CE116 R.C DESIGN Notes PDF

Construction Planning, Estimating Management,
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering Methods & Safety Engineering
1. INTRODUCTION
Reinforced Concrete Structures
Concrete is the most important building material, due to its ability to be moulded to
take up the shapes required for the various structural forms. It is also very durable
and fire resistant.
Structural Elements and Frames
Its utility and versatility is achieved by combining the best features of concrete and
steel. Consider some of the widely differing properties of these two materials that
are listed below.
Concrete Steel
strength in tension poor good
strength in compression good good, but slender bars will buckle
strength in shear fair good
durability good corrodes if unprotected
fire resistance good poor – suffers rapid loss of strength a high
temperatures
It can be see from this list that the materials are more or less complementary.
The complete building structure can be broken down into the following elements:
Beams horizontal members carrying vertical and/or lateral

loads
Slab horizontal plate elements carrying vertical loads
Columns vertical members carrying primarily axial load, but
generally also subjected to lateral load and moment
Wall vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or
in-plane loads
Bases and foundations pads or strips supported directly on the ground that
spread the loads from columns or walls so that they can
be supported by the ground without excessive
settlement
1
Composite Action
The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength;
therefore, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are not designed to resist any
tensile forces, while all tensile forces are designed to be carried by reinforcement,
which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two materials. If the
bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the concrete and there
will not be a composite action.
In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed
that there is perfect bond, so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the
strain in the adjacent concrete.
Figure 1.1 Composite action
Figure 1.1 illustrates the behaviour of a simply supported beam subjected to bending
and shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the
compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the concrete.
1.4 Stress-Strain Relations
1.4.1 Concrete
Figure 1.2 Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression
2
A typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in above fig.1.2. As the load is
applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and
the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material. Eventually, the curve is no longer
linear and the concrete behaves more and more as a plastic material. The ultimate
strain for most structural concrete tends to be a constant value of approximately
0.0035, irrespective of the strength of the concrete.
1.4.2 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
This is measured for a particular concrete by means of a static test in which a cylinder
is loaded to just above one-third of the corresponding control cube stress and then
cycled back to zero stress. This removes the effect of initial ‘bedding in’ and minor
stress redistribution in the concrete under load. Load is then reapplied and the
behaviour will then be almost linear; the average slope of the line up to the specified
stress is taken as the value for EC.
Figure 1.3 Moduli of elasticity of concrete
The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is required when investigating the

deflection and cracking of a structure. When considering short-term effects, member
stiffness will be based on the static modulus EC. If long-term effects are being
considered such as creep, modified value of EC should be used.
3
Short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete

28 day characteristic Static modulus Ec,28
cube strength (kN/mm2)
fcu,28
(N/mm2) Typical Mean
25 19 – 31 25
30 20 – 32 26
40 22 – 34 28
50 24 – 36 30
60 26 – 38 32
Elastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from
Ec,t = Ec,28 (0.4 + 0.6 f cu,t /fcu,28)
1.4.3 Steel
Figure 1.4 Stress-strain curves for reinforcing bars.
Fig.1.4 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) hot rolled mild steel & high yield
steel, and (b) cold worked high yield steel. The hot rolled bars have definite yield
point, but the cold worked bar does not have a definite yield point. The specified
strength used in design is based on the yield stress for hot rolled mild steel and high
yield steel, whereas for cold worked high yield steel, the strength is based on a
specified proof stress. A 0.2% proof stress is defined in fig.1.4.
4
1.5 Durability
Concrete structures, properly designed and constructed, are long lasting and should
required little maintenance. The durability of the concrete is influenced by:
i) the exposure conditions

ii) the concrete quality
iii) the cover to the reinforcement
iv) the width of any cracks
1.6 Specification of Materials
1.6.1 Concrete
The selection of the type of concrete is usually governed by the strength and
durability requirements. The concrete strength is assessed by measuring the
crushing strength of cubes or cylinders of concrete made from the mix. These are
usually cured and tested at 28 days according to standard procedures. A grade 25
concrete has a characteristic cube crushing strength of 25 N/mm².
The table below shows the lowest grade of concrete for use as specified.
GRADE Lowest Grade for Use as Specified
C7 Plain concrete
C10
C15 Reinforced concrete with lightweight aggregate

C20
C25 Reinforced concrete with dