its erection.
. The direction of travel, either upwards or
downwards fiom the erected position.
The set pin locking position (Top, Middle, Bottom
or as required).
. The basic model.
. Requirement of bottom accessory components such
as rods, clamps etc.
Any hazardous environmental conditions.
any special finish on the body such as galvanizing etc.
Tag or Identification number.
5.2.1 How to select the series?
TYPE-G
5.2.1 How to select the series
WWK
For determining the size of the hanger the load deflection table
shall be referred. In order to choose the proper hanger size the
data required is the actual load or the working load (alsofcalled
the hot load) and the amount and direction -of the pipe line
movement from cold to hot .
Locate the hot load in the table. To determine the cold
load, read the spring scale up or down for the amount of expected
movement. The chart must be read opposite fiom the direction of
pipe movement. The load arrived is cold load.
If the cold load falls outside the working load range of
hanger selected, relocate the hot load to the adjacent
mu."," h
column and find the cold load. When both the hot and cold loads
are within the working range of a hanger, the size of the hanger is
the number found at the top of the column.
T. N. GOPINATH
The objective of pipe stress analysis is to ensure
safety against failure of the Piping System by verifying the
structural integrity against the loading conditions, both
external and internal, expected to occur during the lifetime
of the system in the plant. This is to be undertaken with the
most economic considerations.
t
i) Analytical
ii) Model test
iii) Chart method
I The Piping Specification nominates the code to be
Fig. 2.3
The strain developed in the pipe, E , is then calculated
as & = A L / L = a
Referring to Table C1
- t- fR
y7 inplane displacement
+
I
I
\I( Range o f outplane displacement
Fig. 2,6
Fig. 2,7
Fig. ..a
TIME ----b ELASTIC SHAKEDOWN (RELAXATION)
t Fig. 2.9
Allowable Stresses
--z
Wind load
Seismic load
Relief valve forces
Fluid hammer
Settlement
Equipment vibration
Weight of attachments
Weight of contents
All these factors contribute to two distinct
forms of stresses.
UTS I--7
Fig. 2.10
The basic allowable material stress at the hot
(operatingldesign) temperature (Sh) is defined by the
I code as minimum of
As per the ASME B 31.1
;..,.. .
operating temperature.
113 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material
at room temperature.
213 of the yield strength of the material at
operating temperature (90% of the yield stress for
austenitic stainless steel)
213 of the yield strength of material at room
temperature (90 % of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steel) 100% of the average stress for a 0.01 %
creep rate at 1000 hrs
67% of the average stress for rupture after
1,00,000 hrs 80% of the minimum stress for rupture
after 1,00,000 hrs.
Time dependent allowable stress is usually
related to the "creep rupture strength" at high
temperature. At temperature above 113 of the
melting point, most metals will exhibit creep in
standard tensile test, if the load is kept constant
the specimen will continue to deform with time.
Under constant load, the rate of creep strain will
decrease initially to a steady state and later will
increase rapidly until it fails due to creep rupture.
The code uses an allowable stress, which is . ,
Compressive S,
I
,
4
S m = Smax + Smm. 1 2
1. Centrifugal pumps - API610
s - API 676
- API 617fNEMA
SM 23
Reciprocating compressors - API 6 18
Steam turbines - NEMA SM 23
Air cooled heat exchangers - API 661
Shell and tube heat exchangers- Manf.Specific.
Fired heaters - Manf. Specific.
For other static equipment such as Reactors, vessels
and tanks interaction with the fabrication engineer is
required to establish that the local stress developed
due to nozzle loadings are within the acceptable
limits.
Table 3.1; NOZZLE LOADING PER API 610
\
Fx -
- 75 D lbs Mx -
125 D ft.lbs
- -
F 75 D lbs M - 125 D ft lbs
F'2 - 75 D lbs M'z - 125 D ft lbs
",=?~..
where,
Vertical component of Fc
Horizontal components of Fc
at right angles to compressor shaft
Horizontal component of Fc
Parallel to compressor shaft
Component of Mc in a vertical plane at
right angles to compressor shaft
Component of Mc in a horizontal plane
Component of Mc in a vertical
plane parallel to the compressor shaft
+Y Right angle t o
A compressor shaft
Parallel t o
compressor shaft
PLAN
Fig. 3.3
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
I
SUCTION
=%,"%>~
d moments in the
connecting piping flanges and flange bolting which
should not exceed the allowable stress as defined by
applicable codes and explanatory notes.
DESIGN CONDITION
Installation Temperature 3OoC
Suction Temperature 35OC
Discharge Temperature 55OC
Inlet Piping
Fx =-11 kg
Fy = 266 kg
Fz = 52 kg
Mx = 292 kg.m
My = 104 kg.m
Mz = 94 kg.m
Hence resultant force at compressor inlet is within safe limits
Discharge Piping
Fx = -34 kg
Fy = 274 kg
'J
I
1
I
't,
9250- M
Fall =
3
16+IPS -- 16+20 =12"
Where D =
3 3
.'. Fall = 925x12-1419 = 3227 Ibs
3
> Fr
* -
product of the distance vector with force vector
+
Here
-
ie. Mr
D
=
-
D x F
0.591 i - 1.626J - 0.432 k
Hence,
MTX 30.36 KG.M
I =
- 18 + Deq
where Dc -
D (in inches) =
3
1. The combined resultants of the forces and moments
of the inlet, extraction, and exhaust connections, resolved
at the centerline of the exhaust connection should not
exceed the following two conditions.
Y = 125 Dc
Fz = 100Dc MZ = 125 DC
The components are as follows :
FX = Horizontal components of Fc parallel to the
turbine shaft.
FY = Vertical component of FC
F2 = Horizontal component of Fc at right angles
to the turbine shaft.
Mx = Component of Mc around the horizontal
axis parallel to the turbine shaft
MY = Component of MC around the vertical axis
Mz = Component of Mc around the horizontal
axis at right angles to the turbine shaft.
Vertical
+Y Right angle t o
turbine shaft
- Fx
- +'
Parallel to
turbine shaft
+Mx
Axial force Shear force each Bending moment each Twisting moment
size NB direction direction
inch . lbs Lbs. Ibs. ft-lbs
3 900 400 1300 1300
The local stress intensity at the nozzle connection due
to attachment of piping can be computed using the
welding research council bulletin 107 setting the
limitations as.
NORMAL OPERATION
STEAMOUT
START-UP
CRASH SHUT-DOWN
ANY OTHER NEAR GOVERNING
CONDITIONS
flexibility calculations if it is carried out manually or
by the use of software. It is therefore prudent to have
this ready before starting.
The direction of coordinates are fixed as below:
Fig. 4.1
. cod^ ~f Practice
Basic Material of Construction of Pipe
. Ambient I Installation temperature
I . Number of Thermal Cases
Flexibility Temperature (See Note)
where,
D = The outside diameter of pipe in inch (or rnrn)
Y = Resultant of total displacement strains in inch
(or mrn) to be absorbed by the Piping system.
L = Developed length between the anchors in ft.or (m)
U = Anchor distance, straight line between anchors in
ft. or(m)
K1= 0.03 for USCS units.
= 208.3 for SI units.
For example, consider the following pipe routing
b
-1 I'
A
' J\\
/
- -- -- JJ>
+/
'I''\-3
-.-. +z
-- - - \
---
c e
Fig. 5.1
Step 3
To calculate resultant total displacement Y
From Appendix C, ASME B 3 1.3
Linear Expansion. between 70F and 400°F.
e = 2.7" I100 ft.
since K < K , 3 the configurat ion is safe
Please note that no general proof can be offered that
this equation will yield accurate and conservative
results. It is not applicable to systems used under
severe cyclic conditions. There is no assurance that
the terminal reactions will be acceptably low, even if
the system safisfies the above equation.
Fig. 5.2
Fig. 5.3
Fig. 5.4
Fig. 5.5
Fig. 5.6
As per Elastic Theory,
If L is length of BC in ft. ( 1 = 12 L)
EI 6
Substituti ng P =
144 L~
e.g. :- In the previous layout if we restrict the stress at
16,000 psi and consider modulus of elasticity of carbon
I steel as 29.5 x lo6 psi and assume the pipe size as 6" NB
1 = AB = B C = l o r n = 394 inches
E = 29.5 x lo6 lbsl in2
R = 6.62512 inches
6 = 1.7312 inches
(394)2 x 2 x 2
3267 psi
We can also calculate the stress developed in such a
I system of known dimensions of leg BC by the same
hence, P = 12 E I 11'
~
R =IIZ
Z =IIR
Solving for f(S ) = 6 ER 6 / 1'
Where; R = Outer radius of pipe, inches
I = Moment of inertia of cross section, in4
E = Modulus of elasticity,lbslin2
1 = Length, inches
Quick Check Method
Min L = ft.
Where ;
Do = Outside diameter in inch. (to nearest 1/z )
'7
T = Temp. difference O F
(Design Temp. - Instln. Temp.)
5.3 Piping Elements - Their Individual Effects
I
STRAIGHT PIPE : FLEXIBILITY IN TORSION
I
Fig. 5.8
If the same pipe is subjected to a constant twisting
moment, the rotation of one end relative to the other
where,
0 =Anglaf twistradians
T=Torsiormomentjn- i'us(mm N)
L =Lengthjnchegmrn)
-
Tit-- 8
Closely spaced
mix bend
L a
h516
-
09
h 213
aP
h 213
(r>
c o t e Ts
2 (r) 2
-
Single mitre 152 0.9 A%- l+cot -T
bend h516 h 213 1213 2 rz
Welding Tee Q.9-
as per ANSI h 213 314 i.0 + 114
B 16.9
Reinforced fab 0.9 314 i.0 + 114
Tee with pad h 213
or saddle
Unreinforced 0.9 314 i.0 + 114
Fabricated h 213
Tee
Extruded -0.9- 314 i.0 + 114
Welding Tee h20
Welding in 0.9 314 i.0 + 114
contour insert h 213
Branch welding Q.%- D . L
on fitting h 213 h 213
used in the equation to calculate h . The equivalent
1 1
where,
s = mitre spacing at centerline, inches (rnm)
8 = one half of angle between cuts
r; = mean radius of pipe, inches (rnrn)
The unreinforced fabricated tee is modelled
using same formula for widely spaced miter bend with
single miter i.e. half angle of 45". This produces the
flexibility characteristic of
h = T r ,
S I F for Flanges:
+ 5 S, in SI units
I Where;
S, = Sum of the longitudinal stresses due to
r sustained loads,
i Mc
SE = 5 SA + f (S,-S,) In USCS units
z
-
- 5 SA f (S, -S3 In SI units
SE +
SE = Expansion stress range psi
(KPa)
MC = Range of resultant moments due to thermal
expansion, in- lb (mm - N)
P Do lOOO(0.75 i) MA lOOO(0.75 i) MB
+ + 5 KS, in SI units.
4 tn z z
Where;
K = 1.15 for occasional loads acting less than 10%
of any 24 hr. operating period.
K = 1.2 for occasional loads acting less than 1%
of any 24 hr. operating period.
MB = Resultant moment loading on cross section
due to occasional. loads.
If calculation of moments due to earthquake is
required, use only one half of the earthquake
..
moment range. Effect of anchor displacement
due to earthquake may be excluded from the
equation if they are covered in Therrnal
Expansion stress range calculation.
6.2.1 ASME B 3 1.3 does not provide an explicit
equation for sustained stress calculation, but requires
that Piping Engineer should compute the longitudinal
stresses due to weight, pressure and other sustained
loading and ensure that these do not exceed S,. The
thickness of pipe used in calculating S, shall be the
nominal thickness less the erosion and corrosion
allowance. This is calculated by looking at Clause
302.3.5 (c)
Fax (iiM i) + (ioM,) Pdo
SL
- + + S, in USCS units
Am Z 4t
SL
-
- + IS, in SI units
Am Z
S, = Sum of longitudinal stress due to pressure
weight and other sustained loading, psi KPa)
Fax = Axial force due to sustained (primary)
loading, lbs (kg)
Am = Metal cross sectional area, in2 (mm2)
M.1 = In-plane bending moment due to sustained
(primary) Loading, in-lb ( m N )
M0 = Out-plane bending moment due to sustained
(primary) Loading, in-lb ( m N )
..
li lo = In-plane and out-plane stress intensification
9
factors
S, = Basic allowable stress at the operating
t-np., psi (KPa)
6.2.2 THERMAL EXPANSION STRESS RANGE
-
where
&=in- planeSIF
io'out - planeSIF
Mi=in - planeBendizgMoment
Mo=out- planeBendngMoment
Z=SectionMo~lusofPipe
9 Mo
For Header,
-
- J(i M )2 + (i M )2
in USCS units
SL-
-
4, - in SI units.
For Branch,
I g. = J P+~~M,P
(ii~i
,
S =Resul.tant bending stress
Z, =effective section modulus of branch
2
= 1% T,
r, =mean branch cross - sectional radius
T, =effective branch wall thicnkess ,
lesser of ?;h and (ii)wb)
-
Th=Thickness of pipe matching run of tee
or header exclusive of renforceme nt
-
T b=Thickness of pipe..matching branch
For branch connection, the resultant bending stress
needs special care as section modulus Z of header and
branch is different.
I 6.2.2 STRESS DUE TO OCCASIONAL
//
L ,,
/
,-
6"(150mm) NB Sch. 40
/
------
/
/
/
/
- -
\
--.. 1
.....
.
Fig. 7.1
6"(150mm) NB S c h 80 1
Fig. 7.2
For simple cantilever, the deflection is given by the
I formula
3EyI
Hence, P -
L3
E, y, L remaining the same, P = k I
3E Y
where k =
L3
For 6"(150 mm) NB Sch. 40 pipe
I = 1170 cm4
Z = 139 cm3
I For 6" (150 mrn) NB Sch. 80 pipe
I = 1686 cm4
Z = X J cm3
Therefore,
Sch. 80
Load P 1686 k
Moment M 1686 k L
Stress = M/Z 8.4 k L
d instantaneous maximum
reaction force or moment at maximum
or minimum metal temperature.
R = Range of reaction force or moments
derived from flexibility analysis
corresponding to the full displacement
stress range and based on E,.
E, = Modulus of elasticity at installation
temprature
Em= Modulus of elasticity at design temperature
c = Cold spring factor from zero for no
cold spring to 1.0 for 100% cold spring
The factor 2/3 is based on experience, which shows that specified
cold spring cannot be fully assured even with elaborate precautions.
The value of reaction forces or moments at the
I temperature at which the piping is assembled is
given by :
d R = CR or C R, whichever
a
, is greater
C , =l- S h E a
SEE",
R a = Estimated instantaneous reaction
or moments at the installation
temperature
S ,= Computed displacement stress range
S = Maximum allowable stress
at design temperature
F FY x 25' k ,/' /
1 O', ~ ~
,My2
AB = L, = 25' B J
I
BC = L 2 = 10' M/Y 1
FY
CD=L3=5' Fig. 9.1
L,/L, = m = 2515 = 5
L2/L, = n = 1015 = 2
K, = 8.61 K, = 4.35
By referring to chart,
we get : Y( = 1.60 K, = 0.09 Kz = 0.57
Fig. 9.1
The forces are evaluated fkom the equation,
Reaction Fy =K C Ip / L32
Reaction FZ=K cI
p/b2
--
Moment XY = K xy c L 3k
J
I I
0.4 10 3.3
5
543 ft. lbs.
Pipe = 4" std. wt. ASTM A106Gr.B
size
Operatin = 450 OF
g Temp.
From table
Effective Elbow Diameter From Chart, shape
factor
Effective Elbow Length Lr = 4.7 feet
Square comer length
Length of Short Vertical Leg h = 5'
Effective Diameter
length
From Table 1
CAESAR I1
4. CAEPIPE
5. PIPEPLUS
6. TRIFLEX
7. Q-FLEX
The pipe line geometry is fed into the system along with
all the parameters such as design temperatures, pipe sizes, .
bend radii, type of branch connections, locations of anchor
points and restraints. This is termed as 'Modeling' the
problem. The model can be generated by anybody who
knows how to prepare the input. The programme executes
the solutions. First complete Analysis was done in the year
1957.The analysis of the solutions is the real engineering
and is the job of a Piping Engineer.
The layout and the design of the piping and its supporting
I elements shall be directed towards preventing the
drainage slope.
~xcessivedistortion or rag of piping (e.g.
thermo plastics) subject to creep under
conditions of repeated thermal cycling.
10. Excessive heat flow; exposing supporting
elements to temperature extremes outside
their design limits.
ARRGT-1 :: VERTICAL THERMOSYPHON REBOILER WITH FIXED TUBESHEETS
VAPOUR R n U R N CONNECTION
I I
/-A
- Top T U B m H E m
COLUMN
r SUPPORT LUG
LIQUID LEG
Fig. 11.1
-
ARRGT-3
COLUMN
:: VERTICAL FIXED TUBESHEET REBOILER WITH INDEPEDENT'
SUPPORT STRUCTURE. . .
Fig. 11.3
ARRGT-2 :: VERTICAL FIXED TUBESHEET REBOILER, SPRING MOUNTING
'=- q J L 3 7 r
COLUMN
P
SHELLSIDE INLET
COLUMN SHELL
I I
SUPPORT LUG
SHELLSIDE OUTLET
COLUMN SKIRT
-4
SUPPORT BRACKET
.
Fig. 11.2
..
ARRGT-1 :: VERTICAL THERMOSYPHON REBOILER WITH FIXED TUBESHEETS
TOP TUBESHER.
REBOILER SHELL
LIQUID LEG
Fig. 11.1
7. Unintentional disengagement of piping
from its supports
8. Excessive piping sag in systems requiring
drainage slope.
9. ~xcessivedistortion or rag of piping (e.g.
thenno plastics) subject to creep under
conditions of repeated thermal cycling.
10. Excessive heat flow; exposing supporting
elements to temperature extremes outside
their design limits.
Mr. T. N. Gopinath
When piping lacks inherent flexibility due to
routing andlor develops large reactions or
detrimental overstrain on the strain sensitive
equipments, the Piping Engineer considers
provision af expansion joints to overcome the same.
Expansion joints are also. provided to isolate the
vibrating equipment from piping and also to
facilitate free movement of the equipment mounted
on .load cells.
Slip type of expansion joints
Fig 2.1
I The Point of usage could be identified as
The major areas of applications where its use is not advisable are following
piping systems.
Fig. 5.2
Fig. 5.3
Fig. 5.4
-s.
-m<,n. -
IN ADDITION TO AXIAL,
LATERAL AND ANGULAR
MAVEMENTS, AN
EXPANSION JOINT MAY BE
SUBJECTED TO TORSIONAL
MOTION OR TWISTING,
TORSION IMPOSES SEVERE
STRESSES ON THE EXPANSION
JOINT AND ALL SUCH CASES
SHOULD BE REFERRED TO THE
MANUFACTURER.
Pig. 5.5
COMPONENTS AND ACCESSORIES
Fig. 6.1
--.-...
Bellow
1 1 - 1 Convolution Depth
Mean Dia.
Tangent
Crest Root
Fig. 6.2
Bellow
Tangent
Collar
Reinforcing Rings
Lagging Shroud
Internal Sleeves
Limit Rods
Tie Rods
w Shipping Devices
Pantographic Linkages Axial - Sing@ Doublt
w Universal
w swingH
w ~in~ed'
w ~imbal'
w Pressure BalancedEll
Tied
AXIAL- SINGLE EXPANSION JOINT
This is the simplest form of expansion joint of single bellows construction. It
absorbs all of the movement of the pipe section into which it is installed. Fig. 7.la
UNIVERSAL EXPANSION JOINT
A universal expansion joint is one containing two bellows joined by a
common connector for the purpose of absorbing any combination of three (3) basic
movements. A universal expansion joint is used in cases where it is necessary to
accommodate greater amounts of lateral movement than can be absorbed by a single
expansion joint Fig. 7.2
DOUBLE EXPANSION JOINT
A double expansion joint consists of two bellows jointed by a common connector
which is anchored to some rigid part of the installation by means of an anchor base.
The anchor base may be attached to the common connector either at installation or at the
time of manufacturing. Each bellow of a double expansion joint functions independently
as a single unit. Double bellow expansion joints should not be confused with universal
expansion joints.
SWING EXPANSION JOINT
A swing expansion joint is designed to absorb lateral deflection andlor angular
rotation in one plane only by the use of swing bars, each of which is pinned at or near
the ends of the unit.
HINGED EXPANSION JOINT
A hinged expansion joint contains one bellow and is designed to permit angular
rotation in one plane only by the use of a pair of pins running through plates
attached to the expansion joint's ends. Hinged expansion joints should be used in
sets of 2 or 3 to function properly.
GIMBAL EXPANSION JOINT
A gimbal expansion joint is designed to permit angular rotation in any plane by the
use of two pairs of hinges affixed to a common floating gimbal ring.
PRESSURE BALANCED EXPANSION JOINT
A pressure balanced expansion joint is
designed to absorb axial movement and/or lateral deflection while restraining the
bellows pressure thrust force by means of the devices interconnecting the flow bellow
with an opposed bellow also subjected to line pressure. This type of joint is installed
where a change of direction occurs in a run of pipe
Axial Expansion Joints Tied / Untied
IA
Fig 9.2
Fig 9.3
qzr
Axial Expansion Joints Tied / Untied
Fig 9.4
HOT POSITION
COLD POSITION
Fig 9.5
4
#
'
a
.
.I - 1-
, !: Cl I
COLD POSITION (COLD SPRUNG)
HO?'
. -.!.
0
! L
n
POSITION I
NEUTRAL POSITION
1.
Universal Expansion Joints
Fig 9.7
Universal Expansion Joints
,, Fig 9.9
Process
I
I Vessel 1 Fig 9.8
Fig 9.10
Pressure Balanced Expansion
Joints
j !G
Turbine
I
IA
Fig 9.11
Fig 9.13 IA
+
/
Pressure Balanced Expansion Joints
Fig 9.15
Fig 9.14
Hinged Expansion Jomts
Fig 9.16
Process
Vessel
Fig 9.18
Hinged Expansion Joints
EQUIPMENT
Fig 9.19
/////l//l////i//
Fig 9.20
Gimbal Expansion Joints
Selection Chart
--
Axial
I
Universal Yes Yes Yes No
I I 1
Gimbal
Pressure Balanced
Tied No Yes No
Pipe Anchor
Main Anchor
Intermediate Anchor
Pipe Guides
Directional Stop / Anchor
-
Cycle Life
INTERNAL (P0SITIVE)MPRESSURE EXlERNAL (NEGATIVE) PRESSURE
Fig 8.1
I Fig 9.1 Pipe guide location
SINGLE EXPANSION JOINT APPLICATION
MAN ANCHOR
GUIDE GUIDE GUIDE
I
X
FIG B.
DOUBLE EXPANSION JOINT APPLICATION
FIG C.
UNIVERSAL TIED APPLICATION
INTERMEDIATE ANCHOR
COU) POSITKIN I
FIG F.
I UNIVERSAL TIED APPLICATION (THREE PLANE)
ANCHOR
Two Hinge Application
Fig. F
Three Hinge Application
Fig. H
Two Gimbal Application (Three Plane)
Fig. I
One Hingle / Two Gimbal Application (Three Plane)
Fig. J.
Pressure Balanced Application
NNIERMEDIAIE ANCHOR
&/+ INIR(MEDIA1E N C HOR
--
-.. 7
- - 1.
. .........
-
GUDE GUDE
I -
Fig. M
Squirm or Buckle -m -r
ISize of Core
I Pipe
Size of
Jacket Pipe
NB (mm)
Elbows :
4
Core pipe Bends Radius Jacket Pipe Bend Remarks
NB (mm) (man) NB (mm) Radius
(mm)
NOTE 1 I
NOTE 1
Pig. 2.1
Types of Jacketing :
I
I
I I
c o r e pipe
-.jacket pipe
Fig. 2.2 a
On straight pipes and elbows but keeping
the flange size same as that of the core pipe
I
Fig. 2.2 b
(iii) On straight pipes and elbows with flange
size that of the jacket pipe. (Reducing flanges)
,- -
flange
Fig. 2.2 c
Jumper Pipes :
Fig. 2.3 a
P a t t e r n II
Fig. 2.3 b
Pattern I l l
Fig. 2.3 c
Pattern IV
Fig. 2.3 d
Pattern V
Fig. 2.3 e
Spacers :
/ PIPE
*CORE PIPE ~ S T I C T H
WELD
CORE PlPE
Process pipe NB (mm) Jacket Pipe NB (mm) Dia of rod Width of Minimum span
'd' (mm) flat 'WY (mm)
(mm)
15 40 8 - 1500
20 40 5 - 2000
25 50 8 - 2000
40 65 - 7 2500
- 50 80 - 8 3000
65 100 - 14 3000
80 100 - 6 3500
100 150 - 19 4000
150 200 - 16 5000
-JACKET
-
.--. BARRIER
NOTE :- THE
MATERIAL OF
CONSTRUCTION OF
JACKET BARRIER
SHALL BE SAME AS
THAT OF CORE PIPE.
FIG. 2.5
I I
Cond./out
Hot oil/in
-
-*
I
I
I
Jacket barrier
I
Fig. 2.5b
SLEEVE
SLIP-ON FLANGE
WITH MODIFIED HUB
Reducing Flange with modified Hub
37.5 . '28.0 22 . n . 25
~-
. .. . .. ...
. .
~~~
I / . .. -
'34.5 19& 92 .28
-.. ~
.....
Corrosion Allowance
a) Core -Nil
b) Jacket - 1/16" (1.6 mm)
304.1.2) tm = t + c And, t = PD
2(SE + P Y )
Where, tm = Minimum required thickness
including mechanical, corrosion and erosion
allowances.
t =. Pressure design thickness
c = Sum of mechanical, corrosion and erosion
allowances
P = Internal design gauge pressure
D = Outside diameter of pipe
E = Quality factor from Table A - 1
S = Stress value from Table A - 1
Y = Coefficient from Table 304.1.1
Core Pipe:
P = 300 psig
D = 6.625" ( for 6" NB )
S = 13500 psi ( for SS 304L pipe at 700" F )
E = 1.O ( seamless 'quality )
Y = 0.4
300 x 6.625 = 0.073"
Hence, t=
2(13500 x 1-t 300 x 0.4)
Factor'A = 0.000225
{ Refer ASME Section I1 Part D)
I Factor B = 2750
Refer ASME Section 11Part D Fig HA3)
-,.-
= 52.6 psig
Hence SCH 5S is not suitable.
<+ To check 6" NB SCH 40s pipe for the
edternal pressure,
Factor A = 0.0015
Factor B = 4800
= 237 psig
Hence SCH 40s pipe is not suitable
':* Torheck6"NBSCHBOSpipeforthe
ternalpressure of 400 psig.
Factor A = 0.0038
Factor B = 5500
Allowable Working Pressure,
Stress
Strain =
Modulus of elasticity
Force P
- - .................. 3
Stress, f = -
Area A
Hence, e = - f- - P/A
E Al/l
ss and/or
.
-..b.,.,rs>...,
ss or cs is the same,
Suffix 'c' stands for carbon steel and suffix 's' stands for
stainless steel.
Hence,
Hence,
Es As
A2 = -
EcAc
Als +A ....................10
Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
.
$- 2
Strain in cs pipe,
Tension in cs pipe
= 1.24 - 0.617 = 0.623"/100'
Strain in ss pipe,
Strain in CS pipe,
12767 psi
=
< Stress Allowable (S)
Compressive stress in ss pipe
= 0.000514 x 24.8 x lo6
= 12747 psi
< Stress Allowable (S)
HENCE THE COMBINATION TO BE
CONSIDERED FOR THE DUTY IS 6" (150mm)
NB SCH 80S STAINLESS STEEL PIPE AND 8"
(200mm) NB SCH 40 CARBON STEEL PIPES
w+
+ To establish the maximum jacket trimming
distance:
Stress in ss pipe,
f = 12,747 psi
Metal area of ss pipe,
A 8.405 in2
Compressive force in the ss pipe,
= 608.29 inches
- .- .. .,. -.- . .
.. . . ..
--. .. . ~.-.:. .
-? . . ..:. .>.. .:.::: .. . .
. -
... . .. - . . SST India P V ~~. t d .
,1
fiee
Mass(m)
t On considering the two parts of the solution Substituting the a k v e values in equation (20)
separately for the sake of ease of working. The the roots can be mdiiied as follows:
complementary function satisfies the - -. .: .
X, = Cest (17) From equation (21- \ve can conclude that is <
posirive. Since r. r:zm constmt jdxnping
where, C and s are constants. Substituting factor) c of the dz;cr is positive. The value
equation (17) in equation(16) we get <
of can however -.XI fiom 0 to any positive
We can conceive that for the case when is < Most real life systems have inherent properties
less than 1, then will be > 0. When the of damping and hence the magnification factor
<
values of is less than 1 the roots s l & s2 are has a predetermined ceiling. It is this damping
real and distinct and negative. Since, both the that reduces the probability of self-destruction
roots are negative the motion would decrease by excitation.
exponentially with time and would eventually
die out. Such a system is termed "over This is not to conclude that real life failures
damped". due to dyiimic excitation do not occur due to
the presence of damping. Real life failures
<
When = 1 both the roots are equal. The have occurred in spite of damping being
<
value of s1,2 = -<on,.Since = 1 s l = s2 = - inherent in the system.
From equation (22) the damping factor (<) can
a, Such a system is termed "critically
damped". be defmed as follows:
C
.When L; > 1 the roots are complex conjugates.
Such a system is termed "under damped". <= ------------ . (24)
The vibratory motion would exist only in such 2 doan)
a system.
The similarity of the spring mass
If there is no damping in the system, then the damper system with real life systems cannot
frequency of oscillation will be close to the
'
be over emphasized. Piping is no exception.
excitation frequency. Under such The mass of the system is determined by the
circumstances, if the natural frequency weight of the pipe together with the weight of
(fundamental frequency) of the system is close insulation, appendages and the fluid inside.
to the excitation frequency, then'the amplitude' The stiffness of the pipe can be determined
of the response will have virtually infiite from the geometry of the layout, material
ma-~fication. The . system would properties and the section properties. Since
consequentially store large amounts of piping layout is in all 3 dimensions, there will
potential energy in each excitation cycle. This be multiple stiffness values governing the
energy would be transformed into kinetic behavior in each direction. Due to the
energy in each cycle of excitation and back to numerous supports the number of stiffness of
potential energy as the cycle repeats. Since the a piping layout is even more numerous. The
magnification factor is infite, the energy whole layout becomes a large set of stiffness
input from the excitation force would continue arid even though the concept is the same the
to add to the potential energy of the system in problem is no longer a simple one. This is
each cycle. Thus the energy inherent in the exactly where the computational techniques
system increases during each cycle. This come to our rescue.
would lead to cumulative potential energy that
would be eventually released as kinetic energy
of a large mabitude leading to destxuction of
the structure. Physically this would lead to In the illustrative example discussed
failure or permanent plastic deformation. It is above the damper was an element that was
Dynamic Analysis of piping
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
acting so -as to .resist a change in velocity of - .. . .. . . -
the movement of mass. The damping is an AMPLIFICATION
inherent phenomenon in most real life
systems. If the excitation frequency is very
<
The factor in the equation represents close to the natural frequency of the system
the effects of damping. The physical then the system may land up storing large
.excitation of a damped system would depend amounts of energy (potential energy). This
upon the magnitude of the damping. If the energy would then be s'uddenly released as
system oscillations die out eventually then the kinetic energy and could possibly lead to
system is over damped. If the system cat~tr'opbicfailure. The conversion of energy
continues to respond with increased from potential energy to kinetic energy may .
amplitudes as time progresses then the system lead to this f a h e . The response of a system
is under damped and in resonance. The third to a forcbg function can be obtained based on
case could be a status where the system their relative closeness of frequencies. This is
I reaches an equilibrium response level that evaluated by the amplification factor. Fig.3
neither increases nor decreases but follows the shows the amplification factor as a function of
excitation function. This status is critically the frequency ratio of the excitation frequency
damped status. to the natural frequency of the system.
The possibility of resonance is highest
in an under damped system which can-lead to NATURAL FREQUENCIES @IEGEN
uncontrolled energy cycling leading to VALUES)
destructive levels of kinetic energy. This is
controlled by the closeness of the excitation The given piping layout has a set of
frequency to the natural frequency of the natural frequencies. These a k determiried by
-
. ..-.. ...-.. Ths F:x:
. .
oi' ihz closeness of tk the layout, t k jjsc:ioxl ? m ~ e ~ k sr.xcrid
:
excitation frequency to the natural frequency properties and the i o m and type of supports.
can be evaluated by the study of amplification Each of the namal frequency has its own
factor. contribution when an external excitation is
Dynamic Analysis of piping
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
experienced. However, from engineeriug .of the system due to excitation at the specific
practice- the f&t 7 modes are significant. The frequency. The mode shapes are also referred
effects of these modes are most pronounced to as "Eigen vectors".
and are dangerous. Typically in piping the The descriptions of the mode shapes
frequencies tend to remain low. This would give a means of physical identity to the
mean that a high frequency excitation i- Iess response of a system. This is also the link
likely than a low frequency one. between the conceptualization in the analysis
There zre situations where in the s u n and the physical moveLents of the piping.
of the effects of the higher frequencies have a .When the forcing function is a
significant effect and need to be taken into combination of several frequencies of
account. Unlike other common machinery the excitation then the response for all of them
piping can get locally excited and the direction .can be evaluated based on the individual
of excitation can be complex with several responses by super imposing the effects of
segments of piping moving in unrelated each of these frequencies.
fashion. The excitation response would very
often result in displacements and velocities in SEISMIC ANALYSIS
planes other than the one in which forcing
function is acting. Earthquake results in ground motions
The forcing function is the external that are a set of time variant excitation and
load applied on the system. However, the certainly deserves such analysis. The
inherent properties of the system control the frequency distribution would vary depending
response as much. This is related to the natural upon the location. The intensity or amplitude
frequencies of the system. Tke natural varies from time to time. The historic data
frequencies of a system are also referred as collected by seismological studies is utilized
"Eigen values". to derive the excitation pattern. The data can
be obtained frdm broad divisions of
geographic categories.
. MODE SHAPES (EIGENVECTORS) , In most projects in order to ensure the
The equations of motion were safety of the plant and equipment site specific
developed for a single degree of freedom data is derived and provided foi the
system in the preceding paragraphs for engineering contractors. It is the duty of the
illustration purposes. The real life piping can people involved in engineering to ensure that
be imagined to be made up of a number of the equipment and piping are built to be able
spring mass damper system inter connected in to withstand the excitation forces due to
a complex fashion. This leads to the earthquakes.
possibility of innumerous combinations of Such data is compiled into site specific
displacements. There are imumerous natural spectra giving excitation force in g's as a
frequencies associated with such a piping or fimction of time period.
structure. Most seismic occurrences have a cut
The description of the preferred off frequency of 33 Hz. A seismic excitation
responsz of the system corresponding to each has never been found to be beyond 33 Hz.
of rhe natural irequencies can be derived from This makes the job of computing excitation a
rhe sysxm proprzies. This preferred response little easier. Nevertheless the practical piping
is referred ro as mode shapes. The mode has to be deliberately built to avoid a number
shape is a ser of vectors describing the motion
Dynamic Analysis of piping
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL . .......
of frequencies for sdety against failure due to ground mot& for all piping subports attached .
earthquake. ' to the ground is referred as "Uniform
Response Spectra Analysis".
UNIFORM RESPONSE SPECTRA
MULTI-LEVEL RESPONSE SPECTRA
The seismic excitation recorded as
acceleration vs. time period can form the When the ground is subject to
excitation function for the pipe - supports. excitation due to seismic movements the
Using this excitation function the piping confi,gmtion of a building can be such that
response and the consequent moments and the different parts of the building undergo a
forces can be computed. One of the options differing excitation. This effect is most
would be to extract the acceleration for pronounced in RCC shhctures where the
discrete points of time periods and input to the floors are large masses of slabs that control
s o h a r e . This approach is a simple and easy the local amplification and response
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 25 3
-
3.5
. TIME PERIOD (SECONDS]
method for specifying the seismic forcing si,gifkantly. Hence, when piping spans
function to the piping. The software evaluates different floors or different buildings the
the response of the piping based on the points to which the piping is attached in these
discrete values of the forcing function. This buildigs would transfer excitation to the
method of dynamic analysis is termed piping differently. This leads to a situation
"response spectra analysis". A typical where the excitation of a s o u p of suppofts
seismic excitation spectra is shown in Fig.4: would be different from the excitation of
another s o u p of supports. Such multiple
The seismic event can result in an excitation experienced by piping is termed
excitation function acting at all points of the "blultilevel excitation". The analysis of such
piping that are connected to the ground. The piping can be performed by "&lultilevel
other parts of the piping receive the resulting Response Spectra" analysis technique.
inertial motions at differing times by The often . source
. . . . . . of. . muhi . . . level
: U L . Since i k p u s d nocon r q o n j ? 3;ec::2 '.vl.: 2: <:.: ct..2:.:: :. :.x::c
experienced by the whole system of interest is analysis of the building itseli. This andysis
identical this is referred to as "uniform involves evaluating the response of a building
spectra". The analysis involving such uniform in totaliry due to seismic accelerations of the
Dynamic Analysis of p?ping
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
ground movement. The buildjng will be The aialysis technique of time histoh.
receiving the excitation only f;om the points should preferably used for studying the local
attached to the earth, but the floor being large effects during dynamic events rather than
masses supported by slender columns will apply to thewhole structure. The analysis is
experience a response pattern of its own. The time consuming, expensive and for larger
response of each floor can be output from the systems may not be. worth the while. Ln
analysis and shall be used as input for the localized zones it is very effective. The ideal
nultilevel response spectra analysis of the situation would be to conduct 2 complete
piping. study of the structure using response spectra
Since the multilevel response spectra method and use the time history analysis on
analysis is razher complex and needs to take localized spots where the excitation has been
into account the phase angle differences found to be critical.
between different levels it is recommended
only when it is absolutely essential. More FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
often satisfactory analysis can be carried out
based on the individual floor response - one We wrote simple differential equations
floor at a time. &lost piping can be idealized to describe a spring mass system capable of
based on the floor containing them. This unidirectional motion. Such a system is a
method could lead to a satisfactory solution system with a single degree of freedom It is
for a large number of problems. The main easy to imagine the number of equations that
difference is that the response due to the phase we would need to solve even for a simple
difference betweer, two floor spectrums that problem capable of displacement in any three
may affect the interconnecting piping between directions in space and rotations about all the
floors would be ignored. The multilevel three axes system. The differential equations
spectra analysis would ensure that the would grow astronomically as we approach a
interconnecting piping is also satisfactori!y real life piping system. We would soon fmd it
analyzed. out of bounds of manual calculations. At least
we can say that we may not be able to work
TIME HISTORY ANALYSIS out solutions in reasonable time frame. This is
exactly where computational techniques can
The true dynamic representation of help us. The intent is to develop a
excitation event is a time variant phenomenon. methodology that can be applied to solve
The force or acceleration as a function of time differential equations in digital computers. .
describes the event most accurately. Select the Dynamic analysis involves finding out
points of the structure where the forcing the stiffness and mass distribution of the body
function is applicable and study the response being analyzed. This involves solving a large
of the structure at discrete time intervals. set of partial differential equations. Since the
During the analysis the time intervals of manual mathematical capabilities is
interest can be varied and a set of results insufficient to provide. solutions for such
compiled as a function of time. This study is equations alternate methods have been
relevant for short interval shocks with largely evolving continuously. One of the most
localized excitation, such as safety valve successful methods is "Finite Element
re!ease and c h x r i n ~ wte:
. hammer, steam Method" also referred as "Finite Element
hammer. Technique".
As mentioned earlier you would need a of this lectwe. However, audience is advised
co&only acceptable software package for to understand the fundamentals about FEM to
doing dynamic analysis. These software be able use the piping flexibility packages
packages are available on PC platform and are without falling into error traps.
relatively less expensive. Most of the
packages are based on Finite Element Method. WHAT DO THE CODES SAY?
These packages are built to apply this method
to both static and dynamic analysis. With the exception of ASME Sec.111
In the application of Finite Element and other nuclear codes, the codes do not
specify very many directives with respect to
domains. The domains are so selected, that the the dynamic analysis. However ASME Sec.111
properties of the domain in terms of mass is very specific and complete with respect to
distribution, stifhess, etc. can be determined. dynamic analysis. However, no code excludes
These domains are joined at specific co- or prohibits dynamic. analysis. The .codes
ordinates to satisfy the continuum's essentially leave the dynamic analysis
properties. The domains with known requirements to the discretion of the user.
properties are called elements. The points at
which such domahs are joined are called LOAD CASES
nodes. The accuracy of the representation of
the continuum depends upon the refinement of The load cases are defined by the
the original structure and the mathematical codes depending upon the mode of failure,
quality of the elements. This process of type of loads and the of
dividing a continuum into such elements i s occurrence. The types of load are as follows:
termed discretization. The discretization leads
to linear simultaneous equations instead of
partial differential equations. The known Primary loads:
parameters at the extemal boundaries of the
continuum are specified as boundary These loads relate to the external
conditions. There are many well-established forces in a direct manner. They result in stress
techniques for solving linear simultaneous levels in the body of the pipes, fittings, etc.
equations using computers. Hence, finite The stress levels increase with the increase in
element technique converts our real life the extemal load. There is no ceiling the
complex problem into a form thaf can be stress experiences as a consequence of such
solved effectively using digital computers. loads. Typical example is the stress due to
In the case of piping the continuum internal pressure inside the pipe. These loads
..,v; I..I L, :!.. la:;out of the pi?ing. ccnr.sctin: m
.i..=
result in direct yielding and failure of the pipe
equipment 19 another. T i e elcncnrs will be if they exceed predetermined limits.
pipes, elbows, tees, valves, ex. Plrxse note Increasing the section thickness can reduce
that an elbow element is different from a pipe primary stress levels. The maximum shear
dement. The boundary conditions will be the
Dynsn:i Axiysis of piping
P I P m G ENGINEERING CELL
stress theory is the most *dely accepted the types of loading experienced by the
theory of failure for these loads. piping. However it is broadly defined as the
sum of the Sustained Loads and the loads due
The commonly experienced primary loads can to occasional load such as wind and
'. be listed as follows: earthquake.
Internal pressure
Extemal pressure Sustained loads are defined as the sum
' Wind ' of the effects of internal pressure, dead
Earthquake (seismic) weight, weight of insulation, weight of piping
Weight components, weight of fluid and external
Impact applied forces and moments.
Water hamiier
. ALLOWABLE STRESSES
Secondary loads:
The basic allowable stresses are
The secondary loads are generated calculated for each of the materials as a
from external loads that are indirectly related function of the material properties. The basic
to the external loads. They are of self-limiting allowable stresses must have been dealt with
nature. The failure is often result of repetition thoroughly in the static analysis lectures..
of the loading cycle. This leads to fatigue The fundamental requirement of most
damage. codes is that the dynamic event is classified as
A typical example of secondary load is "Occasional load case" and the allowable
the thermal load on piping due to temperature stress is therefore 1.33 times the hot allowable
change. The resulting stresses are due to stress, when it is considered together with the
constraining the piping. Hence, by judicious sustained loads.
layout and use of proper bends and filtings the However, ASME Sec.111 gives a rnore-
stress levels can be limited. judicious evaluation of the allowable stresses
In case the material reaches yield point under various loading conditions.
then the thermal expansion stress is relieved
and seizes to exist of the same order as it was ANSI R31.1 code specifies the following
prior to the yielding. allowable stresses:
The commonly experienced Secondary loads Basic allowable stress (hot allowable stress,
are as follows: Sh):
Pressure transient Minimum of the following:
Thermal expansion
1. % of tensile strength at room temperature
Vibration .
2. 213 of yield strength at room temperature
Anchor movement 3. % of tensile strength at design temperature
Themal transient 4. 213 of yield strength at design temperature
5. 100% of average stress for 0.01%/100 hr
OCCASIONAL LOAD CASE strain
6. 67% of average stress for rupture at
The occasional load case may be 100,000 hrs.
defined by the user according to the choice of
Dynamic Analysis of piping
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
7. 80% of minimum stress for. rupture at
100,000 hrs. In'the above expression if items 3 and 4 are
ignored then we obtain the cold allowable
In the above-expression if items 3 and 4 are stress (Sc).
ignored then we obtain the cold allowable
stress (Sc). Other allowable stresses are related to the hot
allow2ble stress and cold allowab!e stress.
Other allowable stresses are related to the hot
allowable stress and cold allowable stress. The sum of longitudinal stress due to -
Pressure, Weight, other sustained loads and
For circumferential stresses resulting t!!ose produced by occasional loads may
due to occasional loads the allowable stress exceed the basic allowable stress by 33%.
may be exceeded by 33% provided the event
does not occur for more than lOhrs at a time CLASSIFICATION OF STRESSES
and no more than 100hrsIyear.
The sum of longitudinal stress due to - Stresses can be classified based on
Pressure, Weight, other sustained loads and their nature of occurrence and their self-
those produced by occ&ional loads may limiting characteristics as Primary and
exceed the basic allowable stress by 15% if Secondary.
the occasional load duration is less than 10% Stresses can also be classified based on
of any 24hour operating period. the distribution across the section of the pipes
The sum of longitudinal stress due to - and the nature of failure that can result. This
Pressure, Weight and those produced by classification leads to the following types of
odcasional loads may exceed the basic stresses:
allowable stress by 20% if the occasional load
duration is less than 1% of any 24hour Membrane stress: This type of stress is
operating period. constant throughout the cross section under
observation. This type of stress would lead to
ANSI B313 code specifies the following yielding if it exceeds the yield stress at the
allowable stresses: temperature at which they occur. good
Basic allowable stress (hot allowable stress, example of such membrane stress is the
Sh): circumferential and the longitudinal stress due
M i m u m of the following: to internal pressure. Circumferential stress
due to pressure P on a cylinder of internal
1. 113 of tensile strength at room temperature diameter D and thickness t will be PD12t. The
2. 213 of yield strength at room temperature longitudinal stress on the same cylinder shall
3. 113 of tensile stre@ at design only be PDl4t.
temperature Since in pipes the circumferential
4. 213 of yield strength at design temperature stress is roughly twice the longitudinal stress
5. 100% of average stress for 0.01%1100 hr due to internal pressure the circumferential
:-::;:.
siress controls the direct failure of?i:e ud!.
6. 6701 of average stress for rupture at
80
The number of natural frequencies for Usually the software provides user
any system is infinite. This would mean that input cut off frequency beyond which the
there is a need to perform infinite amount of modal extraction need not be performed. This
calculations and thzt all the natural ' is particularly helpful during seismic analysis
frequencies of a systen cannot be listed as the seismic events are known to generate
completely. Like any other real life system frequencies below 33Hz only.
the natural frequencies of interest are finite The number of modes and cut
and the effect of others can safely be ignored off frequency are both program inputs in
for most problems, majority of the software. When both ar;
specified t!e modal extraction stops at number
Dynamic Analysis of piping 14
PIPING ENGINEXRING CELL , :.
of modes or cut off frequency which ever is forces but having a probabiiity of
encountered earlier. simultaneous occurrence.
IMETHODS OF ADDITION OF FORCES
FUGID BODY CUT OFF FREQUENCY
The dynamic phenomena are assumed
to be linear in the practical sense. Hence, the Most stnictures have a response
analysis can' be split into several smaller different than the excitation at frequencies
loading solutions and the results can be'added close to its first few modes of natural
UP. frequencies. But as the excitation frequency is
The addition of multiple linear increased the body starts approac'hin,o the
solutions can be done in several ways. The behavior and time cycle of the forcing
forces and moments experienced by the piping function. This frequency of the structure and
for each load set can be summed up in three piping is called rigid body cut off frequency.
different ways: Beyond this frequency the response of the
Vector addition as square root of sum of system is equal to the excitation function.
squares Needless to state..-this frequency would be
Scalar addition as absolute sum quite high and the amplification factor will be
Algebraic addition with sign minimal.
The three methods of summation would lead . .
to different results. Vector addition is often SUM OF HIGHER MODES BEYOND
advocated. But cases like addition of pressure RIGID BODY CUT OFF FREQUENCY
longitudinal s e e s with bending stress due to
self weight and bending stress due to seismic As we .have referred to the effect of
excitation in the transverse direction may lead rigid body cut off frequency in previous
to less conservative values. paragraph we would like to understand the
The nuclear codes (codes like ASME impact of the excitation frequencies
Sec.111) are emphatic on the addition methods . .
and the load case combinations so derived. beyond the rigid body cut off frequency. .
Since there is no amplification the
METHODS' OF ADDITION OF stress levels are not of importance. But the
STRESSES support loads may be significantly affected by
the frequencies beyond the rigid body cut off
Methods of addition of linear static frequency. -
and dynamic events C ~ J I be also achieved by
means of addition of stress scalars. This
method is actually advisabk when we are
dealing with rwo totally different excitation or
.
Frequenc Frequency
i z p . r 2 1 .
Example 3:
CONCLUSIONS
Dynamic analysis primarily is applied
( to piping for the purpose of fail safe
performance under time variant loads. The
analysis can be conducted using PC based
software as on date. The dynamic analysis is
very sensitive to the mass and stiffness
properties of piping system.
If the natural frequency of any system
(including piping) is close to the excitation
frequency of the forcing function then, the
system experiences an amplification of the
excitation forces. This in turn leads to larger
displacements. Damping properties of piping
impose a ceiling to the magnitudes of
excitation.
Typically substitution of higher
schedules during construction should be
viewed critically or preferable referred back to
the designer in order to ascertain that the
increased stiffness and therefore higher natural
frequencies will not pose any excitation
problem to the piping.
most flow-induced vibration cannot be
solved by mechanical means and a flow
parameter correction is essential for such
problems.
Table of Contents
------------------------------------
Q.A.3lock: Page 1 .
Options: Page 2
Layout: Page 2
Details: Bends: Page 2
Details: Valves: Page 3
Details: Rigid Elements: Page 3
Details: Anchors: Page 3
Details: Specified Displacements: Page 3 .
Details: Limit Stops: Page 3
Material 1: A106 Grade B: Page 4
Pipe sections: Page 4
Loads: Page 4 .
Sorted stresses: Page 6 ...-
Code compliance: Page-7
Response spectrum: Loads on anchors: Page 8 ..
Response spectrum: Loads on 1imit.stops: Page 8 .
Frequencies: Page 8
...........................................................................
Client
Project
E i l e Number :
Report Number :
Model Name
Title
Prepared by Date:
Checked by . . Date:
Vertical direction Y -
Do not use friction in dynamic analysis
...........................................................................
: ,Node Type OX (mm) DY (mm) DZ (mm) Mat Sec Load Data
...........................................................................
1 Title =
2 10 From Anchor
3 30 i 8 LI
4 '40 Rigid 1 8 L1
5 50 Bend 1 '8 L1
6 60 .1 8 L1
7 70 Valve
8 80 Bend
9 90
10 510 From Anchor
11 530 1 8 L2
12 540 Rigid 1 8 L2
13 550 Bend 1 8 L2
11 560 1 8 L2
15 570 Valve 1 8 L2
16 580 Bend 1 8 . -L1
17 90 1 8 L1
18 100 1 8 L1
19 110 Bend 1 8 L1
20 120 1 8 L1 Anchor
21 701 Location Linit stop
22 702 Location Lirnit stop
Bends
Wind velocity -
0.00 (m/s)
Shape factor = 0.60
Wind direction: X comp = 0.000, Y comp = 0.000, Z comp = 0.000
X spectrum: ~ a t e ~ o r y l
Factor = 1.0000
Period Acceleration
(sec) (g's)
Y spectrum: Categoryl
Factor = 0.5000
, Period Acceleration
(sec) (9's)
Z spectrum: Categoryl
Eactor = 1.0000
Period Acceleration
(secl (9's)
Pipe Loads
........................................................................... . ..
Load T1 Pl T2 P2 T3 P3 Specific Add.Wgt Wind
Name (C) ( k g / d ) (C) (kg/cm2) (C) (kg/cm2) gravity (kg/ml Load
...........................................................................
~1 . 230 25.0 0.980 Y
L2 230 0 Y
...........................................................................
831.3 (1996) Code Compliance (Sorted Stresses1
------ sustained ------ ------ ~ ~ g a ------ n ~ i ------
~ ~ Occasional -----
SL SE SL+SO SL+SO/
Node (kg/&) SLlSX Node (kg/&) SZ/SA Node (kg/&) 1.33SH
...........................................................................
120 4.57 0.'33 5506 5.87 0.28 120 11.1 0.61
90 3.47 0.25 702 5.78 0.28 508 8.07 0.44
580A 3.17 0.23 120 5.44 0.26 580A 7.42 . 0.41
701 3.16 0.23 550A - 5.31 0.25 BOA 7.40 0.41
80A 3.14 0.23 580A 5.13 0.24 llOA 7.11 0.39
508 2.90 0.21 90 4.73 0.23 808 6.96 0.38~
llOA 2.82 0.21 701 4.61 0.22 5808 6.82 0.37
100 2.79 - 0.20 80A 4.54 0.22 701 6.66 0.37
808 2.69 0.20 50A 4.45 0.21 1100 6.33 0.35
40 2.69 0.20 506 ' 4.22 0.20 5508 5.91 0.32
30 2.68 0.20 1lOA 4.14 0.20 702 5.25 0.29
10 2.65 0.19 5808 3.66 0.17 90 5.09 0.28
1106 2.63 0.19 1108 2.56 0.12 50A 4.82 0.26
5806 2.62 0.19 540 2.50 0.12 10 4.48 0.25
50A 2.60 0.19 808 2.46 0.12 570 4.07 0.22.
70 2.57 0.19 530 2.31 0.11 70 3.99 0.22
570 2.55 0.19 510 2.18 0.10 I00 3.96 0.22
702 0.74 0.05 40 1.55 0.07 30 3.61 0.20
5508 0.39 0.03 570 i.45 0.01 40 3.35 0.18
530 0.2i 0.02 30 1.21 0.C6 555A 2.97 0.16
543 0.21 0.02 100 :.L7 0.06 5:O 251 0.14
5 10 0.17 0.01 70 1.02 0.05 530 1.45 0.08
550A 0.12 0.01 10 0.88 0.04 540 1.04 0.06
R.S. Soni
Nuclear Recycle Group (Mech.)
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Trombay, Mumbai- 85
Nuclear Power Plant
,'-
STEAM GENERATOR STEAM OIJTLET
(TO TURBliNEl
5.FEEDWATER INLET
[FROM CONDENSER)
STEAM OUTLET
TO TURBINE -
7DEMISTER SECONDARy
MOISTURE SEPARATOR
,-ORIFICE RINGS
UPPER SHELL
TUBE BUNDLE
* ANTIVIBRATION BARS
DOWNCOMER 'FLOW
RESISTANCE PLATE
LOWER SHELL /
SECONDARY HANDHOLE
-BLOWDOWN LINE
\ TUBE SHEET
PRIMARY MANWAY
PRIMARY COOLANT
OUTLET PRIMARY COOLANT
-.
Stear11Separators
..
.: .
,. .... ... .
~
.:.:::F&; 13.10. BWRf6 srean and recirculation water flow paths (General Electric
. .
..~ . ......
..... .._
..
..... .;
.
~...,
. - , .
,
:
.-
.-
'
:,r
.
. : . . .- . -. . . . -..
14 F L U X MONtTOH A N D POISON INJECTION
15 ION CHAMBER
16 EARTHQUAKE RESTRAINT
2 CALANORIA W E L L 17 V A U L T W A L L
3 C A L A N O R I A TUBES 18 V A U L T COOLING PIPES
4 EMBEDMENT RING 19 MODERATOR OVERFLOW
5 F U E L I N G TUBESHEET 20 PRESSURE R E L I E F PIPES
6 E N D SHIELD L A l T l C E TUBES 21 PRESSURE RELIEF DISC
7 END S H I E L D COOLING PIPES 22 REACTIVITY CONTROL R O D NOZZLES
8 INLET-OUTLET STRAINER 23 VIEWING PORT
9 STEEL B A L L SHIELDING 24 SHUTOFF R O D
10 E N D FITTINGS 25 ADJUSTER ROO
11 FEEDER PIPES 26 CONTROL ABSORBER R O D
12 MODERATOR OUTLET 27 ZONE CONTROL ROO
13 MOOERATOR I N L E T 28 VERTICAL F L U X MONITOR
Primary coolant
Secondary coolant
Moderator
Pressurizing
Feed and condensate
Instrumentation
Purification & demineralisation
Radioactive waste
Broadly classified into two groups:
o NucIear piping - handling radioactive fluid
o Other piping - handling non-radioactive and
conventional fluids
Requirements of nuclear Piping; System
Need
Protect plant personnel from radiation hazards
o By providing design features to avoid1 mitigate
accidents1 unusual occurrences
Protect public & environment fi-om radiation hazard
o Provide containment system & other measures
Design & entire engineering of nuclear piping systems
is based on their safety classification.
Safety Classification
Safety classification is available for
NPPs - IAEA 50-SG-D I.
Various structures, systems and components (SSCs)
classified based on their safety role and their
importance.
Safety role decided based on the safety functions to be
performed and ranking of those safety fimctions.
Safety Classification (cont.. .)
Ranking of safety function is based on;
o Consequences of failure of that safety function.
o Probability that the safety function would be
required.
o Probability that the safety function would not be
accomplished when required.
For NPPs a list of 20 safety functions starting from (a)
to (s) have been identified.
Based on the ranking of safety functions, they have
been grouped into different safety classes.
Recent Eqs'
oLatur1993, M =6.3
o Bhuj 2001, M = 7.3
o Chennai , 1M
~ c t o b e r200 = 4.3
EQ.
o Heavy plastic deformation with lot of cracking
allowed.
Radioactive facilities
o Very little damage permitted so as to have no
cracking to avoid radioactive fallouts.
o Moderate or heavy damage and collapse is not
envisaged at all.
o Very little plastic behavior permitted.
o Designed for EQ based on detailed seismic
investigations around the site.
Seismic Categorization for NPPs
[K]{x, G n a ~1 I= M X ( I -2
;=I Is,.
Where SAmax
= highest spectral acceleration in the interval
Alternately:
Modal Damping Ratios
Stress level 1
Structure type
(OBE)
Welded aluminum
structures
Welded and friction bolted
steel structure
Bearing bolted steel
structure
Pre stressed concrete
structure
Reinforced concrete
structure
Piping
Equipment
Piping Analysis and Design as per NB
TABLE NB-3681(a)-l
STRESS INOICESIFOR USE WITH EQUATIONS IN NB-3650
--
Applicable lor Do/, c 100 for C o r K Indices and D,A < 50 lor B Indices
~ . ... ~-
Internal Pressure Moment Loading
INote (211 INote (211 Thermal Loading
-- - --
Piping Producls and Joints 81 CI Kt . 6 c
2 K2 c3 c'3 K3
INole (311 lN01c (411 [Note (411 [Note (4)) [Note (411 [Note (411 Notes
L m q i t ~ d i n a butt
l welds in straight
pipe
(a1 flush
(b! as-weidcd I> !/,,, in.
(c1 as.wcldcd I C '/,,,
ill.
NB-4250 Transitions
(a1 flush
I b l er-welded
NOTES:
Ill For indices not listed, see the note referenced at the end of the apoiicablc litlc.
(21 For the calculation of presrurc and rnornellt loads m d special inrt-vctinns regarding i q s . !?I through !:3!, rcr NB-3683.11dl.
(31 For definitions, applicability, and specific restrictions, see NB-3683.
(41 For Special instructions regarding the usc of there indices for ivl!ldcd products. in:errectny welds, abutting products, o r out-of-round
prad~cts,see NB-3683.2.
151 See NB-3683.3. Straight Pipe Remo!? From Weids.
(61 See NB-3683.4(al, Longitudinal Rut1 Welds.
(71 See NB-3683.4(bI, Ginh Butt Weldr.
(81 See NB-3683.4k). Ginh Fillet Weldr.
(91 5ce NB-3683.5(a), NB-4250 Transitions.
(101 See N8-3683.5(b). Transitions Within a 1:3 Slope.
( 1 11 See NB-3683.6. Concentric and Eccentric Reducers.
(121 See N6-3683.7, Curved Pipe or But2 Welding Elbow$. See ah0 NR-3683.?!2! an" NB-3683.2(bl.
1131 See NB-3683.8. Branch Connecttonr per NB-3643. See also FIB3683.l(dl.
1\41 SCP N H - l b R ? 9 . Hutt Welding Trer. S p r also NR-3683.lldl.
Piping Analysis and Design as per NB
(Cont..)
s,=c,-M'
Do "3 s ............. (12)
21 ' m
C,
Do
-M, + ' 3............0 3)
C ' ; ~x, bla,^,- a , ~ ~ (Sm.
+ C 2 2I
If the above conditions are met, the value of Saltshall be
calculated by eq.(14):
.-
S,,,=K SP ............. (14)
2
Where I& = 1.0 for S, <= 3S,
A T range Y S? c4
0.7 E a
C4 = 1.1 for ferritic material
= 1.3 for austenitic material
x = (PDo/2t)(l/S,)
y =3.33, 2.00, 1.20 and 0.80 for x = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 and 0.8
respectively
Analysis of Piping Components for Level B
Service Loadings:
a) For service loading for which Level B Service limits are
designated which do not include reversing dynamic load
or have reversing dynamic load combined with non-
reversing dynamic loads, the conditions of Eq.(9) shall
be met using Level B coincident pressure P and moment
Mi which result in the maximum calculated stress. The
1) General requirement
As per NC and ND
Welding elbow or
pipe bend [Note 1111
0.4 lr - 0.1 5 0.5 -
and r 0
s ' r , l + tan $4 2r
Branch cnd:
0.5
Run enrl:
Reinforced fabricated
tee [Note (511
Unreinforced
I
labricalod tee
FIG. NC-367 !(b)-1 STRESS INDICES, F L E X I B I L I T Y , A N D STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTORS (D,/l,,c 1 0 0 ) [Notes 111, 11), (1))
Description I 81
Primary Stress Index
Branch leg:
92
Flexibility
Factor k Stress Intensification Factor i
Branch leg:
, T
Sketch--
ib = 1.5 8 , r'
Branch connection [Notes 151.
0.5 I
(-)R,,, (.-)[3)
T, r, Fig. NC-
(611 3673.21bl-2
Run legs:
B2, = 0.9
,
("')
rn
I> Run legs:.
i, = 0.4 (5f'
.
T
[G)
R,,
? 1.5
30 d e g tapered transition
[ANSI 816.25) 0.5 1.O 1 1.3 + 0.0036 D,il,, . 1.9
I,,r 0.237 in.
FIG. NC-3673.2(b)-l STRESS INDICES, FLEXIBILITY, AND STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTORS ( D , N , s 100) INotes (1). (2), ( 1 1 ) l (CONT'D)
Primary Stress Index
Flexibility
Description 8, 6 Factor k Stress Intensification Factor ; Sketch
I I I
0.5 for a c 30
:oncentric and ecenlric \
deg. D ::
reducers (ANSI 816.91
1 . 0 for 30 deg. c 1.o 1 0.5 + 0.01 r, (2) c 2.0
I'Note (811 \ t,
o 5 60 deg.
. I
~.?gt.r
INoIes 10 h g NC 3673 2111) I appear oir foll~w,r?g
FIG. NC-3673.2W-1 STRESS INDICES, FLEXIBILITY, A N 0 STRESS INTENSIFICATION FACTORS (DON,, 100) [Notes (11, (2), ( 1 1 ) l (CONT'D)
Thermal Expansion for Service Level A & B
Do
BZ-Mw<0.5S,
21
ii) The stress due to weight and inertial loading due to '
reversing dynamic loads in combination with the Level C
coincide pressure shall not exceed the following:
Level C Service Limits (Cont..)
"6
/ ( . 004 - .0089'0)
50' 1 P
/ /---
/'
) I l l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 .2 ,4 .6 .8 1.0.2 .4 .6 .8 2.0.2.4 .6 .8 3.0.2.4 ,6 .8 4.0
Neutron absorption, nvt , ( 5 5 0 ° F ) x 1019
Total
2 2 deg.
.... .
.....
F. .:
... ...
h :
.'
,'
;
....._,
.
C I ileviatian in the centerline angolar orientation ot piping suopofl Duilding
,tee1 members in the harirantal or vertical plaws. ~lruclure
i 2 dog
Total
Item Tolerance Configuration
A) Deviation in the length of steel member with two ends attached to +3 in.
the building structure tends may be pinned or fixed). -6 in.
'3 in.
Note: A cantilever with a kneebrace connection has the same
installation tolerances as a single cantilever. See items ( 0 ) and
( E ) for kneebcace tolerances.
+I14 in.
Note: Any cantilever member (single, both members of a double,
etc.) can be shortened any distance required to complete
installation.
114in. No limit ,
I Weld category
Butt welds Butt welds
- Volumetric & - RT
LPIMP > NPS 2
Weld joint category-B Fillet or partial - RT or
Fillet & partial penetration LPMP
penetration weld "ioint welds
- LPMP - LP/MP
> NPS 2
Weld joint category-C - RT or
LPIMP
Full -penetration
butt welded
branches & piping RT & LPMP
connections
Structural attachment
welded joints
Latest Trends in Nuclear Piping Design
i.e. damping
o Various tests on piping components and
experiments on piping systems reveal that failure
due to EQ loading takes place at very high stress
levels.
o Results in high energy loss also i.e. high damping
o Use of higher damping value reduces acceleration
levels.
Piping Layout
EPC Centre, B P Estate, Chhani, BARODA, TEL: 776206,774409 FAX77621 1, E-MAIL: rajesh-patel@enc.ltindia.com
EPC PROGRAM ACADEMY, BARODA
Larsen & Toubro Limited
Piping Layout
EPC Centre, B P Estate, Chhani, BARODA, TEL: 776206,774409 FAX:776211, E-MAIL: rajesh-patel@enc.ltindia.com
INTENSIVE COURSE ON PIPING ENGINEERING
Conducted by
MATHIMITATION TECHNOLOGIES PRIVATE LIMITED
MUMBAI
For
LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED
MUMBAI
PROGRAMME
,
THURSDAY, 18.07.2002
0930 - 1100 Basics of Piping Drawings TNG
1115- 1245 Plot Plan TNG
1330 - 1515 Equipment & Piping Layout TNG
1515 - 1645 Equipment & Piping Layout TNG
FRIDAY, 19.07.2002
0930 - 1100 Equipment & Piping Layout TNG
1115- 1245 Equipment & Piping Layout TNG
1330 - 1515 Equipment & pip in^ Layout TNG
1515 - 1645 Nuclear Piping Guest Speaker
TNG :T N GOPINATH
PIPING DRAWINGS BASICS
MR. T. N. GOPINATH
ere are two types of views used in the piping drawings:,
1.1.1 BW elbow
1.1.2 SW elbow
UPWARD BENDING
1.2.1 BW elbow
1.2.2 SW elbow
L
1.2.3 Scrd elbow
DESCRIPTION I PLAN I END VIEW 1 I END VIEW 2
BRANCHING
DOWNWARD
I I I I
""T B
3.1.3 Scrd Tee
? - ?
3.1.5 Stub connection
T 7
3.1.6 ' ~ a l fCoupling ?+
UPWARD
3.2.1 BW Tee
+04
3.2.2 SW Tee
w
SHEET- 4 OF 5
PARALLEL LINES
CROSS LINES
ROLLED ELBOW
ROLLED TEE
SHEET- 5 OF 5
Lever operated
Valve
CONCENTRIC REDUCER
ECCENTRIC REDUCER
rD-5
FSU/ FSD
The Indian Standard IS 10711 standardises the
SIZE OVERALL
DIMENSIONS in mm
HOW TO START THE PIPING GA?
.Obtain the drawings numbers and fill in the title block,
with the drawing number and title at the bottom right hand
comer of the sheet.
*Placethe north arrow at the top lefilright hand comer of
the sheet to indicate plant north.
.Do not plan drawing in the area above the title block of
drawing, as this is allotted for general notes, number and
title of reference drawings, brief description of changes
during revision and the bill of materials wherever
applicable.
*Process equipment and piping have priority on the Piping
GA.
*Thepiping drawings are started after fixing positions of
the equipments.
*Equipment layout is reproduced on the Piping GA to its
scale and drawn on the reverse side in case of manual
drafting.
*In case of CAD separate layer is used. The major primary
beams and secondary beams are also shown if area covered is
indoor.
*Pertinentbackground details which govern piping routing,
such as floor drains, HVAC ducting, electrical and instrument
cable trays, etc. are also drawn in faint on the reverse.
*Utility stations are also established so that most convenient
utility header routing can be carried out.
GENERAL NOTES
I
MATCHLINE AREA - 1 I
1
. I
REFERENCE DRAWINGS
equipment.
Valves should be drawn to scale with identification
number fkom the P&ID marked thereon.
Draw valve hand wheels to scale with stem l l l y extended.
If it is lever operated, then the movement of handle
position should be marked.
If a valve is chain operated, note the distance of the chain
fkom the operating floor.
Show location of each instrument connection with
encircled instrument number taken from P&ID.
Similar arrangement shall be shown as typical detail or
covered in a separate company standard as Instrument
Hook-up drawings.
Draw plan view of each floor of the plant and these views
I
should indicate how the layout will look like between
floors as seen from top.
EL. I 0 l .%OM
L
BOTTOM PUMPS
ALL DIMENSIONS IN MM
information:
Dimensions and angles.
Reference number of P & IDS, GA Drawings, line
numbers, direction of flow, insulation and tracing.
Equipment location and equipment identification.
Give nozzle identification on the connected equipment.
Give the details of flange on the equipment if the
specification is different fiom the connecting piping.
Size and type of every valve/ Direction of operation.
Size and number of control valve.
Location, orientation and number of each equipment.
-
Field weld - preferred in all directions to take care of site
variations. Can also be covered with a general note.
Location of high point vents and low point drains.
Covered with a standard arrangement note.
Bill of Material.
Requirements of stress relieving, seal welding, pickling,
coating, etc.
P LAN
PROPERNORTH ORlENTATlON
PLAN
may be prefabricated. It does not include bolts, gaskets,
valves or instruments. A spool sheet is an orthographic
drawing of a spool drawn either fiom piping GA or from an
iso sheet. Each spool sheet shows only one type of spool
and,
T.N. Gopinath
I I It is very appropriate to say that the
+
design is.an ART and
." 7
STRUCTURE FOR
-
ANCHOR SUPPORT
--
Fig. 1.1a
Fig. l . l b
The design must take constructibility,
economics, safety, quality and operation into
.
Inline Layout
nn
-I,. IIII TOP TUBESHEET
1 7
COLUMN
I SUPPORT LUG
SllELLSIDE INLIJ'f
-
SUPPORT BRACKET
LIQUID LEG
I I I
I I L- SHELLSIOE OUTLET
ARRGT-1:: VERTICAL THERMOSYPHON REBOILER WITH FIXED TUBESHEETS
TOP TUBESHEET
COLUMN SHELL
REBOILER SHELL
!,?id m.. .
t_
C
''
-,
SHELLSIDE OUTLET
BOITOMTUBESYgT
SUPPORT BRACKET
ARRGT-3 ::VERTICAL 'FIXED TUBERSHEET REBOILER WITH INDEPEDENT
SUPPORT STRUCTURE.
TOP HEAD
TOP TUBESHEET
/
I
.-7
COLUMN .., -
SUPPORT LUG
SPRING SUPPORT
REBOILER SUPPORT
STRUCTLJRE
BELLOWS
. EXPAESL0.NJOIN'I'
The following guidelines and cautions are helpful
in improving the accuracy comparisons.
. Make comparison to as similar a
=-
emoval /
cleaning space shall be marked.
p)While locating the pumps care shall be taken to ensure that
the NPSH requirement is met.
q) General notes are written on one of the drawings (first) and
shall not be repeated on all layouts but reference shall be
given.
r) Direction of north shall be maintained same for all the
plans for the same plant / project.
I S)If more than one drawing is required to cover a specified
area, then the match line shall be indicated clearly with the
"- a
Economic piping
Process requirements
Common Operation
Underground facilities
Climatic conditions
I ~ . 1 ) A1 l lltlN A iN hlhl !AN1
$1:
1 1 ~
E L L V A I I U N S A% li,l U E l i i i S .
518
Alternative location
o f air coolers
Fig. 2.2.2-
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF AN OUTDOOR PROCESS PLANT
Fig. 2.2.3
Compressor
hours
Fig. 2.2.4
Fig. 2.2.5
\/f ROO(
ond
opening
removol
og itot; space
Trolley b e o r (removable)
f o r m o t o r ond geor h o ~ l d l h q
i' I o n d for mixer-shaft seol renewol
Elevation : + 1 'I 8 M
Construction ond
mointenonce occe
Fig. 2.2.6a
,CABLE PIPE
TRAY
Fig. 2.2.6b
PHILOSOPHY OF IN-PLANT PIPING
0
o Value Location
o Electrical/Instrument Cable Trays
o Statuary requirements
o Miscellaneous
So, the first step in the development of pipe rack is the
generation of a line - routing diagram. A line - routing
diagram is a schematic representation of all process and utility
piping systems drawn on a copy of plot plan or it could be
planometric representation of the utility and process line
diagrams. Although it disregards the exact locations, elevations
or interferences, it locates the most congested area.
The pipe rack splits the plant area into convenient parts.
The pipe rack takes various shapes such as 'straight', 'L', 'T', and
'C' or 'U'. This configuration is based on the overall arrangement
and site conditions. Based on the incomingloutgoing lines and
locations, the pipe rack is laid.
I-. w
I Process equipment I
Dead - e n d y a r d . Lines e n t e r
a n d leave o n e e n d o f y a r d .
Fig. 2.3.1
Road
1 HOUSE I I
I------- 1 '7I
PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Road
S t r a i g h t - t h r o u g h y a r d . Lines c a n e n t e r a n d
leave b o t h e n d s o f t h e plot
Fig. 2.3.2
I
I
Process Eq~~iptiien.I:
L-shaped y a r d . lines c a n e n t e r a n d
leave n o r t h a n d e a s t side o f t h e p l o t
Fig. 2.3.3
PROCESS EQUIPMENT '
1
i
r-i
I I FROCESS-1 I
L..A i EQUIPMENT I
Fig. 2.3.4
U-shaped ya'rd. L i n e s c a n e n t e r and
l e a v e all f o u r s i d e s o f t h e p l o t
Fig. 2.3.5
1 1 HOUSE 1
PROCESS j
; EQUIPMENT I
C o m b i n a t i o n o f L- a n d T-sahped yard..
Fig. 2.3.6
Complex yard-piping a r r a n g e ~ m e n t
f o r a very large c h e m i c a l plant.
Fig. 2.3.7
Of course, the configuration of pipe rack is not determined
while doing the plant layout.
I The arrangement results from an overall plant layout, site
nd above all plant economy.
mated as
f =Safety factor
= 1.5 if pipes are counted from the PFD
= 1.2 if pipes are counted from P & ID.
n=Number of lines in the densest area upto the size of 450NB
s = 300mm (estimated average spacing)
= 225mm (if lines are smaller than 250 NB)
A = Additional width for
(1) Lines larger than 450 NB
(2) For instrument cable traylduct
(3) For electrical cable tray
Future provision
2n%of(fxnxs)+A
1
TYPE 1
TYPE 2
Fig. 2.3.8
TYPE 3
The Headroom normally provided is as below.
Sr. Description Headroom
I No. (mm)
Clear head room under
nes
inside operating area.
2. Head room over rail
(from top of rails)
3. Clear headroom above
crest of road for crane
movement.
4. Clear headroom above
crest of road for truck
movement.
Clear headroom above
crest of road between
process units.
P & I diagram, equipment layout, piping
specifications, equipment drawing and the vendor
requirement for proprietary equipment forrn the basis of a
piping layout. In areas where piping is critical, the
equipment locations are fixed only after a 'piping study'
is made.
UTILITY LINES (UPPER LEVEL)
1
m*LO
+I I I
$1 I
1 I
$1 I
FUTURE I
I I
PROCESS LINES (LOWER LEVEL)
I SOURCE RESERVED FOR
/ CONDUIT
/
Fig. 2.3.9a
I---
IiEAVY LINES OLD PROCESS
I
+
GAS PW
I HOT PROCCSS I
+ I I(! I LLINI-I;
... ...
I
..A
CW, CHW, CHB I SERVICE
I
I
Fig. 2.3.9b
NO DIFFERENCE
I N ELEVATIOr\I
qT T
\
T U R N IN PIPERACKS
( C H A N G E I N ELEVATION W H E N
CHANGING DIRECTION)
Fig. 2.3.10
Fig. 2.3.11
GROUP OF LINES WITH EXPANSI(2bd L(3,(_?F"3
(HOTTEST AND LARGEYIT LINE ( 1 TtTIIPE)
FLEX1
LOOP
Fig. 2.3.14
EXTENSION
-i
LOCATION II
II
II
RELIEF HEADER II
NEAR CENTRE. OF I
B-
I
LOCATION RACK I
I
TOP LEVEL II
II
II
II
Fig. 2.3.15
PRESENT FUTURE
EXTENSION O F FIPCRACI\
Fig. 2.3.16
Fig. 2.3.17
VALVES
- -- IN
EL > 2 2 0 0
!d TO BE CHAIN OPERATED
- MAX 2 2 0 0
7
W
u0
W I MIN 2 1 0 0
0
0
z
'ty 4-
I
APPROX 1 7 0 0
- -- -- -- --
N
1300
1100
800
CHAIN
600 I
MIN 1 5 0
MAX 6 0 0 II- -
5 0 0 MAX
Fig. 2.3.18
UTILITY CONN TO PROCESS EQUPT
Fig 2.3.19
COMMON
AS REQUIRED
ELEVATION
Fig 2.3.20
ARRANGEMENT O F BATTERY LIMIT
ISOLATION S I N G L E LEVEL R A C K
ELEVATION C H A N G E
Fig 2.3.21a
ELEVATION b
Fig 2.3.211,
HIGHER OFF-SITE
RACK
# yv;R
-
OFF-SITE
UNIT RACK
Fig 2.3.22
ing ,will need certain
I
ZTie duty for which it is
provided. Piping Engineer should be aware of there
requirement and should take care of the same while routing
these pipe line.
a) Flow measurement instrument need certain straight length
upstream and downstream of the instrument.This is normally
15D on the upstream and 5D on the downstream.
t
TYPE II
TYPE Ill
k
T T
TYPE V
TYPE IV
..
Fig. 2.3.23
. The requirement as per the following shall be
-2 8
f) ,
Development control rules by the State
Industrial Development Corporation.
Towers
Towers
Lines with both ends higher
t h a n top yard bank locoted
o n the higher side
-- ,.
7 /
Platform - Drums I
C
\4
lord irvgtn
I, Ground
elevation
- ~~ .
+ 1'00 M ~ .
Fig. 2.3.24
The requirexilentas per the following shall be
mum-. ,,<a"
.._
....
.., ... .
.,...
?:. . .. ., .
.id,.
,
e) , .
The Indian Boiler Regulations 1951.,
. , ...
. .. .
i.,.~.
.. ..,.
' C...
. .
PLAN
LAYOUT O F P U M P S I1 I
REFINERY P E T R O C H E M I C A L P L A I IT
Fig. 3.1.la
- SPACE FOR PIPING
\, \
\
MAIN
,A(-: (-: E'-,
'-,
O
/
-
'
'</ -
Fig. 3.1.lb
STARTER
SINGLE P U M P ARRANGEMENT
PAIRED P U M P ARRANGEMENT
PIJMP ARRANGEMENT
Fig. 3.1.2
TANK # I
. CURBWALL
-- .
I N A TANK FARM
Fig. 3.1.3
VACUUM TOWER
e
,1:> ri
', k:. 1 --.,'
. .
m m TO
REACTION # 1 REACTION # 2 REKTION # 3
GROUPING O F PUMPS # 2
S P O O L PIECE FOR PUMP REMOVAL
ECC RED
Fig. 3.1.4a
SPOOL PIECE FOR PUMP REMOVAL
SPOOL PIECE
FOR PUMP REMOVAL-
Fig. 3.1.4b
AT
ELEVATION
Fig. 3.1.5
DISCHARGE PIPING
SUCTION PIPING
ISOLATION VALVE
CONCENTRIC
$) PRESSURE
INDICATOR
REDUCER
'Y' TYPE
REDUCER
STRAINER F.S.D
A PUMP CASTING
TYPICAL SUCTION LINE SUPPORT
BYPASS LINE
BYPASS LINE
COOLER
USE OF ECCENTRIC REDUCERS ALLOWS
LARGER FLANGES ON VALVES TO CLEAR
The complexity of piping system design, maintenance,
and troubleshooting requires the process Engineers, the
Maintenance Engineers and the Piping Engineers on the
same Wavelength and work more closely together.
LP-LR ELBOW 90' TURNS PIPE BEND
I
LATERAL ANGULAR
BRAN C H - O F F
Fig. 3.1.6
The following general concepts apply for locating the heat
exchangers.
...
1Clearance between
b o t t o m of pipe a n d _U_75Clearance
e x c h a n g e r betwee3
flanges'
g r a d e f o r d r a i n valve a n d c o n c r e t e plint
Clearance
for swinging
Fig. 3.3.1b
I The basic principles adopted in the heat exchanger piping
Yard
piping
1-
- Access l o valves
and instruments
T0-
' I /
exchanger having o b o d (I 600 rrlrn s h d tlian~eic~
Fig. 3.3.2a
Dimensions of Elevations for piping
'ford-piping 2 to 3 ft between exchangers
elevations 7 Elevotions for p i ~ ) i n g
I r Ond r- to odjocent equipwent
To p u m p B
Exchanger piping i n elevation showing l o c a t i o n of -
pipeline r u n s in r e l a t i o n t o IIU~I-I pipe ~ u c l . .
Fig. 3.3.2b
I The basic types used in the chemical process
Shell Cover
Shell Flange-Stationary Head End
Shell Flange-Rear Head End
Shell Nozzel
Shell Cover Flange
Expansion Joint
Floating Tubesheet
Floating Head Cover
Floating Head Cover Flange
Slip-on Backing Flange
Floating Head Cover External
Floating Tubesheet
Packing Box
Packing Gland
Packing Gland
Klfjadlfkaj
Tierods and Spacers
Transverese Baffles or Support Plates
3 1. Pass Partition
32. Vent Connection
33. Drain Connection
34. Instrument Connection
35. Support Saddle
36. Lifting Log
37. Support Bracket
38. Weir
39. Liquid Level Connection
FRONT END REAR END
STATIONARY HEAD TYPES SHEEL T W E S HEAD TYPES
~~
-L
ONEPASSSHELL
BONNErmmOe.ALrnVER)
a WILT ROW
I ~r
NLEDNBESHEET
UKE1('STATIONARY HEAD
DIVIDED FLOW
@
K m L E TYPE REBOILER
--
SPECIAL HIOH PRESSURE CLOSUl DIVIDED FLOW EXTERNALLY SEALED
ROATMGNBESHEET
BEM
Standards Of The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
AEP
Standards Of The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
Standard Of The Exchanger Manufactures Association
AKT
The following alterations can be suggested in order to
I achieve optimum piping arrangement.
I a) Elbow nozzle permits lowering o f heat exchanger to
-
Fig. 3.3.3
r il
.77.-, T7 7.,. / 77.71/
Ti
Rool
out
Vent 17
wslz_t'y Drain Droin
-
Pipe
Rock 1
I
I,
-:'s -qO-
-.-
I
- Pipe
Kz-
I, - -
I
iii) Zig-zag flow pattern iii) ser piping and better flow pottern
produced by relocating nozzles.
Fig. 3.3.5
The piping associated with these vessels are simple.
I Economy of piping and access to valves and instruments
nozzles. The nozzle and support
ate-das-below. (Refer Fig. 3.4.1)
Inletloutlet nozzles
Vents and Drains
Relief ValvesIRupture Disc
Level gauges
Pressure and Temperature tap-offs.
Manholes
Vessel saddles
Vopour
I -
Nozzle a n d m a n h o l e l o c a t i o n s
Fig. 3.4.1
r- Vessel I. ugs
Comer Supports
I I
Lug-supported d r u m s Lug-supported d r u m s
(less economical design) (More e c o n o ~ ~ i i c odesign)
l
Fig. 3.4.2
Building st,el is /not
a t t a c h e d to reactor-
and drive
n
building and
Fig. 3.4.3
Access on wing
r Access
steel
Building
-L
fig. 3.4.4
Access
(Less e c o n o m i c a l )
Access,
(More economical)
Vertical D r u m
Fig. 3.4.5
yout and Piping design for a
distillation column, which is more of an integrated unit than the
individual equipment discussed earlier.
-
Feed
I TO strooge
Q -
>-(
Bollom pump
Fig. 3.5.1
Mar 2s
Lines with both ends ,..,her
lacing rood -;
than lop pipe rock
I V L
control--/ pump J Akrnote
valve suction suction line
Elevotion
Line to Pipe rock
equipmenl
I
To
ol grode
(reboiler) '\ ./ equipment
\ ~eament / 0' grade
5 5 01 plotforrm bmckets
. ,-,,
Plnn
Piping oround the distillation column.
Fig. 3.5.2
Riser
Reboiler
Morimum
liquid level
Sleam condensote
-
Distillolion column
fYL-7
1 I ) Condensale
Fig. 3.5.3
Minimum
f liquid level
L Requit-ed elevulion
difference between
liquid level in tower
ond exclionger
Required -
NPSH
- Pumpout
bypass
Fig. 3.5.4
The prime consideration in all these cases is the performance
to achieve the process requirements integrated with economy.
MR. T. N. GOPINATH
Basis of Site Selection
Location
1.1Area Allocation
1.2 Transport Facilities
1.3 Manpower availability
Industrial Infrastructure
Community Infrastructure
Availability of Water
Availability of Power
Effluent Disposal
~vailabilityof Industrial Gas
Site Size
Ecology
Pollution
Plot plan is master plan locating each unitlfacility within
the plot boundary for process industry such as.. .
Refinery
H Chemical IAgro Chemical / Petro Chemical / Organic
Chemical / Inorganic Chemical
H Fertilizer
H Pharmaceutical
H Metallurgical
H Power Generation
ata to be collected before starting
1 1 Civil
1.1.1. Plane table survey map.
1.1.2. Contour survey map(at 10M grid).
1.1.3. Soil Bearing capacity.
1.1.4. Nature of Soil
1.1.5. RaiVRoad Access.
ata to be collected before starting
1.2 Electrical
1.2.1. Location of Electric Supply Point.
1.2.2. Supply voltage levels.
1.2.3. Fault Levels.
1.2.4. Voltage Levels required within the unit.
1.2.5. Proposed distribution scheme.
Non Plant ~acilities
Administrative Block
Canteen
Workshop
R&D, QC Lab and Pilot Plant
Gate HouseITime office
Security Arrangements
Vehicle Parking
Medical Centre
Ware House
Covered Area
= Open Area
= Solid Warehouse
Liquid Warehouse
Steel / Scrap Yard
Fire Station
Weigh Bridge
Staff Colony
1.4 Meteorological Data
The tank height shall not exceed one and a half times
the diameter of tank or 20 M whichever is less.
Minimum distance between the tank shell and the
inside of the dyke wall shall not be less than one half
the height of the tank. Height is considered from
bottom to the top curb angle.
It is better that the comer of the bund should be
rounded and not at right angle as it is difficult
extinguish fire in a 90° angle comer because of the air
compression effect.
There should be a a minimum of two access points on
opposite sides of the bund to allow safe access/ escape in
all wind directions
Distances to be observed around facilities in an installation
shall be as per the relevant chart furnished in the
Petroleum Rules. (Refer Fig. 3 & relevant Table in the
Petroleum Rules).
Storage ~esse'lsare not allowed below ground 1evel.They are
to be installed above ground level.
p Vessels shall be located in open.
Vessels are not to be installed above one another.
. .
If vessels in the installation are more than one, the
longitudinal axis of vessels should be parallel to each other.
Top surfaces of vessels are required to be made in oneplane.
I Vessels installed with their dished ends facing each other shall
have screen walls in between them.
H . The distances to be observed between two vessels in one
above 10,000
!
iii Above 10,000 but not 10 metres 2 metres
above 20,000
-I-
Above 20,000 15 metres Diameter of l ~ [
vessel
Note : The distances specified above may be reduced by the Chief Controller in
ases where he is of the opinion that additional safety measures have been provided.
STEPS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE
DEVELOPING THE PLOT PLAN
Establish the N-S and E-W (or X-Y) grids, the plant
north in relation to geographical north.
Establish the N-S and E-W (or X-Y) grids, the plant
north in relation to geographical north.
Establish the free area along the plot boundary as per
the statutory norrns.
Work out the area requirements for the green belt,
vehicle parking etc. as per the norms.
The process blocks shall be located in the sequential
order of process flow so that material handling
(solidlliquid) is minimum.
The blocks shall also be arranged considering
prevailing wind
direction so that flammable gases do not get carried
to sources
of ignition.
Storage tanks shall be grouped according to
process classification.
Centralised control room shall be located in safe
area close to
process plant.
STEPS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE
EVELOPING THE PLOT PLAN
Two adjacent process units shall be located based on
annual shut down philosophy so that hot work shall not
affect the operation.
Process unit shall be located on higher ground away
from the unwanted traffic.
Process units shall be serviced by peripheral roads for
easy approach.
Utility block shall be kept at safe area close to process
plants.
Electrical sub-stations shall be placed at the load
centre to minimise cabling
Receiving station shall be placed near the supply point.
Ware houses shall be located close to the material gate
to avoid truck traffic within the process area.
Flares, FurnacesIHeaters, cooling towers, etc. shall be
placed depending on the wind direction.
Provision of future expansion shall be considered.
Raw water storage shall be placed closer to water source.
Fire and raw water tanks shall be located together.
STEPS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE
DEVELOPING THE PLOT PLAN
Fire stations shall be away from the hazardous area and
nearer to main gate.
Effluent treatment plant shall be located away from the
process and utility area on the downwind direction.
Workshop, contractor's shed, storage yard, etc. shall
be at centralised location serviced by peripheral roads.
Two gates are preferred, one for the material entry
with weigh bridge and the other one for man entry.
Administrative block, laboratories, etc. shall be located
closer to the man entry gate.
Process unit can be separated within a fencing
providing additional gate.
.Consider recommendation from the statutory
authorities for inter unit distances.
Residential colony shall be located away from the
plant more closer to the city limits.
********
EPC PROGRAM ACADEMY, BARODA
Larsen & Toubro Limited
2 4 JUL 211112
TECHNICAL LIBRARY (PRDH)
Piping Specifications
~- ~~~
( EPC Centre, B P Estate, Chhani, BARODA, TEL: 776206,771109 FAk776211, E-MAIL: rajesh-patel@enc.Itindia. .c0111 I
EPC PROGRAM ACADEMY, BARODA
Larsen & Toubro Limited
Piping Specifications
I I
EPC Ccutre, I3 I' Estate, ChI~ani,BARODA, TEL: 776206, 774109 FAX:77621 I , E - ~ ~ ~ ~ : - r a j e s h - ~ a t e l @ e n c . l t i n d i a . e b ~ ~ ~
INTENSIVE COURSE ON PIPING ENGINEERING
Conducted by
MATHIMITATION TECHNOLOGIES PRIVATE LIMITED
MLTMB A1
For
LARSEN & TOUBRO LIMITED
MUMBAI
PROGRAMME
TUESDAY, 16.07.2002
0930 - 1100 Introduction to Piping ASM
Engineering
1115- 1245 Introduction to Piping ASM .-
Engineering (contd.)
1330 - 1515 Pipe Sizing & Design ASM
1515 - 1645 Pipe Sizing &Design (contd.) ASM
WEDNESDAY, 17.07.2002
0930 - 1100 Codes & Standards TNG
1115-1245 Piping Elements TNG
1330 - 1515 Piping Elements (contd.) TNG
1515 - 1645 Piping Elements (valves) TNG
ASM : A S MOHARIR
TNG : T N GOPWATH
Arun S Moharir
Present Affiliation
Professional Qualification
Ph.D. (1981) in Chemical Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India
Communication Addresses
Other
PROF. A. S. MOHARIR
INTRODUCTION
Like all living things, chemical processes and process plants have their distinct natures and
features. Like us, a process functions through a complex chain of operations performed by its
organs (equipment) which in turn are supported by supplies through a maize of veins and arteries
(pipes). Like us, they have a limited life span divided into various phases just as we have
childhood, adolescence, youth, adulthood and old age. The analogy can be stretched further. With
so much similarity with us living things, why not talk of biography of a process as well? The life
of a chemical process, from concept to commissioning and beyond, involves almost all disciplines
of engineering. So wide is the knowledge base required to walk a process through its expected life
span and so intricately integrated the inputs from various specialization and decision processes are,
that they make the conventional engineering disciplines such as chemical engineering, mecharical
engineering, civil engineering, metallurgical engineering, etc. look artificial. A good chemical
process engineer needs to have a very broad knowledge drawn from all these disciplines. The idea
of this biography is to take a bird's eye view of the activities during the life cycle of a process and
identify those activities, which together comprise Piping Engineering.
MAJOR PHASES
There is an explosion of investment as one goes from the first to the last phase. Normal tendency is
to spend very little initially by way of avoiding comprehensive analysis of process options etc. The
recent trend is to squeeze an additional phase between techno-economic feasibility and basic
engineering, called conceptual design, wherein one spends more time (and money) on analysis of
available options to select the option best in some sense. Although it tends to increase expenses
initially, the cost figures by the time the.facility reaches normal operation phase. are reduced
considerably. *Click here for better visualization of the effect of 'working harder and smarter' in
the initial stages.A piping engineer has a major role to play from detail eneineering onward.
However. some appreciation of the contents of the phases involved up to basic engineering is
desirable. -
TECHNO-ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
Economic gain drives industry, in general. Except perhaps during early small scale production
activities in metallurgical industry, economic gain has been a major consideration in decisions
regarding the choice and scale of any production activity. Safety and pollution considerations as
well as social issues seem to be gaining importance. In a way these are dso enforced throug!!
explicit or implicit profit governing means such as rewards/penalties. All said and done, such profit
motives have led to great technological innovations. Techno-economic feasibility study evaluates
any commercial scale venture from these angles. A technically feasible and economically viable
process sees the light of the day.For new products, technical feasibility is an important first aspect
to study.
It comprises of two parts as follows.
Chemical path feasibility essentially checks whether a suitable chemical conversion route exists to
produce a chemical with desired molecular structure from available raw material. The suitability of
the chemical conversion route is mainly in terms of rate and degree of conversion to desired
product at manageable temperaturelpressure conditions. For more insight into these aspects, *click
here. The sequence of operation which enables a kinetically and thermodynamically feasible
conversion route to be exploited for production is called Block Flow Diagram (BFD). This is the
first diagram in the life of a process and the process can be said to be born. *Click here for more on
BFD. The process represented in a BFD is then evaluated for its engineeringhechnological
feasibility. The idea is to verify whether the current level of engineeringhechnological skills allow
exploitation of the process on a commercial scale without exposing the men, machines and
environment to undue risk. Several decisions need to be taken at this stage. The contents of this
step are becoming more and more involved and include the conceptual design stage in recent times.
One virtually thinks through the choice of equipment, important process steps, possibility of
reducing dependence on external energy sources, reducing possible extent of damage in case of a
mishap etc. *Click here for more details on engineeringhechnological feasibility studies including
conceptual design and process synthesis.With the process synthesis task accomplished, conceptual
design stage of process development is over. The various equipment have been selected and their
capacities are approximately known. The capital cost and operating costs can be estimated
reasonably reliably at this stage. This information coupled with the raw material availability and
cost as well as the product demand and its market price help establish economic feasibility of a
pr0cess.A technically feasible and economically viable process is now destined to grow further.
BASIC ENGINEERING
Physicallchemical operations in a process are normally carried out under harsh conditions. The
temperatures, pressures are either super- or sub-ambient and the chemicals being handled could be
toxic and hazardous. It must be remembered that just as it is important to know what is happening
inside a particular piece of equipment, it is equally important to know as to what are the
implications of the happenings inside on the mechanical integrity of the confining hardware
(vessels) and whether the choice of material of construction of the vessels and pipes and their
mechanical design are adequate to handle normal and abnormal operations. Traditionally, chemical
engineers address the design issues related to happenings inside and mechanical engineers the
implications on the vessels/pipes. For the overall process safety and functioning, the issues should
be treated as inseparable. That is, unfortunately, not the case.
This Phase has essentially two components; the process design and mechanical design.
Process Design :
Process design is basically the detailed material and energy balance calculations over each unit in a
flow sheet. It also establishes the operating conditions, equipment size (not necessarily shape),
utility requirement etc. The results of these chemical engineering calculations are summarized in a
Process Flow Diagram (PFD).For processes which are continuous in nature and operate at steady
state, engineering simulation software are available and are extensively used. These provide
simulations of performance for imposed design and operating conditions. However, one would like
to decide the design and operating conditions for a given desired performance. For example,
process design of a distillation column would mean calculating the number of trays, feed tray
location, sidedraw locations, reboiler and condenser duties, reflux ratio etc. A reactor design would
mean arriving at the reaction temperature and pressure, reactor volume, recycle rate for given
conversion of feed into desired product. Simulators are used to try out various combinations of
designloperating conditions os as to arrive at a combination best in some sense (quality of product,
economics etc.).For example, one would try out different feed tray locations and reflux ratios on a
distillation simulation and study simulated performance. A feed location, reflux ration which give
desired distillate quality etc. would be a candidate design. There may several such designs which
serve the purpose. The best among them in some sense is the optimal design and is recommended.
Through simulation based process design of each unit in a flow sheet and of the flow sheet itself,
the entire material and energy balance calculations for the best design are available. This process
design stage culminates in the preparation of a PFD, one of the basic documents comprising basic
engineering package.
After the development of PFD, the focus shifts on the design of pipes connecting
equipments, choice and specification of instrumentation required to monitor and control process
performance, instrumentation to ensure process safety such as provision of trips, alarms etc.
Appropriate techniques for pipe sizing, pressure design of pipes, Hazard & Operability (HAZOP)
analysis, Control System Synthesis & Design (CSSD), etc. are used. HAZOP studies and reliability
data on certain equipment and pipe components (especially those having moving parts such as
pumps, control valves etc.) suggest the need for standby equipment, bypass valves etc. Need to
isolate dynamics of one equipment from next suggests the need for intermediate storage tanks.
These project engineering activities help develop a PFD into its next incamation, the Piping &
Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID). *Click here for more information on P&ID. PFD with its focus
on processes inside the equipment and P&ID with its focus on accessories connecting the
equipment and on-line instrumentation complete the basic process documentation. With all
equipment and accessories, their sizes and functioning known. a tentative plot plan showing
relative placement of equipment can be prepared. PFD also helps categorue the requirement of
various utilities such as cooling water, tempered water, demineralized (DM) water, steam, thermic
fluid, compressed air etc. Total requirement of each utility and its distribution among the equipment
develops a quantitative Utility Loading Diagram etc which could be used to develop Utility Flow
Diagram (UFD). A full pressure drop analysis of the entire flowsheet can be done at this stage to
ensure that the desired flows can indeed take place. Some individual pipe sizes or pipe sizes in a
segment of flow sheet could call for some adjustment to ensure the desired flow behavior.
Adequacy of the pipe sizes in case of operation at lower than design capacities (turn-down
conditions) and their ability to take additional load in case of throughput enhancement could also
need some pipe size tuning etc.
Mechanical Design :
Pressure design of piping gets done during the development of P&ID. The severity of
operation of each equipment and the nature of chemicals it needs to handle similarly allows choice
of material of construction of each equipment. Indenting process for bought-out equipment and
mechanical design of fabricated equipment can be taken up. Pressure vessel design concepts are
used for this design. It would involve calculating the shell wall thickness, closure type selection and
thickness calculation, selection of suitable gasket material with adequate yield stress and gasket
factor, choice of gasket location (Mean gasket diameter), gasket thickness, gasket width, placement
of bolts (bolt circle diameter), bolt material selection, number of bolts, diameter of bolts etc. A
vessel needs to have openings to serve as inletloutlet ports as well as for drainage, hand holes, man
holes, inspection holes etc. These could be on shell or closures. The shell and closure wall
thickness are designed primarily to ensure that the stresses in the walls even at weakest parts (along
welding sams) do not cross the allowable stress value even after corrosion or inspite of nonuniform
plate thickness (mill tolerance), etc. When openings are cut, stresses concentrate along the edges of
the opening and may exceed allowable stress value used in wall thickness calculations. Provision of
extra thickness, that is choice of a thicker wall could prove expensive. Theoretical findings that the
stress concentration in the event of cutting an opening in a wall is confined within a circle of
diameter double the diameter of the opening is used here to verify if provision of extra thickness in
this circle around the opening can keep stresses within allowable range. Reinforcing pads are then
recommended around the opening if necessary. For pressure vessels subjected to net external
pressure (for example, vessels operating under sub atmospheric pressures), compressive stresses are
developed. Design is more complicated here and need for stiffening rings to reduce chances of
failure due to buckling needs to be checked. Spacing between stiffening rings and cross-section of a
stiffening ring need to be arrived at.
Above elaborate design steps are lead to adequate design of not so tall vessels. Tall vessel design
need to be further checked for its adequacy to withstand wind load, seismic load, eccentric load etc.
TIllcoL
.--- ,Uu...Yllal
-~,i:+:,.-. !oads may require enhancing vessel wall thickness andlor provision of stiffeners to
prevent buckling etc.
Pressure vessel design is this quite involved. However, design procedures are very well
documented in the codes and standards. Design software also exist to help develop designs which
comply with accepted codes.After attention is paid to each and every aspect, a fabrication drawing
is issued for fabrication to begin at an early stage. Equipment fabrication is time consuming. Also
in the field work, equipment need to be installed in place quite early so that pipe routing job can be
taken up.
The process design and the mechanical design of pipes and vessels involves extensive chemical and
mechanical engineering calculations. These calculations do not need any data on actual site for
plant location. The design depends mostly on process conditions. Some aspects of mechanical
design for tall vessels, such as meteorological data (wind speed) or seismic data are location
dependent, but hot on the actual plot of land. These calculations also do not depend on actual
relative placement of equipment on the plot etc. Further evolution of the project require the
knowledge of the actual site. Site preparation work and other outdoor construction activities can
begin once the site is selected. We have included further analytical aspects also in
construction phase for this reason.
DETAIL ENGINEERING
Further analytical work needs to be done before the final blueprint of a 3-D plant layout is finalized
and construction begins. Some of the activities listed under the construction phase here may well be
considered as belonging to the above discussed design phase itself. These are included here mainly
because plant site details are a part of inputs to the decision making. The choice of plant location, if
such a choice exists, is governed by politico-socio-economic considerations. The basic approach to
site selection is to assign weight factors to various relevant considerations and to select a site which
scores maximum overall points. Once the site where the process plant and associated facilities are
to hosted is decided, locational factors such as topography, prevailing wind direction, neighboring
site etc. are used to decide on the best plot plan. Apart from the process equipment and offsite,
other requirements such as control room, fire station, hospital, weigh bridge, effluent treatment
plant, etc. are allocated space on the site. The road map of the site also emerges during plot plan
exercise. Care is taken to follow certain guidelines for the location of typical facilities such as dusty
operations, fire bearing equipment, storage tanks, noisy operations, fire station, effluent treatment
plant, etc. *Click here for some typical examples.
Plot plan is science as well as art. A good engineer is one who makes the best utilization of a given
plot to place his facilities. There is a separate module on Plot Plan in the notes where good
engineering practices are covered in more detail.
The next activity is to decide on the location of each of the equipment in the process area. A unit
has its own requirement of space for erection, operation, maintenance etc. For examplz, a shadow
area must be earmarked besides a shell and tube heat exchanger so that the tube bundle can be
pulled out for maintenance. A pump must similarly have space around it s that the motor can be
taken out for maintenance. Large, heavy equipment require large, non-interfering foundations.
There are process-related constraints also as follows. Distance between two equipment connected
by a pipe carrying hot stream must be as less as possible to minimize heat loss. A thermosiphon
reboiler must have certain barometric leg provision and should be located a certain distance below
the distillation column. Suction drum should take care of NPSH requirement of a pump. Forgravity
flow, static head should be enough to maintain desired flow. Certain inter-unit distances have
emerged based on these and similar considerations. These provide good guidelines for equipment
IayoutAnother aspect of equipment layout is the orientation of the equipment on the slot assigned
to it. It decides the nozzle orientation and hence the piping layout. It also decides the accessibility
of different parts and accessories of the equipment. Accessibility, ease of maintenance, implications
on piping layout are the main considerations here.A piping engineer is deeply involved in plot plan
and equipment layout. These are decisions which virtually freeze the parameters for Piping Layout.
Equipped with a PFD, P&ID, individual equipment sizes, erection/maintenance/operation
requirements, safety requirements and also requirement of critical piping (piping which is likely to
expandcontract significantly and/or face vibrations during operation and require additional
consideration or accessories (such as expansion joints etc. to absorb pipe movement during
operation), a good piping engineer relies heavily on experience and engineering sense to develop a
good equipment layout. His decisions could have a bearing on the project cost as the piping
requirement, which constitutes almost 25% of the capital cost of a process plant can be favorably or
adversely affected by his layout.
After the units have been located and appropriately oriented on paper, the layout of the veins and
arteries of the plant, that is the pipes have to be laid out. This activity is called Piping Layout. It is
not as simple as connecting the outlet port of one equipment to the inlet port of another equipment
by the shortest or most convenient route. In fact, such direct connections are exceptional. A pipe is
firmly attached to the nozzles on the equipment. Equipment, by nature are fairly heavy structures
and should support the weight of connected pipes, provided the pipe connections are reasonably
short. For longish connections, pipe would sag under its own weight, under weight of its contents.
Heavy items on pipe such as valves add to this scenario. Also, the connecting nozzles may move
due to expansion/contraction of vessels or simply settlement of vessels. The pipe would
expandcontract during operation. All these operating time happenings develop stresses in pipe
wall. If not properly designed to withstand these stresses, pipe would fail during operation.
Considering all loads that would come on to the pipe during operation and mitigating their effects
with provisions of pipe supports, hangars, expansion joints, or rerouting of the pipe is the job of a
piping engineer who does the piping layout. Weight analysis and thermal stress analysis are
important in piping layout. These can be done today using. However, analysis of the stress
distribution churned out by these software for a candidate pipe routing and modifying the route to
make it safe requires a lot of experience and knowledge. There could be several routes which are
safe. Only one of these would be economical. Amving at this is the exclusive domain of a piping
engineer.
Piping layout is almost the last analytical exercise in the engineering of a process. It requires as
inputs a P&ID, equipment layout, piping elements pecifications, structural drawings of
buildingslplatforms, utility flow diagram, line list, equipment data sheets and drawings etc. Once a
safe and economical layout is arrived at, a piping engineer prepares a piping general arrangement
(GA) drawing showing the pipe routing associated with equipment, piping isometrics and
equipment nozzle orientation, With isometric drawings of all pipe routes available, a complete
quantification of pipe and piping elements requirement is possible.
The course has a separate module on Equipment & Piping Layout.Depiction of equipment and
piping layout in all its details is a major task. Normally a piping general arrangement (GA) drawing
presents a layout. Since a three dimensional layout is to be presented here in a two dimensional
view, lot of symbols need to be used to represent what the piping would look like in actual three
dimensional view. Details regarding piping elements (for example an elbow, tee, valve with lever
etc. has to be shown on a GA. Not only this, further details as to whether the tee is butt welded,
socket welded, flanged or screwed should also be indicated on a GA through choice of proper
symbols.
The knowledge of these piping symbols, their proper interpretation and a mental recreating of a
three dimensional perspective from GA is one of the major skills a piping engineer needs to
possess. Without this. his preparation of GA and his interpretation of others' GAS is going to be
meaningless. Piping ison~etricsare made out of the GA drawing. Isometric (ISO) drawings at least
have the 3-D feel which GAS lack. Isometrics are then used for piping stress analysis, fabrication,
spool drawings etc. Piping drawings make sense only if standard symbols and conventions etc. are
religiously followed. Although not a subject in any conventional engineering curriculum, the fact is
that piping engineers express themselves and understand each other through the language of
drawings. We have a special module on Piping Drawing for you with all important tips, examples
and exercises.
During the detail engineering phase, there is virtually an explosion of information and detail which
leads to an explosion of documents and drawings. All implementation details of activities to be
taken up by mechanical, civii, electrical, instrumentation departments are documented. There is a
tremendous activity in the drawing office as well as in field. It is difficult to discuss all the aspects
here. Coordination of all activities is normally left to the piping department. This is logical because
the basic drawings/documents such as PFD, P&ID etc. are released from here, and the final
drawings/documents prepared by other departments have a direct bearing on the plant, equipment
and piping layout. With all activities leading to the same goal, this coordination becomes important.
An integrated software platform, which serves as a repository of all information and decisions
regarding a project, is becoming popular for internal consistency of detailed engineering activities
as well as for efficient project management. It plays a major role in effective and timely completion
of projects of this complexity and criticality.
A software model of a 3-D layout of a process plant is gaining importance. It is replacing the
conventional plastic models of plant which were necessary and useful for easy visualization and
implementation. Unlike PFD, P&ID, etc., which were schematic drawings, a 3-D model is a
dimensional graphic and can be made to contain all details of a envisaged plant. It can have all the
data associated with a project. Apart from easy visualization, it offers checks for interference (a
proposed piping layout clashing with civil structure or equipment etc.), checks on ergonomics (is an
instrument readable by an average height operator etc.), checks on aesthetics. It can lead to
generation of derivative drawings such as piping isometrics, orthographic drawings of different
sections of plant etc. Bill of material for pipes and piping elements (pipe length, piping elements
such as elbows, tees, flanges, valves, specialties, etc.), procured equipment list (pumps etc.), etc.
could be easily extracted. Preparation of specification sheets or data sheets for equipment,
accessories can be automated around a 3-D model of the plant. Progress of project implementation
can be monitored and documented using 3-D drawings. 3-D drawings, offering virtual reality and
walkthrough effects etc., can be used for acclimatization and training of personnel much before the
plant becomes a reality. A 3-D model is a complete database as well as visual of a process plant and
its use would increase in coming years.
The fieldwork involves actual placement of equipment and routing of pipelines. Necessary civil
structures to serve as foundations of equipment, platforms, housing of various facilities,
supports/hangars for pipes, racks for pipes and electrical cables etc. Welding and fabrication,
painting, hydrostatic testing for pressure integrity of fabricated equipment and associated-piping,
thermal insulation and cladding to prevent heat ingresslegress or sweating or for personnel
protection etc. go on in full swing.
A piping engineer is expected to be aware of and knowledgeable about all these field activities
apart from the design office activities.Once the plant is ready in all respects. it is time to
commission it.
Commissioning involves taking the cold assembled plant to go on-stream and produce design
capacity. If the entire design and detail engineering has been done scientifically, if design intentions
are reflected in various designlengineering documents and drawings correctly and unambiguously,
if fabrication, erection and assembly has been done as per design intentions, then (and only then)
commissioning should be a smooth affair. This is normally not the case because lots of adhoc
decisions need to be taken on field during erection to take care of fabrication errors, late or non-
delivery of items, design errors which were made at an early stage and went unnoticed, or even late
second thoughts. The project is normally on critical path during field work and not all these
decisions and their implications are thoroughly analyzed or probed.
Another reason why commissioning is not so easy is that the start up conditions are significantly
different that steady state conditions for which the plant has been designed and engineered.
Dynamic process simulation is a good software tool to evolve a good start-up policy. It helps
envisage the transient performance of an equipment as it goes through the start-up procedure and
also to study alternate procedures for start-up. It is not being used to significant extent today and
conventional and time tested (not necessarily optimal) start-up procedures are followed.All the
decisions of a piping engineer, especially those regarding piping layout, piping supports etc. are on
test during commissioning. The pipe literally moves as it goes to temperatures different than
installation temperature. Inadequacy in weight and stress analysis could surface at this stage by way
of pipe jumping supports, support collapsing, etc. A piping engineer's presence on sight is
important to handle such eventualities.
NORMAL OPERATION
For a well-designed and executed project, the problems during production phase are mostly
operational. If design capacity is achieved with ease, there is always an urge to improve throughput
by way of debottlenecking, reduce on energy bill by way of reducing pressure drop or retrofitting
of heat exchangers etc. These call for minorlmajor changes involving installation of additional
equipment, bypassing an existing equipment and related changes in pipe route. These changes may
be trivial from process point of view but their implications on mechanical design aspects could be
far-reaching. A trivially simple change may lead to adverse changes in type andlor magnitude of
stresses in piping systems causing their failure and disaster. A healthy practice is to involve a
piping engineer to be associated with every hardware change or operating point shift contemplated
during normal operation of a process plant. A limited HAZOP analysis of the proposed change is
also recommended to discover a hidden serious problem in a superficially trivial change. These
aiuali jobs are normally not supported by big consulting houses and an in-house piping engineer has
to manage these mini designlengineering assignments.
CONCLUSION
Important events in the life of a typical chemical process are described in this paper. Concept,
design, engineering and operation of a chemical ljrocess plant are truly multidisciplinary in nature.
A piping engineer has a major role to play during important events during the life span of a process.
He is one engineer who must have a broad knowledge of all aspects and their interplay.
PIPE HYDRAULICS AND SIZING
DR A.S. MOHnKIR
DR P. PAIWN.IAPF.
WHY PIPE SIZING IS IMPORTANT the confidence limits in calculated valuesand the factors
ofsafely which rnut be incorporated in view of known
According to a 1979 American survey, as much limitations ofcorrelations. Different conccpls Z t i;ci-r~
a s 30% of the total capital cost of a typical chemical cemented through representative examples during the
process plant goes ior piping, pipiing elemen&'and lecture in the Certificate Course on Piping Engineering
A significant amount ofoperating cost (energy) is also c ~ n d u c t e dby Piping Cell at Indian Institute of
used up in forcing flow throughpipingand i s -poms. Technology, Mumbai.
4 significant amount ofthe maintenance cost is also for
the piping and associated things. PIPE SIZING PROCEDURES
Proper sizing, optimal in some sense,is therefore . ..
vry necessary. Pipe sizing is :&leially done using one of the
following ai&
WHY IT IS DIFFICULT ;UVD AT TIMES
MEANINGLESS 1) Velocity considerations
2) Available pressure drop c o e d d o t s
Piping must be sized before the plant is laid out. 3) E~onomicconsiderations
Layout must be complete(i.e. equipmentmust be locate4
pipe racks established, layout of individual pipe runs The degree ofdifliculty increases as one goes h m
decided, etc.) for calculating realistic pressure drop and (1) to (3). While pressure drop calcularion is an integral
doing pipe s k g for each pipe segment This 'chicken part of (2) and (3), it would need to be calculated in case
and egg' scenario means that decisions regarding pipe .-
(I) also to quanUfy energy reaukmat, bdngpressure-
sizing md plant layout must be iterative in most cases. providing eqkprrtentsuch z pumpdccmpressors, etc.
That is n o d l y not the practice except in fw, very large To' be conversant with pressure drop calculation
engineering organizationswhich can afford i t Having to procedures for variety of flow types thatare encountered
carry out pipe sizing at a p m m t m stage invariably means is thus very important
that the recommended pipe size may not meet process
requirement or may not be the most economic, etc.
Normally a layout is assumed drawing on past a
.. v
practices and experienceand pipes are sized No second
iterationiscarriedout Actual layoutwhichmergcs later D h 3 flow. The
may be significantly different than d a t was assumed
during sizing. The sizes may thus turn out to be non-
optimal. Also, what is optimum today may not be T h e paper reviews ihe following:
optimum over a long period (due to fouling, change in
r;kive mt~, change in opelacing schedule which affects - TYPES OF FLOW
the utilintion time of h e pipeline, etc.).
Pipe sizing is thus a 101ofexpaience. engineering Single p&, Two ?k. bidti-phue
foresight and judgment than just theory. This paper Horitond, Inclk&
anernpts to review the pipe sizing procedures, the n r o u g hk c h t ~ ~ - through
~ i p complcx
,
pressure drop dculation procedms which are integnl mUlj7gS
ro pipc: sizing p d ~ - s L. k i f d l s L? these ulculaliocs. ;wli..c-~, non-;sc.~;.s&
purcsinglc liquids.solutions ol'solids in liquids. rnixturcs
ofcomplctcly rnisciblc liquids. mixture.^ of gascs andror
vapors come in this category.
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION AIother flows= multiphase flows.The two phase
flowwould involve two distinct ~hast.ssuchas liquid with
SINGLE PHASE PRESSURE DROP irsvapor,a liquid with anotherimmirible or pady soluble
CALCULATIONS 1iquid.a liquid with an incondensible gas. etc. A liquid or
gaslvapor sueam with suspended solid particles is also a
* Horizontal. maighf constant cross-section two phase flow. However, a two phase flow would
segment normally refer to two fluid phases. When rwo immiscible
* Inclined. s~raight,constant cross-section segment liquids are involved with their vapor andlor another inen
* Fittings and valves gas, it is a three phase flow and so on.
* Equivalent length in actual terms Energy required to sustainsuchflows inpipes/tubes
* Equivalent length in diameter ierms is avery important information which has to k generated
through calculationsof pressure drop that the flow would
TWO PHASE PRESSURE DROP cause in a conduit of given cross-section, and extent.
CALCULATIONS. This informarion is then din locating equipents. a
pipes, deciding their routes, rating pressure generating
Flow regimes and their identifications equipments, etc.
(Baker Parameters) Temperarureoftbe flowing medium affects physical
* Pressure drop calculations properties such as density and viscosity which in turn
(Lockhart Martinelli, Baker) have a bearing o n t h e pressure drop. When the
Confidence levels in calculated pressure drops temperature is constant over the pipe segment under
* EffectofiMon consideration, or the [ e m p e w change along the flow
* ~cientific'a~~roach path is not significantenough so as to cause appreciable
MULTI-PHASE FLOW PRESSURE DROP change in the physical properric;, it is treated as an
CALCULATIONS isothermal flow. When the temperature change is
significanf it is a non-isothermal flow. When the density
1
A possible approach of the flowing medium is not m n g l y correlated with the
pressure, the medium is termed as incompressible and
PrPE SIZING the flowas incompressible flow:Liquid flow (single, two
or multiphase) would come in this category naturally.
t However, when gasedvapors which are compressible
..
Velocity considerations
.r-... drop considerations
,~bsire
[that is their density is a strong function of pressure) are
* involved, but the pressure drop along the flowpath is not
Economic considerations significantenough to affect the mediumdensity, theiflow
may also be treated as incom~:essibleflow. Otherwise,
the flowofgasedvaprs is a*cornpressiblefim.
In some flow situations, especially two and
rnultiphase flows, the inclination ofthe flowconduit from
Although h e flow can be categorized on several horiwnlal is of great siydicance. Also whether the flow
basis. the classification based on number of phases in h e inclined conduit is upward or downward is also an
i:l\.olvcd is the rnon commonly 4. When the flowing irnportantconsidmtion. In the caw:ofsingle phase flow.
filcx!iuni h s uniform physical propcnicsacross the How tlic inclination is imponant in thc scnse that it affccs tthc
:n's.;-wcrion. the now isa sing!e phase llow. Flow of ovcr,~llcncrgy balance given Tor the fiowsituation by h c
lbrnous I3ernoulli's equation. But.'the flow type and the tempenture ofthe fluid as it flows. 'lhis lcmpcmturc
hydnulic pressure drop are not affected by the pipc rise is not enough to do any work and this energy
inclination rransformed into thermal energy is as good as lost &rW.
This expressed in pressure units or expressed in terms of
an equivalent wlurnnofthe flowing fluid is called fiiaional
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION pressure drop or head loss.
Incorporaringrhis fan into the Bernoulli's equation
In its original form, Bemoulli'sequation~smerely yields the following form which is generally used in
a statementofcodon ofenergy for flowing medium.calculating fictional pressure drop in flow:
Consider a segment of an inclined conduit of variable
crosssection as shown in Fig. 1 and fluid flowing through
it. The energy of the fluid at any location may be
expressed in terms of a vertical column of the flowing
fluid itself. This height at any point along the conduit is SINGLE PHASE PRESSURE DROP
then seen as cornpxisingofthreecomponents, t kpresnrre
CALCULATIONS
head (Pip), velocity head (+Rg) and elevationhead (Z).
Bernoulli's theorem states that the sum of these three
Single phase flow is classified as LAMINAR.
components is constant eveqwkxe along the flow path
TRANSIENT'orTURBULEM. The deciding factor is
This is bue if there are no external energy inputs or
withdrawals h r n the conduit Applied at the t m paints the REYNOLD'S NllMBER defined as follows.
1 and 2 of the inclined pipe shown (Figl), the Banoulli's
equation can be written as follows :
When the pipeis horizontal (Z, = Z,) and tl\- The HYDRAULIC RADIUS is defined as a ratio
conduit cross-section is uniform (v, = v,), the pressures of flow cross-sectional area to the wetted perimeter. For
at the two points. I and 2. should be cqual. This is not example, in the caseof a nx+mgdarcross-section with
the c x e kcause the flow is confined by the pipe and sides a and b, tbe flowcross-section is ab while h e wetted
here is a resistance to flow caused by Friction between perimeter is2a+2b. Similarly, for an annular region as
the fluid and $e wall. friction betweendifferent layers of shown (Fig. 2), the hydraulic radius is as shown:
fluid flowing a[ different velocities and thesmall or big
swirls crated in rhc liquid due ro flow tubulence. Flow
pins; thm rcsiwnws C ~ ~ I K 'gcncntion
S of h a t mising
roughness E by calcula~ingits ratio ~vithpipc dianlctcr
W).
The log-log plot is difficult to read and the reading
is error prone due to nonlinearity of scale. Several
correlations are therefore proposed by various authors
so that the friction factor can be caiculaicif Somi the
Reynold's number. Some of the famous correlations are
given later.
In the case of implicit correlations. an iterative
approach is necessary to get the value ofthe fiction factor
for given value ofReynold's number. Neivton-Rhapson
method may be used for getting the value in fewer
With D defined in this general sense in the definition iteiations.
of Reynold's number, the Liitingvalues of the number ~ a n n i n ~equationis
's also used in place of ~ a r q ' s
for laminar, d e n t and turbulent flows remain the same equation as follows :
as givenearlier The linear velocity used in thedefinition
of Reynold's number is obtained by dividing the
volumemc flow rate by cross-sectional area for flow.
Alternative but equivalent forms of definition of
Reynold's number which are commonly used are as Comparison should show that the Darcy's fiction
follows. factor is obviouly four times the Fanning's fiction factor.
f, While using any friction factor vs Reynold's number
graph to read fiction factor and then while using it in the
formula to calculate the pressure drop, olemust be taken
to choose the compatible graph and compatible
wherz G is the linear mas: velocity of fluid correlation. This is often a source oferror.
Another friction factor is alw defined by Churchill
(which is half of Fanning's - friction factor). The
corresponding formula for pressure drop calculation thus
has a factor 8 in the numerator instead of4 in Fanning's -
where W is mass flow rate in Iblhr, D is pipe ID in equation. So, one needs to be really very careful in
inches and p is density in lb/ft3. handling this prevailing multiple definition scenario.
'-4.
f-'* = 19.656 In ['";4"'3 enhance when fluid enten the pipe from an equipment
or at the exit when the pipe feeds into another equipment
are relatively insignificant as compared to overall frictional
pressure drop .In case the pipe has fittings such as elbows.
Blaiius equation, hlly developed turbulent : tees. valves, expanders, reducers etc., an hypothetical
straight pipe length ofsame diameter as the run pipe on
/
f = 0.3 164 Re425 which the fitting exists is added in place of each ofthe
fittings, The effective length is the sum ofthe &ght-run
Another Blazius equation pipe length plus the total equivalent length for all fittings.
Entrance and exit of fluid in and from the pipe segmtmt
f = 0.046 RC4.l also adds to turbulence and to extra pressure drop. This
effect is also incorporatedby adding equivalent length of
these. The actual ~ u i d e n t l e n g t h forimprtant
s finin@
*d[
Smooth or rough pipe, Re less than 3400000,
developing tubulent flow : are given in real terms (i.e. lengthofpipe to be added) in
,C 1,
Tables 2-5. m e tables are taken from the famous paper
on practical pressure drop calculations by Robert Kern)
f-'n=19.656 In In another approach, equivalent lengrh of fittings
are mentioned in terms ofdiameters of the pipe. This
number should then be mdtiplied by the pipe size to get
the equivalent length ofpip? to be added. The equivalent
Most f vs Re would mark -ition between lengths for valves and$kngs in terms of diameters arc
developing and fully developed turbulent f h w s by a reported in several books and are not given h a . Analysis
broken line. Most flow situations in process industry ofhe actual equivalent lengh for fittings ofdifferentsixs
would fall in the fully developed turbulent region and as given in Tables 2-5 should show that the equivalent
Blazius equation (especially the one with Rewith exponent diameter approach is rather approximare. Using actual
-0.2) given above is widely used. pipe lengths as per tables is a more accurate approach.
The roughness faclor E is dcpcndent on the pipe Above procedure isapplicable lo fluids. i.c.. liquids
material and rncthod of fabrication a l ~ dsome and gascs.
In case the temperature varies across the pipe In theabove definitions, following units arc used.
segment, the physical properties vary. Also if the fluid is -
Wv Vapow flow rate. I b h
gadvapor. its volumetric flow rate may vary due to W, Liquid flow rate. Ibhr
pressure changes arising out oftemperature change as pv V a p w density, lblii'
well as due to pressure drop. To account for these effects. p, Liquid density, lb/ftJ
it may be a good practice to divide the whole line into A Internal cross-seectional area h:
segments over each ofwhich, the temperature change is p, Viscosity of liquid. cp
not so significant as to change the pmpertiesdrastically. a , Surface tension of liquid, dyndcm
The properties are suitably updated to incorporate
temperature and pressure changes as one traverses these Note that although the Baker parameters are
hypothetical segments .Calculation over all the segments dimensionless, the numerical constants (2.16.53 1) in
thus gives the total pressure drop. above equations are dimensional. Given units must be
Change in pressure across the pipe may be of followed
importance in w e of compressible fluids. It may be The Baker parameter values are then used to
ignored if it is less than 10%ofthe total fluid pressure. identify the flow regime from the plot given (Fig.4). j
However, if it is more than this engineering tolerance, Remember, slug flow must be avoided in process piping
above approach of segmenting the pipe line may be applications.
adopted. The ~ r e s s u rdrop
i calculations then proceeds as
A good practice would be to calculate pressure per several correlations offered by several researchers.
drop over the pipe run assuming fluid properties at inlet Only two commoniy used ones are discussed here.
n begin
or average t e m ~ p ~ s s u r e c o n d i t i oto s with.
If the pressure drop so calculated is within 10% or less
of the actual pressure levels at which the fluid is flowing, LOCKHART MARTINELLI METHOD
one m q ignore the effect o f t e m p e r a t u r e / p change.
~
If the pressure drop exceeds 10% offlow presswe, the Assuming that only i?e'liquid flows in the pipe!inc.
above approach of segmenting may be resorted to. calculate the pressuredrop that it would cause over unit
length. (AP),.Similarly. consideringthat only vaporlgas
flows in the pipe, calculate the pressure drop per unit
length, (AP),.Single phase correlationsare to be used in
TWO PHASE PRESSURE DROP getting these two pressure drops.
CALCULATIONS Lockhart Martinelli Modulus, X, is then defined L
as follows.
Pressure drop in the case of a two phase flow is
dependent on the flow regime. For two phase flow
conditions, 7 regimes are possible as shown in Fig. 3.
Flow regime identification is done by following Baker's For h i s value of modulus.amultiplier Y,or Y, is
procedure. then read from the plot in Fig. 5 and it is appmpria~cly
'I'wo Baker parameters Bxand Byare calculated used inone o f h e following relations to get the two phaw
as follows. pressure drop, (AP),, per unit length. Multiplying this
with the e f f d v e length (after including equivalent lengths
ofthe fittings) ofthe pipe. onegets the tot31 two phasc
Fricdond prcssurc drop.
BAKER'S METHOD llowcorrclatiom and predicting two phaw: llow prchsurc I
drop. The approach would be something like this.
Depending on the regime identified carlicr, an
appropriate correlation or plot is used to get Bakers' Step I
modulus. cp? and it is multiplied with pressure drop with ~onsideronl~that r h e ! i q u i d p ~ ' ~ l u d i n g h e t wliquids
o ,
only gas flowing to get the two phase pressure drop. is flowing through the pipe. Let these liquids bc I and I.. I
Fig.6 is used for dispersed flow. Using Lockhart Martinelli method or other method (say .: '
:~
.\
liquid flows in same size pipe line ifthe inclinations are equivalent lengths of the fittings) of the pipe, one ge& the
.-. different. Also, in inclined pipes. it matters whether the
;$j
.-- flow is upward or downward. Extensive work has been
total three phase frictional pressure drop. i:.
?,I'
<.
reported on these aspects but industrial practices ignore
this fact.
MULTIPHASE PRESSURE DROP It may be appreciated that this is nothing but using :
CALCULATIONS the Lockhart Martinelliapproach on itself. In the a k n c e
ofany othercot~elationwith proven merit. this is likely to
Two immiscible or partly miscible liquid phasesand be a good engineering approach.
a gas phase comprising ofvapors ofthese liquids andlor
s rise to three phasc flowsituaions. Then:
o t h c r g ~give
PIPE SIZING
arc no rcponed reliable prcssure drop calculation
approaches for three phasc flow. What is proposed here ...
\ .
This is the simplest of approaches. Herein. Thjs is a more involved method of pipe sizing and
. recommended values oflinexvelocities for the flowing perhaps the most important. Pipes are sized here r n meet
medium are used along with the design flowrates to back certain process requirements. These process
out the pipe diameter. Recommendations for the linear requirements are tramlated into the maximum hydraulic
velocities may arise due to process considerations. pressure drop that one can accept over the pipe segment
mechanical considerations. material of construction of interest. A minimum pipe size which causes a pressure
considerations, corrosion considerations, economic drop at the most equal to this maximum acceptable
considerations based on prior experience etc. or a pressure drop is thus recommended. Any size more than
- examoles.
combination of these. Consider the followinr! this size would also be acce~table,but would be
uneconomical as it would involve higher capitid cost.
In a stem carrying pipe, if the linear smrn velocity The procedure would be oneof trial and error. A
is beyond acertain value, the flowing steam may commercial pipe size would be assumed in termsofNB. -.... ,
pick up the condensate. b d it up into fkgments. The pressure design of the pipe would decide the -i
.
These entrained condensate droplets may impinge schedule. From the appropriate tables. the ID of the pipe
against the pipe wall causing erosion and erosion- size would be obtained. Taking this as the hydraulic
,c~rrosion diameter and for ihedesign flowrates, hydraulic pressure
Too low a steam velocity in steam headers may drop over the proposed pipe route is calculated using
mean a l q e diameter pipe for design requirement appropriate pressure drop correlations. If this pressure
. . cost insulation
ofstearn. This would increase Dive drop is more than the acceptable level, a higher pipe size
wn etc. thereby adversely affecting economics. is taken for next trial. Ifthe pressure drop is much smaller
A gaseous stream canying particulates (such as than that acceptable,next lower pipe size can be tried.
pneumatic solid mmprt lines) must flow above a Minimum pipe size meeting the pressure drop requirement
minimumvelocityto eliminate solidssetthing down is recommended.
at pipe bottom causing flow obstruction, increased some importantsituatiom where piF sizing needs .
pressure drop etc. to be done using available drop considerations
A gaseous &canying particulates must not 'are as follows :
flow above a certain linear velocity &eliminate
severe erosion ofpipeline or elbows etc.
A line c q i n g two phases must be of a suitable
1. Suction Pipe Sizing for a Pump : ;\ liquid is to be
pumped h m astorage tank to an equipment The storage
,-.-
dimension so that certain two phase flow regimes tank pressure is fixed. On its way from the storage tank
(such as slug flow) are avoided oracertain regime to the pump suction, the liquid would loose pressure due
is guaranteed (such as concentric flow). to frictional pressure drop. If this pressure drop is
Linear velocities in exhaust lines should be below excessive. the fluid prepure'as i t is delivered to the
ce& upper limit to keep noise within acceptable impellers may be ~ d ;hewvapor ofthe liquid
levels. at flowinn- temwrature. The liquid would flash and some
ofthe liquid would then evaporate..4sthe impellers impart
These are just representative examples to help kinetic energy which is then converted to higher fluid
appreciate the o r i ~ i nof such restrictions on linear pressure insidethepumpbody.:hepressureagain rises
,,.e!witicsoffloving m$'durn. above the vapor pressure. Tne vqm bubbles previously
Some ofthe more accepted linear velocities in a formed thus collapsc back into liquid form. This. . suddcn
aid).ofdcsign cases are compiled in Tables 6 and 7. collapse creates the 'cavitation' sffcc: which could
d m ~ a g the
c blades and cause vibration and noise. This be commissioned. pump would be damaged and so on.
must be avoided at any cost. It is therefore imperative I t helps to appreciate these process rclarcd
thar thc pressm drop in Lhe suction pipe should be such limititlions through working out suitable practical uscs..
that the liquid is delivered to the pump at not less than the
vapor pressure at flowing tempenture. ECONOIMICPIPE SIZING : LEAST ANNUAL
COST APPROACH
2. Even when there is no pump, above considention
would apply. During its passage through the pipe, the If the Linear velocity and available pressure drop
pressure of the flowing liquid should not drop below its c o b n t s are not sn-ingent or these co&ts ail1 leave
vapor pressure at flowing temperature. Otherwise a scope of a reasonably broad choice ofpipe sizes, the
vaprization would rake place. most economic among these should be chosen.
The economics is governed by the capital cost of
3. In the case ofa feed to distillation column, it may the pipe and accessories including fining, insulation etc.
be the process requirement that the feed is a saturated and the annual operating cost. If for a given service. a
' . liquid.That is, at the flowing temperature, the feed is at smallerpipe size is used, the capital cost would be lower.
vw . r .pressure and fl&es as soon as it enters the column. At the same time. smaller size would mean higher fluid
The pip- zarrying the liquid from &e reservoir or the pressure drop and therefore higher ~ u m p i n gcosts. These
prmious q u i p e n t to the distillation column must ensure two conflicting effects ofpipe size mean that there is an
that the pressure drop is suchas to deliver the liquid at optimum pipe size.
saruration p i n t For the two costs to be compared, it is necessary
that the capital cost be annualized. Fig.7shom a typical
1. A liquid is required to flow at desig iate by gravity annualized cost of a pipe for given senice as a function
From a vessel to a lower destination. There is only one ofpipe diameter. The operating cost c w e is shown in
pipe size which would come close to this requirement. Fig. 8. The sum ofthese two costs (Fig.9) gives the total
The nearest commercial si7e should be recommended. annualized cost which passes through a minimum. The
objective ofthe Least Annual Cost (LAC) approach is
5. .A distilhion column uses thenno>yphonreboiler. to obtain this optimum diameter. Although conceptually
This kind ofa reboiler works on the principle ofnatural simple, it is dependent on the reliability of cost data and
, . circulation developed due to a static head difference cost projections over the life of the pipe being designed.
... between the downcomer and riser. Pipe sizing is a A possible approach which appears rearonably scientific
delicate babe bemeen barometric head that is available and practical is presented here (Nolte. 1978).
and pressure drop in downcomer and riser. Thecostofunit lengthofrunpipeofdiameter D is
calculated as
6. A fluid is to be tiansported h m p i n t A at pressure
PI to point B at pressure P2. There is a flow control
valve on Lhe m s p c r i line and it has been designed
ssurning certain pressure drop across the valve is X is the cost o f 2 inch diameter pipe ofsame material
available. Pressure drop across rest of the line that is and schedule.
3vailable is thus Limited and pipe must be sized The pipe will havecertain acceaories such as piping
xcordingly. Tik sitution can come even in two phase elemmts. though thecost ofthese would be application
I~O\V IiEj. specific, a general process plant average statistics such
P i p . size LS per available pressure drop is diosely as the foJlowingcould be useful to calculate the c o a of
I I : : ! ~io process quirement. Any errors in appreciating accessories per unit length as some factor T: of ths run
..
!!~Is:FL!rnis2.k~ in pi~si7ingcouldincan hur the gravity piw ccot. For example. a typical pipc line (Oj.5 li) may
.'
..k>ln. :rou!d ti,lr .;ustain. !!:snnos:;pl?utl rclwilcr canno[ I I ~ W 1.6 pis valves. 10.2 bends. 5.9 Ila~igcs.2 . I lees.
33.6 wclds. So thc tornlcapital cost is ( I +!-) C,,. Il'thc dl' psi
amorti-mtion rate is A,. the arinuali7rd capital cost of W 1000 Ibshr
the pipe and accessories is A, (I +F) C,. If the annual P CP
main~enancecost is a Fraction G ofthe capital cost, the p 1bs.lfi1
total pipe cost (capital + maintenance) is D inch
(A,+G)(l+F)C,. Substituting the expression for C, in
his. one can write theannualizedcapitalplusmaintenance Substitutingthis in theearlier equation. the cost of
cost. C, as a h c t i o n of diameter, D, as follows: moving the fluid per year3
flow rate (say I%), the energy expended in fluid flow is .Thetotal annual cost ofunit pipe length is thus
(WIp)(l 44 AP). p is the density (Ib/ft3) and the factor
144 in second parenthesis is simply to convert psi into
psf for consistency ofuniu;. The energy required is then
in f ~ l force.
b The pump has to supply this force using
elecirical energy. Taking the pump efficiency (E), the
annual usage ofthe pipe in terms of hours of operation
per year (Y) and the cost ofelectrical power, K, (say The optimum diameter which minimizes C, as
per kW.hr), the annual energy cost ofpumping (C,) can obtained by differentiating C, with respect to D, eqdng
be written as: theexpression t o m and sim$fying is given as follows:
0.0657YK
.. .
.'
- ,I
The units o f cost (e.~.Rs. or % should be Same as Most quantitiesinhe above expression areproject
that of power cost). he f~ctoi0.0000542comes only specific. Their values themselves may not be very reliable.
because of different energy units used for energy (ft.lb. What is then the sanctity ofthe optimal value ofD arrived
force and kWhr). at? Some order of magnitude analysisshould resolve this
The pressure drop, AP, can be calculated by issue and give an idea as to how accurately one should
cnnventional methods discussed earlier. One of the try and get these project specific parameters.
simplified formsofp-aauedropequationsrecommended For example, in the expression in square bracket
by Ceneraux has the following form. of the above expression, one would have reasonably
goo3idea of Y, K, E, X. However, at the time ofpipe
sizing which is done quite early in the project life, values
ofa. b. F'erc. may at most be guestimates. The imponant
pint to note is that the impact o f e m r in estimating the
It is a dimensionalequation and theunib for various exprcssion in the bracket is diluted to a great extent by
qu;u\titicsm as follows: the exponent 0.169. For example. a 33% cnor in the
. valucofthe brackct cspression would lead only to a 8% the absence ol'such csdma[es.and usc h c csprcssion ['or
error in the optimal size estimate. Another parameter Dqx,mUm in itsunsimplified form.
which is often asource of low confidence level is the Thc values thus calculated may not conform to thc
viscosity. But, due to a small exponent of p in the commercial sizes. The following procedure is
expression, one can verify that even a 10fold increase in recommended to arrive at the commercial size.
viscosity changes the optimal diameter by only 6%. The adjacent commercial sizes on either side of
In view of the above, the optimal diameter the LAC diameter are identified. Let these be D,md D,,
expressioii has been further simplified by using on lower and higher sides respectively. An hypothetical
representative values for a(0.143. i.e. 117). b (0.01 ). F size. called crossover diameter is then defined as
(6.75), E (0.55). X (1.32 Wt),Y (7880 hrdyear), K
(0.0218 SkWhr) to obtain the following simplified
expressions for LAC diameter.
Ifthe LAC diameter calculated earlier is above
= 1.717 Q 0..';9s0.142 Dc. D, is recommended. If it is below Dc, D, is
.. Duc P
recommended.
.,.....
with D in ern, volumetric flow.rate Q in rnl/hr. A good question to ask would be why exponent
"C.
S as Spec~ficgravity of fluid at4 centigrade, and of Dc is 0.6 and that of DLis 0.4 and why not the other
p in kg/cm.sec. way. Why not equal exponents?
With betiercomputing facilities. one may not be
An alternative expression is as follows. required to use the simplifiedforms ofFanning equations
and other simplifications used in the above approach.
However, any more elaborate approach should be
justified .by. availability ofmore reliable cost data and
with DuC in inches, Q in US gals/minand p in cp. values of other project specificparameters. ?he essence
of the approach would reiain the same.
if the estimates of a, b, F, E. X, Y.K for a project
are different than the values uxd in anivingat the above RECOMMENDED PIPE SIZE
simplified expressions, correction factorscan be suitably
used. For example if the actual number of hours of
Matever the approach used to arrive at the pipe
operation is Y and not 7880, the calculated LAC
size, it must be kept in mind thatthe pipe sizing activity is
diameter should be multiplied by a factor F, defined as
k i n g carried out rather prematurely. The actual pressure
drops are going to be decided by the actual layout of a
particular pint-to-pint pipe routing. That evolves at a
much later stage. Also, over the normal operating life of
Similarly, ifthe amorrimtion rate is 'a' and not in,
Lhe plant the pipes are subjected to modifications iil their
the correction factorshould be ID (due to fouling) and surface roughness (dw to scaling.
erosion. corrosion etc.). Also, optimization exercises and
capacity enhancements in f u w e may require the same
pipe to carry larger a r n o u n ~ofprocess fluid. In view of
The reader should ponder a linle to see how these
dl h e x , it is an industrial p=tice to r;commend a pipcr
corrrction iactors are wived at. ofone size higher than what is arrived at by any of the
.A ktter idea would tx to use the values of realistic
above procedures.
estimates of h e puclmecm (3, b. F. E. X.Y. K) whenever I T l r u I'ulllrcr bus r e l d hruvtly on 1& ~ m c ! ehy Xnhrrr K m , . p r r h l ~ r h d
ihcy are available and u e defaulr values given earlier in in <'lwtn. t:>>xx.World)
Distributive Flow
a) Bubble b) Mist
Intermittent Flow
Segregated Flow
e) Stratilied t) Annular
Fig. 3
k h c . 1 2 c ~ i m c sforTwtr P h : w Flow
Two-Phase Flow Correlations
Dispersed I Bubble ( Slug
-
. ( Stratitied Wave
-
1 Plug
--
1 Annular
Fig. 4
Baker parametersdetermined the type oftwo p h w i b w and appropriate two phase flow correlation x*s.unit loss
Fig. 5
I'arnmctcrs fur prcssttrc dnrp in liquid - gas flow throuph horizontal pipes
I IInscd IIII l.ocl;l~arl8.d hlartinclli. Chcm. Eng& Prog.. 45.39 ( 19.1 9)1
0.W 0.W 0.01 0.m 0.m 0.W 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 10 M 30 M
1
Ldduut-tAarthelli modulus. X'
Fig. 6
L o c k h a r t hfartiaelli Corrclatiom rtlatcs vapour and liquid propcrtics l o csl.blished two pbaSc n o r modules.
4
1 2 3 4 6 8
N O U W PIPE SIZE
Pig. 7
Fig. 8
A m a r l i z r d c a p i l l l corD Tor onc fool o r pipe. Annqal cost or operating onc'loot of pipc.
Surface roughness of varmus pipes
I
lubes
Miller (32)
I
Moody (34)
I
1 Kutateladze (29)
I1
~n. mm m. mm m. mm
Tubing
Drawn 0.MX)I 0.0025 O.MXX)6 0.0015
Clean, seamless C.Goo064.CCC.4 0.00154.01
Glass 0.0031 ' 0.0025 O.MM06-O.MW)4 0.0015-0.01
I
Sled
New 0.001 0.025 0.001 8 0.046 0.0025 0.06
Light rust 0.01 0.25
Oeaerated salurated Steam 0.008 0.2
Condensale (heavy rust) 0.035 0.9
--
concrete
Smooth 0.001 0.025 0.012 0.3 0.03 0.8
Precasl 0.01 0.25
Rough 0.02 0.5 0.12 3.0 0.35 9.0
A
Cast Iron
Uncoated
Coated
0.006
I 0.15
I
0.01 025
.
0.012 0.3
0.006 0.15 0.005 0.12
wood I I
Birch veneer
Pine veneer
Rough
I
Galvanbed
Smwth finish 0.001 0.025
Normal fhish 0.006 0.15 0.006 0.15
~crninal
Pipe Sks
In
I
Resistance of Eccentric and Concentric Reducers, . . . .. .-
And of Sudden Changes in
Line Size -Table 5 Typical Liquid Velocities in Steel Pipelines -Table 6
(Resistance in equivalent pipe length. ft.) (Resistance in equivalent pipe length. It.)
-
Nominal Sizes In.
_I
&-a
-L *-.-L
r Nomnal Pipe Sirar m . 2 of less 1 3 lo I 0 10 lo 20
-
*,
3-1 H
4 *a.
0.6 0.5
b u d 6 tine
Won
_C
P u m ruem t o 2 2o.(
H 1.2 0.7
I PWmdXimn)a(lolql 2a3 3 lo 5
% 0.6 0.6 o;&n)aheaC.(~~l b a g 510 12
1H
% 1.6 1.O BdNlsad 4109 . 5012
D T ~ ~ 3mr 3105
S l rmsr 3 lo 5
HydtmlOon rwkk
(Norrrul r i r a i t i s r )
PurrCsueion 1.5 10 2.2 2 to 4
D&qe headsrlkmgl 2.5 :o 3.5 3 lo 5
Babr laad 4 to 9 510 12
haia 3 to i 3 10 5
V-r oils
P W su&n
M&m Vmx&ty 1.5 10 3
Tar m d lual cih 0.4 la 0.7.5
M r p a (%I 3m5
Omns 1 1.5 10 3
I".
velocq FVS
. . ..
2wLeY 4S b 1W 41080 JOlo60
3 10 4 5olol10 45 to 90 35 m 70
6 120
~ a l o 5010120 1050
8b10 65 m 125 8010150 65 lo 125
12 lo 14 mlo !a l m t o lw 80 10 I45
16 D 18 75mI35 IIOtoZ10 9010 1W
20 m l 0 1 ~ 120!0220 10010 170
tise~
and EG. 131
-
Bubble
i3 ~ 0 , 1d.2
(w/AI~~'
x
I
~
Slug
(w{A]~'-~
Avoid
slug flow
I
0 '= 1 ~. 1 ~9 0 ~ 0
Scrarified
~ =~15.100X
~ ' ~
w,uI~.'
Horizontal
pipe
' Wave
Use Fig. 5
and Eq. (91
and [ l o ]
Horizontal
pipe
1
1
iw/""'7
I
P!ug
b =a,$
~ . 3 - 0-. 3C.021
, =1;.3Ci : 2 5 dd
.* = :.D. 01 1 1 3 e . - 0
For j i p e 12-in anc
or?:, u s e d = 10.
;
j.
!
i
I
Cour;esy: Mr. Ovid aaker and The Oil and Gas Journal. ";)
%s>
FIG. 1. Baker parameters derxmine the type o i two-phase flow zzd ths ?jpropr:arc two- I
phase-now corelation ss's unir loss. 1
!
Lockhart-Marrinelli modulus, X 2
FIG. 3. ~ b c k h a r t - ~ a r t i n e lcorrelation
li relates vapor and liquid properties to establish two- :;
phase flow modulus. ...
.
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
CODE
A group of general rules or systematic procedures for design, fabrication,
installation and inspection prepared in such a manner that it can be adopted by legal
jurisdiction and made into law.
STANDARDS
Documents prepared by a professional group or committee who are believed to be
good and proper engineering practice and which contain mandatory requirements.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
Documents prepared by professional group or committee indicating good
engineering practices but which are optional.
Each country has its own Codes and Standards. On global basis, American
National standards are undoubtedly the most widely used and compliance with those
requirements are accepted world over. In India, other than American standards, British
standards and Indian standards are also used for the design and selection of equipment
and piping systems. The major organizations for standards are;
The American Standards referred by Piping Engineers are mainly the standards by:
1.1 The American Petroleum Institute (AH)
Power Piping
Process Piping
Refiigeration Piping
Of the above, the most commonly used code is ASME B 31.3. Refineries and chemical
plants are designed based on the same. All power plants are designed as per ASME B
31.1.
Other major ANSI 1ASME dimensional standards referred for the piping elements are:
14) ASME B 16.34 - Steel Valves, flanged and butt welding ends.
17) ASME B 18.2 1 & 2 - Square and hexagonal head Bolts and Nuts -
(in & mm)
In Part-II, the materials are listed in the Index based on the available forms such as plates,
castings, tubes, etc. and also on the numerical index.
he selection of ASTM specification depends upon the type of manufacture, form
of material, its mechanical strength and the corrosion properties.
The specification number is given on Alphabetical prefix, 'A' for Ferrous materials
and 'B' for Non-ferrous materials.
ASTM also specifies standard practice for numbering metal and alloys as Unified
Numbering System.
3. EOOOOl - E 99999 Rare earth and rare earth like metals and
alloys
12. GOOOOl - G 99999 AISI and SAE Carbon and Alloy steels
manufacturers have given their own brand names for the various electrodes and are sold
under these names.
elements required for low-pressure water services. These are less stringent than other
standards. Valves, flanges, etc. required for large diameter water pipelines are covered
under this standard and are referred rarely by piping engineers here.
Ball Valves
Pipe Unions
Diaphragm Valves
There are certain British Standards referred by Indian Manufacturers for the
construction of piping elements such as valves. The most commonly referred British
standards in the Piping Industry are:
1) BS 10 - Flanges (obsolescent)
23) BS 3601 - C.S. Pipes & Tubes for pressure purposes at room
temperature
24) BS 3602 - C.S. Pipes & Tubes for pressure purposes at high
temperature
25) BS 3603 - C.S. and Alloy steel Pipes &Tubes for pressure
purposes at low temperature.
26) BS 3604 - Alloy steel Pipes & Tubes for high temperature
34) BS 5150 - CI Wedge and Double Disc Gate Valves for general
purposes
Testing of valves
Safety Valves
Bureau of Indian Standards @IS) have so far not developed an Indian standard for
the design of Piping Systems. Hence, ANSI standards ASME B 31.1131.3 are widely
referred for the design. These standards also accept materials covered in other standards.
Unlike American Standards, Indian Standards cover dimensions and material
specifications under the same standard. There are also no groupings done based on the
series/branch of engineering as well.. Some of the most commonly referred Indian
Standards by the Piping Engineers are:
Line Pipe
Steel Plates
Plain Washers
66) IS 13257 - Ring type joint Gasket and Grooves for flanges.
There are certain other international standards also referred in the piping industry. They
are the DIN standards of Germany and the JIS standards of Japan. DIN standards are
more popular and equivalent British and Indian standards are also available for certain
piping elements.
Periodic renew of the standards by the committee is held and these are revised to
incorporate the modified features based on the results of research and feedback kom the industry.
Although some technological lags are unavoidable, these are kept minimum by those updations.
Hence, it is necessary that the latest editions of the codes and standards are referred for the design
and year of publication also to be indicated along with.
Piping Elements
I I I I
IAatollic IIon-Melolic Lined
I I I I I I I I I
Ferrous Ilon-Ferrous MSGL MSRL MS MS MS MS MS MS FRP
i40leriols Moleriols PTFE PP PVDF Cemept Leod Ceramic PP
I Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined Lined
I I I
Copper Aluminium Iblickel Lead
+ + +
Copper Aluminium Ilickel
*-
Alloys Alloys Alloys
I
I' I I I I I I I I
Cost PVC CPVC PP HDPE UHMW-HDPE FRP PTFE LDPE LLDPE Gloss Ceramic Cement
Iron Steel Carbon Steel Alloys
Steel
FIGURE 1.1
Piping Elements
Pipe Size Eq. Metric Outside Outside
NB (Inch) Pipe Size Dia (Inch) Dia (mm)
NB (mm)
118 6 0.405 10.3
114 8 0.540 13.7
318 10 0.675 17.1
112 15 0.840 21.3
314 20 1.050 26.7
1 25 1.315 33.4
*1% 32 1.660 42.2
1% 40 1.900 48.3
2 50 2.375 60.3
*2% 65 2.875 73.0
3 80 3.500 88.9
*3% 90 4.000 101.6
4 100 4.500 114.3
*5 125 5.563 141.3
6 150 6.625 168.3
8 200 8.625 219.1
10 250 10.750 273.0
12 300 12.750 323.9
14 350 14.000 355.6
16 400 16.000 406.4
Piping Elements 4
, . Plain ends are specified when pipe to
Generally the thickness specified by pipe andor pipe to fittings joints are done by
schedule numbers of B36.10 and B36.19 fillet welding.
match except in the followings: Screwed joints are specified when pipe
to pipe andor pipe to fittings joints are done
10" SCH80ISCH80S by threaded connections.
12" SCH40lSCH40S Flanged ends are specified to
12" SCH80ISCH80S provide bolted connections between pipes
and between pipes and/or fittings.
14" SCHlOISCHlOS
Spigot/ Socket ends are specified when
16" SCHIOISCHIOS lead caulkedcemented joints are provided
18" SCHIOISCHIOS between pipes and between pipes and
20" SCHIOISCHIOS fittings.
22" SCHlOlSCHlOS Buttress ends are used in glass piping
and are joined by bolting with the use of
In Indian Standard IS 1239, the backing flanges.
thicknesses of pipes are specified as Light,
1.4.1 BUTT WELD PIPE JOINTS
Medium and Heavy. The medium and
heavy pipes are only used for fluid handling.
In IS 3589, the thicknesses are specified in
actual dimensions in mm.
As regards the nonmetallic and
lined piping systems, the thickness of pipe
andlor lining are not covered under any of
the above standards. These are as per the
relevant ASTM standards. For certain plastic
pipes, Indian Standards are also available.
The pipes are available in standard Advantages
lengths of 20 feet (6 m). a) Most practical way of joining big bore
piping
b) Reliable leak proof joint
1.4 Pipe Ends c) Joint can be radiographed
Based on the material of construction and
the pipe to pipe joint, the ends of the pipes Disadvantages
are specified as follows. a) Weld intrusion will affect flow
1.4.1 Beveled ends b) End preparation is necessary
1.4.2 Plain ends
1.4.3 Screwed ends 1.4.2 SOCKET WELD PIPE JOINTS
1.4.4 Flanged ends
d EXPANSION JOINT
1.4.5 SpigoUSocket ends TO PREVENT WELD
FROM CRAC'ING UNDER
1.4.6 Buttress ends 1HER.WL W E S S
Piping Elements
Advantages
.. 1.4.4 FLANGED PIPE JOINTS
a) ~asTerAlignment than butt welding
b) No weld metal intrusion into bore
Disadvantages
a) The 1/16"(1.5 mm) recess pockets - -.
liquid
b) Use not permitted by code if Severe
Erosion or Crevice Corrosion is
anticipated.
Disadvantages
a) It is a point of potential leakage
b) Cannot be used when piping is
subjected to high bending moment.
Disadvantages
Joint may leak when not properly
sealed
Use not permitted by code if severe
erosion, crevice corrosion, shock or Advantages
vibration are anticipated. a) Can be easily made at site.
Stren,& of pipe is reduced as threads b) Can accept misalignment upto 10' at
reduce wall thickness pipe joints.
Seal welding may be required
Code specifies that seal welding shall
not be considered to contribute for Disadvantages
strength of joint a) Suitable for low pressure application.
b) Special configuration at pipe ends
required.
Piping Elements
1.4.6 BUTTRESS END PIPE JOINTS e) Spiral Welded
Pipes having helical seam with
either a butt, lap, lock-seam joint'which is
welded using either an electric resisrance,
electric fusion or double submerged arc
welding process.
1.5.2 Seamless
Pipes produced by piercing a billet
followed by rolling or drawing or both.
used only for glass piping and not capable The most commonly used material
to hold high pressure. standards for the pipes are listed below
1.5 Types Of Pipes
Based on the method of manufacture pipes Pipe Materials
ASTM A 53 Welded and Seamless
could be classified as
1.5.1 Welded Steel Pipe, Black and
a) Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) Galvanized
ASTM A106 Seamless CS Pipe for
Pipes having longitudinal butt joint
wherein coalescence is produced by the heat High Temp. Services
obtained from resistance of the pipe to flow ASTM A120 Black and Hot Dipped
of electric current in a circuit of which the Zinc coated
pipe is a part, and by application of pressure. (Galvanized) welded
b) Furnace Butt Welded, Continuous and seamless pipe for
Welded ordinary use
ASTM A134 Electric fusion welded
Pipes having longitudinal weld
joints forge welded by mechanical pressure steel plate pipe
developed in passing the hot-formed and (Sizes 2 16" NB)
edge-heated skelp through round pass weld ASTM A135 Electric resistance
rolls. welded pipe
c) Electric Fusion Welded (EFW) ASTM A155 Electric fusion welded
Pipes having longitudinal butt joint steel pipe for high
wherein coalescence is produced in the temperature service
preformed tube- by manual or automatic ASTM A312 Seamless and welded
electric arc welding. Weld may be single or austenitic stainless steel
double. pipes
d) Double Submerged-Arc Welded ASTM A333 Seamless and welded
Pipes having longitudinal butt joint . . .~
steel pipe for low
produced by at least two passes, one of temperature service
which is on the inside of the pipe. ASTM A335 Seamless ferritic alloy
Coalescence is produced by heating with an steel pipe for high
electric arc or arcs between the bare metal temperature service
electrode or electrodes and the pipe. ASTM A358 Electric fusion welded
Pressure is not used and filler material is austenitic - chrome-
obtained from electrode. nickel steel pipe for
Piping Elements 7
high temperature (Sizes 2 16" NB)
service 22. ASTM A672 Electric fusion welded
11. ASTM A369 Carbon and ferritic steel pipe for high
alloy steel forged and pressure service at
bored for high moderate temperature
temperature service services
12. ASTM A376 Seamless austenitic (Sizes 2 16" NB)
steel pipe for high 23. ASTM A691 Carbon and alloy steel
temperature central pipe, electric fusion
station service welded for high
13. ASTM A409 Welded large diameter pressure service at high
austenitic steel pipe for temperatures
corrosive or high (Sizes >- 16" NB)
temperature service 24. ASTM A731 Seamless and welded
14. ASTM A426 Centrifugally cast femtic stainless steel X
'(
Piping Elements
which the system is subjected to. Unlike
pressure vessels, the pipes and fittings are
manufactured to certain standard
dimensions.
Hence, it is necessary for the Piping
Engineer to select the best suited thickness The use of the above equation is best
of the element. illustrated by means of the following
Corrosion allowance, depending on the example.
service to which the system is subjected to Exam~le:
and the material of construction, is to be A 12" (300 mm) NB pipe has an internal
added to the calculated minimum thickness. maximum operating pressure of 500 psig
The thickness arrived thus is to be (35 k g / ~ mand
~ ~temperature
) of 67.5'~. The
compared with the available standard material of construction of the pipe is
thickness after allowing for the mill seamless carbon steel to ASTM A106 Gr B.
>. tolerance of *12.5% on the nominal The recommended corrosion allowance is
%$$ thickness. 118" (3mm). Calculate the thickness of pipe
as per ASME B 3 1.3 and select the proper
1.7.1. THICKNESS OF STRAIGHT PIPE schedule.
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
ASME B 3 1.3, the Process Piping Code, PD
in clause 304.1.1 gives minimum thickness Tm= - +C
as follows: 2 (SE + PY)
Tm=T+C
PD P = 10% higher than the MWP
where T = = 1.1 x 500 = 550 psig
2 (SE + PY) D = 12.75" (OD of 12" NB
where pipe)
P = Internal Desi gauge pressure Design temperature = 675 + 25
psig (Wmg)
P
D = Outside Diameter of pipe
inch (mm)
S = Allowable Stress from S = 16500 psi
Appendix A 1- psi (kg/cm2) (Refer-ASME B 3 1.3 Appendix 'A'
E = Joint Quality factor from Table A-1)
Table A - 1B E = 1 (Joint Quality factor.
Y = Coefficient f;om 304.1.1 Refer ASME B3 1.3, Appendix
C =Cl+C2 '4' Table A-IB)
C1 = Corrosion Allowance Y = 0.4 (Refer Table 304.1.1)
= 1.6 mm in general for carbon C = 0.125" (Specified)
steel
= 0 for stainless steel
C2 = Depth of thread
(used only upto 1 !4" NB)
Piping Elements
since L is unspecified.
Hence, considering the mill tolerance of Do 6.625
12.5%, the nominal thickness for a - -- - =69.7
minimum thickness of 0.335" will be t 0.095
From Graph (Fig. G) in ASME Section I1
Part D,
Factor A = 0.000225
From Graph (Fig. HA-3) in ASME Section
In practice we will specify SCH 40 pipe, I1 Part D,
which has a nominal wall thickness of Factor B = 2750 for the above factor A and
0.406" and minimum 0.355" (0.406x0.875). for 7 5 0 ' ~
Allowable pressure
1.7.2 THICKNESS OF STRAIGHT PIPE 4 B
UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE Pa = - -
The pipe with a large ratio of diameter 3 Dolt
to wall thickness will collapse under an 4 x 2750
external pressure which is only a small -
- = 52.6 psig
fraction of internal pressure which it is 3 x 69.7
capable of withstandiilg. This is less than the Desim Pressure.
To determine the wall thickness under Therefore, assume higher thickness.
external pressure, the procedure outlined in Consider SCH 80 S pipe
the BPV Code ASME Section VIII Div. 1 Nominal thickness = 0.432"
UG-28 through UG-30 shall be followed. Minimum thickness = 0.875 x 0.432
= 0.378"
Example: Do 6.625
A 6" (150 mm) NB pipe has an external - - -- = 17.5
-
Design Pressure of 400 psig-
- at 750' F. The t 0.378
material of construction of pipe is seamless Do
austenitic stainless steel to ASTM A 312 TP
304L. The corrosion allowance is nil.
Factor A for the new value of - is 0.0038
t
Calculate thickness and select proper Corresponding factor B = 5500
schedule. Allowable Pressure;
Refer ASIME: Section VIII Div.1. UG 28 4 x 5500
Assume value of 't' and determine ratios Pa = = 419psig
L Do - 3 x 17.5
- and - More than Desicm Pressure
Do t Hence select SCH SOS pipe.
Do for 6" NB pipe = 6.625"
Assume SCH 5 S pipe 1.7.3 THICKNESS OF BEND
Nominal thickness = 0.109" ASME B3 1.3, in it the latest revision,
Minimum thickness considering negative has added the formula as below for
mill tolerance of 12.5% establishing the minimum thickness of bend.
t = 0.875 x 0.109 = 0.095" The rninimc~ilthickness ,1 of a bend
Consider, L after bending, in its finished form, shall be
-- - 50
Do
Piping Elements
2.0 PIPE FITTINGS
ASMEIANSI B 16.28
- Wrought Steel Butt welding Short
Radius Elbows and Returns
ASMEIANSI B 16.42
- Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged
Fittings
\.<\' BS 1640 - Butt weld Fittings-
and at side wall the bend centre line radius 10: BS 3799
I = 1. The thickness apply at mid span y12. - Socket weld and Screwed end fittings
11. BS 2598
- Glass Pipelines and Fittings
12. IS 1239 Part-I1 - M.S. Fittings
13. IS 1538 - Cast Iron Fittings
14. MSS-SP-43
. - Stainless Steel Fittings
2.1 Classification Based On End
Connections
Extrados 2.1.1 SOCKET WELDISCREWED END
FITTINGS
Pipins Elements
For Socket WeldScrewed end fittings are The socket weld /screwed fittings are
covered under ASME B 16.1 11SS 3799. For manufactured by forging. The materials of
these fittings, four pressure classes are construction used for the same are as
available. follows:
They are;
1 2000 # Class SWlSCRD FITTING MATERIALS
2 3000 # Class 1 ASTM A105 - Forged Carbon Steel
3 6000 # Class 2 ASTM A181 - Forged Carbon Steel
4 9000 # Class for General Purposes
These designations represent the 3 ASTM A182 - Forged Alloy Steel
mmimum cold non-shock working pressure and Stainless Steel
of the fitting in pounds per square inch. 4 ASTM A234 - Wrought Carbon Steel
1. 2000 % Class and Alloy Steel pipe
This class is applicable only to screwed fittings for moderate
fittings and is covered only in ASME B and elevated
16.1 1. The corresponding pipe thickness for temperatures
this class is SCH 80 or XS. 5 ASTM A350 - Forged Alloy Steel
2. 3000 # Class for Low Temperature
This class is applicable to both screwed and Services
socket weld fittings. The corresponding pipe
thickness for this class is SCH 80 or XS for 2.1.2 BEVELED END FITTINGS
socket weld end connection~andSCH 160 These types of fittings are connected by
for screwed end connections. means of butt welding. The thickness of
3 6000 3 Class these fittings is to be specified the same as
This class is also applicable to both screwed that of pipes because the bore of the pipes
and socket weld fittings. The socket weld and the attached fittings should match. That
fittings under this class are normally used means both the items should have the same
with SCH 160 pipes and screwed fittings schedule number. There are certain
with XXS pipes. exceptional cases where fittings of higher
4. 9000 X Class thickness are used.
This class is applicable only to socket weld The beveled end fittings could be of
fittings, which are normally, used with XXS seamless or welded construction.
pipes. The material of construction specified in
The screwed end fittings can be with the American Standards for the beveled
parallel threads or with taper threads. Taper weld fittings are;
threads are preferred for the fittings. These BW FITTING MATERIALS
could be to NPT as covered in American 1. ASTM A 234 - Carbon Steel fittings
Standards or to BSPT as covered in British 2. ASTM A 403 - Austenitic Stainless
standards or to relevant Indian Standard Steel fittings
specifications. 3. ASTM A 420 - Alloy Steel for low
The dimensional standard ASME B temperature services.
16.1 11BS 5799 cover the sizes upto -1" (100 Beveled end fittings are covered under
mm) NB only. ASME B 16.9, B 16.28 and BS 1640.
End Sonneclions I SOCKETWELD I SCREWED ( BUTTWELO I FLANGED I SPIGOT/SOCKET I BUTTRESS ]
I
-
m
ELBOWS 180'
I
TEES CROSS
I I I
CAPS REDUCERS STUBENOS
I
COUPLINGS
I I I
SWAGE NIPPLE UNIOHS ' SPECIAL
RETURNS FITTINGS
r
LRELBOWS SRELBOWS FULL HALF REDUCING
COLlPLlNGS COUPLINGS COUPLINGS
FIGURE 2.1
Piping Elements
Fig. 2.5: Elbows - Socket weld
Fig. 2.2: Short Radius Elbow
WID)
I
Fig. 2.3: Long Radius Elbow
(R=1.5D)
Piping Elements
2.2.2 RETURNS .......
Returns change the direction through
180 deg. This is mainly used in heating
coils, heat exchangers, etc. Retums with
1.5D radius and 1D radius are available. -\ :
........
, . .:
, '1: -
: I
I
Fig. 2.10: Tees - Socket weld
CROSS
This is a fitting very rarely used in
Fig. 2.8: Long Radius Return piping system. There are two types of
crosses, the straight and reducing. To reduce
2.2.3 TEES
Tees are used for branching off. For
the inventory, it is preferred to use tees
except where space is restricted as in marine
.
J
low pressure services, branching off is done piping.
.
Piping Elements
considered long pattern as the standard when
nothing is specified in this respect.
Piping Elements
couplings maintain the pipe centerlies same Unions can be with threaded end or %th
and eccentric swage nipples are used to socket weld ends. There are three pieces in
maintain the outside surface same for such a union, two end pieces to attach to the run
systems. pipe and the third threaded piece to connect
these two. The ball type metal seating ensure
2.2.8 SWAGE NIPPLES sealing.
Swage Nipples are like reducers but are
used to connect butt welded pipe to smaller
screwed or socket welded pipe. There are
two types of swage nipples, the concentric
and the eccentric. Various combinations of ,
2.2.9 UNIONS
Unions are used in low pressure piping Fig. 2.24: Sockolet Fig. 2.25: Thredolet
where dismantling of the pipe is required
more often, as an alternative to flanges.
Piping Elements
acceptable leak tightness. Classification of
flanges is done in several alternate ways as
follows:
.--
I.' I Fig. 3.1 :Slip-on Raised Face Flange
i r)
...:9. Fig. 2.28: Nipolet
-29
These are fittings, which have restrictive
use. Weldolet is used for butt-weld branch
connection where standard tee is not Fig3.2: Socket Welded Raised Face
available due to size restriction and the Flange
piping is of criticalhigh pressure service.
Sockolet is used for socket welding branch
connection, which require reinforcing pad.
Threadolet is used for threaded branch
connections. Elbolet is used for branch
connection on elbows and have the profiles
made to suit the elbow. Sweepolet is Fig. 3.3: Threaded Raised Face Flange
integrally reinforced butt weld branch
connection. Latrolet is used for branch
connection at an angle:
--:I
G-2 3.0 FLANGES
Piping Elements
3.2 Based On Pressure-temperature
Rating
The flanges are also classified by the
pressure temperature rating in ASME B 16.5
as below;
3.2.1 150 #
3.2.2 300 # Fig. 3.8: Flat Face
3.2.3 400 #
3.2.4 600 #
3.2.5 900 #
3.2.6 1500 #
3.2.7 2500 #
Pressure temperature rating charts, in
the standard ASME B 16.5, specify thenon-
shock working gauge pressure to which the
flange can be subjected to at a particular Fig. 3.9: Raised Face
temperature. The indicated pressure class of '
150#, 300#, etc. are the basic ratings and the
flanges can withstand higher pressures at
lower temperatures. . ASME B 16.5 indicates
the allowable pressures for various materials
of construction vis - a -vis the temperature?
'
.:.
,+i
on the facings as below:
!
!
.. I
..,,
I.
w 3.3.2 Raised face (RF) I
3.3.3 Tongue and groove (TIG) - .-
. ~.
3.3.4 Male and Female (MF)
3.3.5 Ring type joint (RTJ) Fig. 3.11: Tongue and Groove Joint
-
Plat face flanges are used when the
counter flanges are flat face. This condition
occurs mainly on connection to Cast Iron
equipments, valves and specialties.
For 150# and 300# flanges, the raised
face is of 1116 inch and is included in the -.-
thickness specified. For higher rating, the
flange thickness does not include the raised . .
face thickness. The raised face thickness for
higher rating is !h inch. Fig. 3.12: Male 1 Female Joint
Piping Elements 21
3.4 Based O n Face Finish themselves have withdrawn the same. D M
There are two types of finishes done on flanges are also popular because they have a
to the facings. They are the smooth finish wider range of pressure temperature classes.
and the serrated finish. The smooth finish IS has developed IS 6392 in line with DM
flanges are specified when metallic gaskets standards and the same is also in use.
are specified and serrated finish is provided ASME B 16.5 Covers Sizes from %"
when a non-metallic gasket is provided. NB to 24" NB only and ANSI B16.47 1API
The serrations provided on the facing could 605 are referred for higher sizes.
be concentric or spiral (phonographic).
Concentric serrations are insisted for face 4.0 GASKETS
finish when the fluid being carried has very
low density and can find leakage path 4.1 Selection
through the cavity. The serration is specified Proper selection of gasket depends upon
by the number, which is the Arithmetic following factors.
Average Roughness Height (AARH). This 4.1.1 Compatibility of the gasket material
&,
is the arithmetic average of the absolute with the fluid. ,?
values of measured profile height deviations 4.1.2 Ability to withstand the pressure-
taken within the sampling length and temperature of the system.
measured from the graphical centre line. 4.2 Type
Based on the type of construction, gaskets
3.5 Based O n Material Of Construction are classified as:
The flanges are normally forged except 4.2.1 Full Face
in very few cases where they are fabricated . 4.2.2 Inside bolt circle
from plates. ' 4.2.3 Spiral wound metallic
Piping Elements
For high temperature and high-pressure are used otherwise. Normally, the bolts are
applications, s p d wound metallic gaskets provided with hexagonal head, hexagonal
are used. The selection of material of nut and a round washer. Studs are provided
construction for winding depends upon the with two hexagonal nuts and two washers.
corrosive nature and concentration of the The length of bolts/studs required for the
fluid, the operating temperature and the flange joints of all pressure classes are
relative cost of alternate winding materials. specified in ASME B 16.5.
The most commonly used are the Austenitic Flanged joints using low strength
stainless steel 304, 316 and 321 with carbon steel bolts shall not be used above
Asbestos filler. For very high temperatures, 200 "C or below -29 'C
graphite filler is also used. Alternate ASTM F-704 specikes the standard
winding materials also can be used practice of selecting bolt lengths for piping
depending upon the services. system-flangedjoints.
ASME B 16.5 does not recommend
the use of 150# rating spiral wound 5.1 Material Of Construction For Bolting
'3 gaskets on flanges other than welding Bolting materials normally used are:
ir
neck and lapped joint type. 5.1 .I ASTM A 307 -Low Carbon Steel
Spiral wound gaskets are provided with Bolting Material
carbon steel external ring known as 5.1.2 ASTlM A 320 -Alloy Steel Boiting
centering ring to position the gasket. When material
used in vacuum services, an internal ring is 5.1.3 ASTM A 563 - Carbon and alloy
also provided. The material of inner ring steel nuts
should be compatible with the fluid. The 5.1.4 ASTM A193 - Alloy Steel Bolting
spiral wound gasket will perform when the Material for high
flange face is 125-250 AARH f ~ s h . temperature service
5.1.5 ASTM A 194 - Alloy Steel nut
4.4 ~imensionalStandards material for high
Gasket dimensions are covered under temperature service
the following standards. 5.1.6 IS 1367 - Threaded steel
4.4.1 API 601 fasteners
...:. - Metallic Gasket for Refinery Piping
si
I,
4.4.2 BS 3381 5.2 Dimensional Standards For Bolts
- Metallic Spiral Wound Gaskets The dimensional standards referred for
4.4.3 ANSI B 16.20 the studslbolts are:
- Metallic Gaskets for pipe flanges flanges
4.4.4 ANSI B 16.21 5.2.1 ANSI B 18.2.1 - Square & Hexagonal
- Non-metallic Gaskets for pipe head bolts
flanges. 5.2.2 ANSI B 18.2.2 - Square & Hexagonal
nuts
5.0 BOLTING 5.2.3 BS 916 - Black bolts & nuts
5.2.4 IS 1367 - Threaded steel
Depending upon the service, its fasteners.
~ressure/temperatureand the type of gasket,
type of bolting is selected.
For low pressure, low temperature
services, machined bolts are used and studs
Piping Elements
3.4 Based On Face Finish themselves have withdrawn the same. Dm
There are two types of finishes done on flanges are also popular because they have a
to the facings. They are the smooth finish wider range of pressure temperature classes.
and the serrated finish. The smooth finish IS has developed IS 6392 in line with Dm
tlanges are specified when metallic gaskets standards and the same is also in use.
are specified and serrated finish is provided ASME B 16.5 Covers Sizes from 5'
when a non-metallic gasket is provided. NB to 24" NB only and ANSI B16.47 1API
The serrations provided on the facing could 605 are referred for higher sizes.
be concentric or spiral (phonographic).
Concentric serrations are insisted for face 4.0 GASKETS
finish when the fluid being carried has very
low density and can find leakage path 4.1 Selection
through the cavity. The serration is specified Proper selection of gasket depends upon
by the number, which is the Arithmetic following facrors.
Average Roughness Height (AARH). This 4.1.1 Compatibility of the gasket material
is the arithmetic average of the absolute with the fluid.
+'<
values of measured profile height deviations 4.1.2 Ability to withstand the pressure-
taken within the sampling len-4 and temperature of the system.
measured from the graphical centre line. 4.2 Type
Based on the type of construction, gaskets
3.5 Based On Material Of Construction are classified as:
The flanges are normally forged except 4.2.1 Full Face
in very few cases where they are fabricated 2' 4.2.2 Inside bolt circle
from plates. ' 4.2.3 Spiral wound metallic
Piping Elernenrs
9.0 TIPS FOR THE PREPARATION 9.3 Piping Components
OF PIPING SPECIFICATIONS
9.3.1 PIPES
The approach should be to minimize the * All pipelines canying toxiclinflammable
number of different elements and thus fluids shall be seamless.
simplify and rationalize inventory. * Utility piping can be ERW or Seam
welded.
9.1 Materials * Steam pipelines shall preferably be
* Carbon Steel shall be used for seamless.
temperature upto 425°C (800 OF) only.
* Low temperature steel shallbe used for 9.3.2 FITTINGS
temperature below -29 "C (-20 OF) * Fittings shall preferably be seamless.
* Alloy steel shall be used for temperature * Butt weld fittings shall be used for pipe
above 426 "C (SO 1 OF) sizes 2" (50 rnm) NB and above for all
>: * Stainless steel shall be used for AlloyICarbon steel piping.
~2 corrosive fluids. Basic material of * For stainless steel piping where
construction specified by Process Licenser thickness is less, all fittings could be butt-
to be referred for the type. welding type.
* Galvanized steel piping shall be used for * Welding tees shall be used for full size
services such as drinking water, instrument branch connections. For reduced branch
air, nitrogen (LP) etc. sizes upto 2 steps less than run diameter, it
* Selection of Non-ferrous, Non-metallic can be fabricated. For smaller sizes half
and Lined piping shall be as per the couplings shall be used. Full size
recommendation from the Process Licenser. unreinforced branch welding can be done
where pressure temperature condition are
9.2 Piping Joints mild.
* Butt-welded connection shall normally
be used for all AlloyICarbon steel piping 2" 9.3.3 FLANGES
(50 mm) NB and larger and also for * Rating shall be based on the pressure
-Austenitic Stainless Steel. "temperature conditions. However 150 lb
* ~lloyldarbonsteel piping 1%'' (40 &)I flanges are not permitted beyond 200°C
NB and below shall be socket welded. (400°F).
* Threaded connection shall be avoided * Socket welding flanges may be used for
except in galvanized piping. all pressure ratings upto 1 !A" (40 mm) NB
* Flanged joints shall be minimized, as size except on lines subjected to severe
they are points of potential leakage. It may cyclic conditions..
be used to connect piping to equipment or * Screwed flanges shall be used for
valves, connecting pipe lines of dissimilar galvanized steellcast iron piping.
materials, where spool pieces are required to * Slip on flanges are used in 150 lb and
permit removal or servicing of equipment 300 lb rating upto a maximum of 200".
and where pipes and fittings are with Welding neck flanges shall be used for
flanged ends. higher pressure ratings.
* Raised face is used for flanges upto 600
Ib'rating. For flanges 9001b rating and above
RTJ is recommended. Tongue and groove
facing shall be used selectively.
Piping Elements
* Depending on pressure and temperature, * Use Spiral wound gasket with inner ring
gasket shall be either CAF, spiral wound for Vacuum seivice
metallic for raised face flanges or selected * Low strength carbon steel bolting shall
based on the corrosive nature of the fluid. not be used above 200 'C and below -29 OC
* Use flat face flanges to mate with cast
iron valves and equipments.
Piping Elements
VALVES
T. N. GOPINATH
GHARDA CHEMICALS LTD:
Functions of Vdves
The design of the valves are done in such 2.2 Needle Valves
a way as to perform any of the above
functions. The type of valves used can be 2.3 Butterfly Valves
classified in the following categories.
2.4 Diaphragm Valves
Valves
The above classification is 4.0 Gun metal
based on functions. The valves could
. also be classified based on the type of 5.0 Carbon Steel
construction. Valve manufacttirers offer
endless varieties of constructions. Based 6.0 Stainless Steel
on the operation, valves can be broadly
classified as operated valves and self- 7.0 Alloy Carbon Steel
operated valves. Mainly the check valves
are self-operated and all other types 8.0 Poly
Propylene, W - P E ,
come under operated valves. UHMW-HDPE etc.
The valves can fur&her be claisified
based on the end connections. End 9.0 Special Alloys
connection means the arrangement of
attachment of the valves to the 10.0 Fluoro polymerElastomer lined
equipment or to the piping. The types of metals
end connections are:
11.0 Glass
Screwed ends
TERMS USED. FOR VALVES
Socket weld ends SPECIFICATION
1. Pressure - Temperature Ratings
Flanged ends Pressure - Temperature Rating
is the maximum allowable sustained
Butt weld ends non-shock pressure at the corresponding
tabulated temperature. These are listed in
Socketted ends
ANSI B 16.34 and ANSI B 16.5.
Wafer type ends
2. Class
The valve is specified by the
Buttress ends
pressure rating of the bodv of the valves.
The valves could also be classified based The ~ m e r i c i s t a n d a r dspecifies,the
on the materials of construction. There following classes.
can be any number of combinations
possible with the materials of Class
construction. It is for the piping engineer Class
to select the same in consultation with
the process engineer to suit the process Class
fluid. The environment in which the Class
valves are installed is also to be
considered for selection of materials of Class
construction. However, the most Class
commonly available materials are:
Class
!.O Cast Iron Class
3.0 Bronze
common types of valves. API 600
3. Trim specifies Trim numbers in table 3 of
The trim is comprised of stem; Seat the standard. It specifies the types of
Surfaces, Back Seat ~ d s h i nand
~ material, which can be used for the
other small internal parts that p W with its typical specification and
normally contact the surface fluid. grade.
The table below indicates trim of
. .
4. Wetted Parts -
7. Quarter Turn Valves
All parts, which come in contact with the This refers to the valve where the entire
service fluid, are called the wetted parts. operation of valve is achieved by 90
degees turn of the clos,ingelement.
5. Wire Drawing
This term is used to indicate the 8. Pressure Drop
premature erosion of the valve seat' Pressure drop is the loss of pressure
caused by excessive velocity between through resistance across the valve while
seat and seat disc. An erosion pattern is flows and is expressed in terms of
.. . left as if a wire had been drawn between equivalent length in pipe diameters.
the seat surfaces. Excessive velocity can
occur when the valve is not closed Eouivalenr
.-.I, tightly. A WOG (Water-Oil-Gas, ~ y p eof Valve - Position (er;@ in pipe
dia
relatively cool liquids) disc is the best Gate Fully I!
defense against wiredrawing because its
resiliency makes it easier to close tightly. Globe .
open
340
Angle globe 145
Discs of hrder material are to be closed Swing check 50
cikefidly to prevent wire drawing. In Plug - 18
LPG Service, the wire drawing effect Rectangular
Plug Port
causes a threat of anti-re~geration.The Ball - Regular " 40
ice formation on the wedge will obstruct POfl
movement thereby increasing the leak Ball - Full pon " 8
throu,oh seat further.
-
6. Straight Through Flow 9. Upstream Pressure
This refers to the valve in which the This is the pressure of the fluid that
closing element is retracted entirely so enters the valve. This is sometimes
that there is no restriction of flow. referred to as inlet or supply pressure.
Valves
3
10. Downstream Pressure
This is the pressure of the fluid that is
discharged fiom the valve. This is 13. LEAKAGE CLASS
sometimes referred to as outlet or
reduced pressure. Leakage class Maximum seat
leakage
11. LDAR
Sigifies "Leak Detection And Repair" A modification of
to ensure that the fugitive emissions any class II,III or
standards of EPA are met. Fugitive IV valve where
emissions are the minute amount of design intent is the
process media that escape into the s&e as the basic
atmosphere though gland packing along class, but by
valve stem. ageement between
user and supplier.
12. LAER No test is required.
Si,gifies "Lowest Achievable Emission 0.5% of rated
Rate". It is the minimum rate of fugitive valve capacity
ermssicn, which is achieved by 0.1% of ratec
deploying proper sealing arrangement. valve capacity
5 x 10' ml pel
minute water pel
inch of orifice
diameter per psi
differential
-
Valves
FLOW COEFFICIENT (Cv) OF VALVE
THE SAME IS ALSO KNOWN AS KVOF A VALVE AS PER DIN STANDARDS AND
INDICATES FLOW OF WATER IN CUBIC METERS PER HOUR AT 20
DEGREES C THAT WOULD TAKE PLACE UNDER A PRESSURE LOSS OF 1 BAR
LESS THE DIFFERENTIAL / MORE THE BACK PRESSURE LESS THE now.
LESS THE DIFFERENTIAL /MORE THE BACK PRESSURE LESS THE FLOW.
-
Valves
-
3. Condensate %" - 1 '/.." a) C.S. Body SS a) C.S. Body
ball PTFE 13% Cr.
seat 8008 SW Trim 8001:
Ball SW Globe
b) C.S. Body valve
13% Cr. Trim
8004 SW
Globe
2"- 12" SAi\iE AS LP STEAM
4. Utilities like - 1 K' a) C.S. Body SS a) C.S. Body a) C.S.
-Water, Air: JSHS Ball PTFE 13% Cr. Body
Seat SOO* Trim 800: 13% Cr.
Scrd. Ball SW Globe Trim
b) G.M. Body b) G.M. 800:: Lift
Bronze fim Body check
Scrd Gate to
IS 778
Bronze
.Trim S a d
Wirh SW
Ends I Bronze
b) G.M. body not
Globe to
Body Recommen
IS 778
Bronze ded in
Trim acidic
Scrd amosphere
check to
I . IS775
2"- 12" a) CIBody 13% a) CI Body a) cs ~ o d y Recornmen.
Cr disc 12% 13% Cr disc 13% cr. dation for
wafer type 125# wafer aim Air CS
Butterfly type Bunerfly water Body Ball
Gear Gear Operator w e or Gate for
Operator above 6" NB check Isolation
above 6" NB
b) CIBody 13% b) .CIBody b) CIBody
Cr or 18% Cr 13% or 13% or
fim 12% 18% Cr 18% Cr
Flgd Gate to him 12% ~ 12%
IS 780 Fkd flgd
Globe swing
check to
IS 53 12
-
c) CS Body c) CS Body
13% Cr 13% Cr aim c) CS Body
uim 150: 1501: flgd l3%Craim
Flgd Gate Globe 150: flgd
d) Cast Iron
-.
swing check I
I
Body 13% Cr
plug 125 4 I
------- I
Fldg Lub. I
!
__ _ _ __ _ !
Plug Valve I
I
i !
-
Valves
2
5) Hot Oil I Heating - 1W a) C.S. Body a) CS. Body a) C.S.
Fluid SteUited trim Stellited Body
Graphoil pkg him stellited
800# SW Graphoil -. trim .
Globe pkg 800# 800# SW
b) C.S. Body
, SW Globe lift check
13% trim b) CS.Body
800# SW 13% trim
Piston with 800# SW
suitable Piston with
se&g rings suitable
sealing
M ~ S
b) CSBody b) CSBody
13% Cr @im 13% Cr trim
Graphoil pkg Graphoil pkg
300 # (Miin) 300 # (Min)
Flgd Piton Flgd Piton
with Suitable with Suitable
sealing ring sealing ring and
and 125 - 125 - 250
250 AARH AARH Flgd
Flgdfinish f ~ h
6) Chlorine (Dry) %" - 12" Ball valve with Globe Valve Check (LaI
CS body MoneV with CS Body Swing ) valve
Hastalloy C ball Monel I CS Monel I
& stem. Hastalloy C Hastalloy C
him trim
7) Solvent1 Process %" - 12" a) C.S. Body SS a) C.S. Body a) C.S. Body
~. Ball 150 Flgd
(Carbon Steel) 13% Cr. 13% Cr. trim
full port Ball trim 150# Flgd Lift
valve with ~ l Globe
~ d check %" to 1
PTFEI GFT %" and Flgd
seats swing check
b) CS Body 2" & above
..
13% Cr plug
150# Flgd
sleeved plug
seats
-
Valves
Solvent/ Process a) SSBody SS I) SS body SS jS Body SS
:Stainless Steel) ball 150 Fldg rim 150:: Flgd rim 150#
full poa ball :lobe . 3gd swing
valve with :heck
F'TFE I GFT
seats
b) SS Body SS
Plug 150::
Flgd sleeved
plug
Solvent/ Process a) Ductile Iron i) Doctile hitabi-
(Highly body % plug Iron .iry with
Corrosive) lined with body rempera-
fluoropoymer lined nre to be
plug valve with :hecked
b) Ballvalve fluoro
with suitable polymer
plastic body ball
and baU check
valve
) --do-
Valves
1.0 ISOLATION VALVES
The isolation valves used in the
Process Industry u e :
1.1 Gate Valves
-
Valves
1.1.1 Body services like the nuclear, very high
The body is the part which gets temperature and lethal services. The
attached to the vessel or piping. The screwed-on bomet/union bonnet is used
classification of the body could be done for very low priority application and
depending on the end connections as small size valves.
indicated earlier. Body could also be When valves are used for Cryogenic
specified based on the material of Service extended bonnet design is used
construction of the same. This could be to take care of large insulation thickness.
cast, forged or fabricated. When used for very high temperature
The wall thickness and end to bonnet attached with fins are also used.
endlface to face dimensions of the body
shall be as per the Regulatory code to 1.1.3 Wedge
which it is designed. This is the part, which facilitates the
The end flanges shall be service by its movement up and down.
integrally cast or forged with the body. It The types of wedges are classified as;
can also be attached by welding, if so Solid Plain Wedge
specified. The end connection shall suit
the rating specified. The flanged Solid Flexible Wedge
connection shall be to ANSI B 16.5 or
any of the flange standards. The butt- Split M7edge
welding end connection shall be to ANSI
B 16.25 or any other end preparation When solid disc is wedged into the ri$d
required. The socket weldlscrew body seat and the valve undergoes
connection shall be to ANSI B 16.11 or temperature changes, the wedge gets
any other equivalent standards. The body jammed in the seat. Hence the' flexible
can have auxiliary connection such as wedge and split wedge d e s i y is
drains, by-pass connections, etc. developed to overcome this difficulty.
Normally the solid plain wedge
1.1.2 Bonnet is referred as solid wedge and the split
The bonnet is classified based wedge is referred as flexible wedge. The
on the attachment of the same to the design slightly alters with the
body. The type of connection normally manufacturers though the basis remains
adopted are Bolted, Bellow sealed, the same.
Screwed-on, Welded, Union, Pressure The flexible wedge desiy is
sealed etc. followed for valve sizes 50 NB and,
The bolted connection shall be above. Valves 40 PC3 and below are
flanged, male and female, tongue and available in solid wedge design only.
groove or ring type joint. In low pressure Flexible wedge design is superior as it
rating valves, it may be flat faced. The will 'not get jammed during high
bonnet gasket is selected to suit body- temperature operations.
bonnet connection. It can be corrugated The wedge material should be
flat solid metal, flat metal jacketed, at le&t of the same quality as that of the
asbestos filled, metal ring joint, spiral body. In case of integral seat rings the
wound asbestos filled or flat ring wedge circumference is deposited with
compressed asbestos in case of low superior quality material. In smaller
pressure rating, Teflon or Teflon filled valves, the whole wedge will be
for corrosive applications. manufactured out of superior material.
The bellow sealed bonnets can
be bolted or welded on to the body.
These are selected for very critical
-
Valves
i I'
140mally, the 'packing is of
1.1.4 Stem braided asbestos with suitable corrosion
The stem connects .the hand inhibitor. -When special packing such as
wheel and the wedge for operations. The 'Graphoil' is used, the number of packing
design can have rising stem and non- rings required will be more. To
rising stem. The stem is operated accofnmodate more packing rings, the
rotating the stem nut by hand wheel length of gland is also modified. This
mounted at the top of the yoke. design is called the 'Deep Gland' design.
In the rising stem design, the This is used for the hi$ temperature
stem moves up along with the wedge to services. But this cannot satisfy the
open. This is called the OS & Y (Outside EPA's fus$tive emission standard of
Screw and Yoke) type of design. In case 4 0 0 PPM threshold. Hence frequent
of non-rising stem the wedge moves up LDAR will result in excessive
and down and the stem is stationary. expenditure.
This is called the inside screw design.
Normally, bar stock or forging 1.1.6 Seat Rings
are used for the construction of stem. There are two types of designs
possible in seat rings. They are the
1.1.5 Gland, Gland flange, Packing integral and renewable. Ln case of
and Lantern renewable seat rings, it may be either
There are two types of gland threaded, rolled-in or weided-in. In case
designs possible, Single piece and Two of integral seat rings, the seat materid is
piece.. In two-piece design, there will be weld-deposited directly on to the valve.
gland flange and a follower. The body. The minimum hardness specified
follower will have a spherical end, which by the code for this material is 250 HB,
facilitates proper aligning of follower with 50 HB minimum differential
and loading on the packing. In Single between body and gate seats, the body
piece, the gland and follower will be se?t being harder. Deposition of harder
integral. This design is used mostly in materials like "Stellite-6" is also done
low-pressure valves. for valves used in special services.
Normally gland follower will be The back seat arrangement is
of superior material than the gland provided to repack the stuffing box when
flange. Gland flanges are made of carbon the gate is in fully open position. The
steel only. The glands are bolted to the stem shall have an integral conical or
bonnet with gland eyebolts in low- spherical backseat surface to seat against
pressure valves. the bonnet backseat.
The regulatory codes specify
that the stuffing box should 1.1.7 Yoke and Yoke Bush
accommodate minimum six packing Yoke may be integral with or
rings for class 150 valves. As regards separate e o n the bonnet. When the yoke
higher rating valves, it should have is integral, the stem nut should be
lantern ring .with five packing rings removable without removing bonnet.
above and two packing rings below The yoke should have the same material
lantern. Lantern is not provided for class of construction as that of the shell. The
150 valves. Lantern is provided for Yoke bush is normally a Ni-resist
higher rating if required. When lantern is material. his is tci prevent gauling of the
provided, the stuffing box shall be stem, as stem will normally be of a
provided with two plugged holes. The, Nickel alloy.
material of lantern shall have corrosion
resistance equal to that of the body.
-
Valves
1.1.8 Hand wheel and Hand wheel Nut There are two types of port designs
possible in gate valves, full bore and
The h a ~ wheel
d is fixed to the stem reduced bore. In case of full bore, the net
by a threaded hand wheel nut. The arrow area of the bore through the seat shall be
pointing the direction to open the valve as nearly practicable equal to the
will be marked with the word "open" or nominal pipe size. For reduced port
"close" or "shut", unless the size makes valves, the port diameter is normally one
it impracticable. Valves shall be closed size less than the size of the end.
by turning the hand wheel in clockwise The compact design small bore (% -
direction. 1 % inch) ,oate.valves are as per MI 602
The material of construction of hand or BS 5352. Unless the full bore design
wheel shall be malleable iron, Carbon is specifically asked for, manufacturers
steel, Nodiilar iron or Ductile iron. Cast supply the reduced bore valves. The full
iron is not prefened. The nut shall be of bore design sate valves are also covered
carbon steel or stainless steel. in BS 5352 and is designated as 'std
When the installed position of the bore'. In full bore design, the net area of
valve is such that the hand wheel is not the bore through seat shall be equivalent
accessible, then the hand wheels are to that of Sch 80 pipes for class 800
replaced by chain wheels and the valve valves and Sch 160 pipe for class 1500
is operated with chains. For large valves. In no case less than 90% of the
diameter valve where the operating above figure is acceptable as per code.
torque is high, gear arrangement is
provided to facilitate operation. Mostly,
bevel gear equipment is adopted. 1.2 B A L L V.4LVES
General recommendation for specifymg
Gear operator is: HPl D LBJEA
Valves
IS
The port size Iri the sir,gle piece d e s i p valve,
the body will be castlforged as one piece.
The type of body construction The insertion of b e ball will be through
the end or through top of the body and is.
The construction of seat held in position by body insert or bonnet.
.
could be classified as:
Single piece design
The sandwich design is the &
7..
and nluo
r--a-
-
t:;:-;
Bdtm dbphragm,
stainless st+
B d t m adNstment p~effiure
buttom,steel -
-
"
I
I
with Teflon seats instead of sleeves as in
the case of ball valves. These are
designed for on-off applications and can
handle clean viscous and corrosive
Bdtm C C d s liquids. The construction features and
maleable iron
operation are identical to that of the
Cwer bots.dainkss~teel
sleeved plug valves. Graphite seats also
Bdtcm adj~stmentzcrewbith & can be provided for high temperature
locknbi, stainless stml
service. But-this design cannot provide
drip-tight shut off.
In Teflon sleeved plug valves, the
plug and the body in the valve are 1.3.4 Eccentric Plug Valves
stparated by a PTFE Sleeve. This sleeve
serves as the seat for the valve plug, thus These valves are ~rovidedwith plugs,
eliminating the contact of hvo metal which are mounted off-centre. Eccentric
surfaces. Here, the turning effort is low plug valves are used in corrosive and
and fiiction is avoided. The limitation is abrasive service for on-off action.
the temperature to which the sleeve can Eccentric action plug moves into and
Valves
away from seat eliminating abrasive Piston valves are of two types,
wear. These are covered under MSS-SP balanced and unbalanced. Balanced
standards. valves are used in high-pressure services
and unbalanced one for low-pressure
services.
1.4 PISTON VALVES
The main parts of the valve can
be identified as
1.4.1 Body
1.4.2 Bonnet
1.4.3 Piston -
1.4.6 Spindle
1.4.7 Gland
1.4.8 Packing
Valves
proper sealing. The upper valve ring seal The valve body can be lined or unlined.
to atmosphere, the lower valve ring Lining- material is selected to suit the .
provides seal - across the ports: The corrosive nature-of the service fluid.
lantern ring serves as the distance piece
between the two rings.
There are two types of piston
designs available: Regulating type and
the normal. In regulating type the bottom
part of the piston is tapered to have
throttiing effect. Tht valves are the heart
of the piston valves. The sealing rings
are made fiom specially developed high
quality elastomer material or graphite.
The materials are selected depending
upon the service conditions viz. The
fluid for which the valve is used and its
.
--. pressure temperature conditions.
L: Spring washers are fitted under
the bonnet nuts to ensure that the
pressure of the bonnet on the valve ring
is kept constant. This along with the
resilient sealing rings produces a spring
action, which compensates for any Diaphragm valve with plastic body is
differential expansion that can occur. also manufactured.
There are two types of stem There are two types of
designs available, the inside screw rising diaphra-gn valves available. They are the
stern and the 0, S and Y type with rising 'Weir' type and 'Straight flow' type. The
stem. The hand wheel is of rising design. most commonly nsed one is the weir
In 0, S and Y type, a stuffing box with a type and are popularly known as the
bolted gland is provided. This design is 'Saunders' type. In this type, the body
mainly used for Thermic f l u i d m a configuration is such that isolation as
temperature services. well as control is possible.
The piston valves are preferred
A typical diaphragm valve has
by maintenance people, as they need
the following major parts that could be
lesser attention. They call it as 'Fit and identified. They are:
Forget' type of valve.
1. Body
2. Diaphragm
3: Bonnet
4. Stem
1.5 DIAPHRAGM VALVES
5. Stem bushing
D i a p h r a , ~ valves are mainly used for
low-pressure corrosive services as shut-
6. Compressor
off valves. These can also be used as
control valves. Here the diaphra,m
7. Hand wheel
moves up and down to operate the valve.
Valves
1?
8. Bonnet bolting.
-
Valves
1. Body . .. .. ... .. .- ~ .. -25. Anti-Rotation Device .. . .. . . .
Valves
-
like a m c a t e d pyramid where& in the code covers this design, t h a e are mostly
needle valves it will be full. This facility made as per Manufacturers' standard.
eures finer flow control. The disk could
also be integal with the stem, in which
case the bottom part of the stem will be 2.3 BUTTERFLY, DIAPHRAGM,
machined accordingly.
PISTON AND PINCH V a V E S
-
Valves
-
7
7
11
will be in cflidrical form, the lower end 4. Seat
of which is shaped to form a seating
disk. The cylindrical part fit into the 5. Guide
guide making an effective dashpot.
When it is in fully open position, the net 6. Gasket
area between the seating disk and the
seat will be equal to the area through the 7. Cover stud nut
seats.
R e body will be provided with The body shall be of forged or
renewable body seat rings like in globe cast construction and with socket
valves. In carbon steel valves, there can welded/screwed/flanged ends, integrally
be hard faced seats deposited directly on cast or with welded-on flanges.
to the body. The cover shall be either bolted
The piston lift check valves can or welded or with union nuts. The union
only be placed in the horizontal pipeline. nuts could be of hexagonal or octagonal
The lift check valves can also shape. The cover material shall be same.
be provided with spring-loaded piston. as that of the body.
In this case, a spring of specified tension The seating shall be integral or
has to be placed, between the guide and renewable. The hardness difference can
the piston within the cylindrical portion. also be achieved by weld deposit on
This type can be placed in any location. seating surfaces. The renewable seat
rings shall be screwed-in type either
3.1.2 Ball l i t check shoulder seated or bottom seated.
In ball lift check valves the
unidirectional flow is achieved by the 3.1.3 NON-SLAM CHECK VALVES
movement of a ball. There are two
designs possible in this pattern, the The non-slam check valve is a
horizontal and the vertical. In vertical spring loaded lift check valve with a
design, the valve should be placed in modified design of the body. The valve
such.a way that the flow is always in the is designed in such a way that the same
upward direction. can be sandwiched behveen the two
These check valves are flanges. Here the disc is held in position
provided with guides to guide the ball by a spring, which is housed, in a
throughout the travel. The. travel should huusing cap or yoke.
be such that in fully open position, the
net area between)the ball and the seat 3.2 SWING CHECK VALVES
shall be at least equal to the area throu@
These valves operate by the
the seat. swinging action of the disk. There are
The main parts of lift check two types of swing check valves
valves are the following. available. They are the conventional
1. Body swing check valves with flanged' ends
and the wafer type spring loaded check
2. Ball /Piston valves.
3. Cover
-
Valves
3.2.1 Conventional Swing check valves 12. Washer .
In these types of valves, the The body will be cast with a tapered
check mechanism is the disk, which is wedge seat and will be provided with
hinged. The pressure of the fluid lifts the renewable seat rings. The wall thickness
disk and allows the flow. The disk and end to endlface to face dimensions
of the body shall be as per the regulatory
code to which it is designed. The end
flanges shall be integrally cast or
attached by welding. The flanged
connection shall be to ANSI B 16.5 or
any other flange standard. The butt-
welding end connection shall be to ANSI
B 16.25.
The disk will be attached to the
body through hinge and h g e pin and
swings against the same controlling the
flow. The disk material shall be of
quaiity at least equal to that of the body.
The cover will be bolted on to
returns to the seat with its own weight. the body. The bolted connection shall be
This allows the valve for mounting in raised face/ tongue and groove/male and
horizontal as well as vertical position femalelring type joint depending on the
with upward fluid flow. The main parts pressure rating of the valve. The gasket
of the valves are - shall be selected to suit the type of
connection. It can be corrugated or flat
1. Body solid metal, corrugated or flat metal
jacketed, asbestos filled, metal ring joint,
2. Cover spiral wound asbestos filled. Flat ring
compressed asbestos is used for low-
p.
3. Hinge pressure application, Teflon or Teflon
k,) filled for corrosive applications.
4. Hinge Bracket Normally high tensile bolts are used for
cover bolting. In cast iron check vaives
5. Gasket low carbon steel bolts are used.
-
6. Cover Stud and Nut 3.2.2 Wafer check valves
The wafer check valves are the
7. Bracket Stud and Nut flangeiess swing check valves. These are
covered under the regulatory code API
8. Disc 594. There are two types of wafer check
valve desigs available.
9. Szat Ring
a) Single plats wafer check valve
10. Hinge Pin
b) Dual plate wafer check valve
11. Disc Pin
Valves
The m g e m e n t of single plate 4.3 Float Valves
check valve is somewhat similar to the
conventional swing check valve. Here a 4.4 Foot Valves
circular plate seated against the valve
body seat by line backpressure or flow 4.5 Line Blind Valves
reversal acts as a valve closure. This is
further aided by the provision of spring. 4.6 Knife gate Valves
In dual plate check valves, there
are two spring loaded semi circular
plates. The plates are arranged in such a 4.1 MULTI-PORT VALVES
way that the s p ~ force
g acts beyond the Any valve, which has more
centre of area of each plate and the fluid than two ports, is classified as Multi-port
force acts within the same. This fulcrum Valves. The multi-port valves on certain
causes the heel to open first preventing services reduce the time for operating
rubbing of the seat surface prior to and the over all costs. There are three
normal opening. The sues specified in port valves and four port valves in
API 594 are fiom 2" NB to'48" NB. common use. Five-port designs are also
Manufacturers have developed standards available. Two types of three port
beyond these sizes as well. designs are available viz. The 'T' port
The plates shall be made of and the 2 ' port. The possible flow
material at least equal to that of the patterns of these are as below:
body. The body and plate seating surface
can be renewable or integral or with L PORT VALVE
deposited metal. The seat surface could
be stellited or can be of resilient
material. In these valves, the items
specified under trim are the seating
surfaces, springs, hinge and bearings.
Table 4 of API - 594 gives trim numbers
and the corresponding material of
construction. 1 PORT VALVE
Compared to the conventional
check valves, these have less pressure
drop across the valve in larger sizes,
reduced water hammer and are compact.
4.0 SPECIAL-PURPOSE
VALVES
Valves, which perfom duties
other than the two-way isolation, control
and check, are classified under the
category of special purpose valves. Few A most economical .layout could be
of such vzlves are selected from the study of above flow
patterns.
4.1 Multi-port Valves
The typical applications of the three way
4.2 Flush Bottom Valves valves are-
Valves
(1) alternate connection of the Wo (3) Simplification of piping layout and
supply lines to a common delivery, thus economy in fittings,
(2) diversion of flow to either of two (4) Less risk of product mixing by
directions, incorrect valve operation,
(3) isolation of one of a pair of safety (5) The stops can be arranged to arrest
valves for maintenance purpose, the unrequired flow patterns and at
the same time make it impossible
(4) division of flow with isolation for desired positions to be obtained.
facility.
Two of the multi-port valves can
The flow patterns of a four-way valve also be inter coupled to permit fast
are - multiple operation in the simplest
possible way and with minimum
manpower.
It is essential for the designer to
specify the exact requirement of flow
patterns based on the piping
arrangement to the manufacturer. Lack
of proper coordination will result in a
totally different output than what is
required.
The typical applications of four way
valves are:
4.3 FLUSH BOTTOM VALVES
(1) Reversal of pump suction and
These are special type of
delivery
valves, which are used to drain out the
piping, reactors and vessels. These are
(2) By pass of strainer or meter
attached to the vessels on pad. type
.nozzle. The disks in closed position
(3) Reversal of flow through filter,
heat exchanger or dryer. match with the bottom of the vessel or
piping leaving no room for hold up or
stagnation.
Tne types of valves used
There are two types of flush
for this design are the ball or the plug
bottom valves.
valves. However, globe pattern valves
also can be designed with suitable disc a) Valves with disk opening into the
positions to achieve the three-port tanks.
desig.
b) Valves with disk into the valve.
The advantages of multi-port design
valves are - In the first case, the stem
(1) Reduction in number of valves pushes the disk into the tank to drain the
used. liquid. This type cannot be used when
there are any internals, which restrict the
(2) Quick and easy operation, movement of the disk. The draining of
the material could be effected
completely. In the second case, the disk depending upon the pressure holding
gets pulled down into the valve effecting capacity of the valve.
the discharge of material.
The body lever and internals
There are two types of disk are manufactured out of gunmetal and
d e s i g available, the plug type and the the float is of PVC or copper depending
ram type. upon the temperature of the fluid. The
Normally, the inlet size of a lever length could be adjusted to suit the
standard flush bottom valve is one size level in the reservoir.
higher than that of the outlet size. There These valves have threaded
are special constructions possible with ends and are connected to the wall of the
both sizes same.The outlet port is at an reservoir with hexagonal nut. The
angle to the inlet port. Normally 45 or 60 reservoir need not be provided with a
degrees deviation is provided. The end nozzle, only an opening is required. The
connections are normally flanged. level of liquid will always be below inlet
However, smaller size sampleldrain connection.
valves have been developed with The maximum size of valve
welding end at inlet to withstand higher covered under the standard is 50 NB and
pressures. The maximum rating special design has to be done if higher
available at present for flanged valves is size valves are required. These are called
ANSI 300 lbs. equilibrium float valves.
The parts of the flush bottom
valve are identical to that of a globe 4.4 FOOT VALVES
valve and the closing and opening
actions are also similar. The shut off is Foot valves are a sort of non-
achieved by disk closing against the return valves with strainers mounted at
body seat. The disk could be Globe type the open end of the pimp suttion
or Ram type. pipelines. These are used when the pump
has negative suction. The check action
Jacketed flush bottom valves of the valve holds the priming fluid of
are also possible if required for the the pump while ths pumps are filled
service. The disk and seat also could be before starting. The suction strainer
machined to such accuracy to serve the helps to hold the solids while the pump
vacuum duty as well. . is sucking the fluid.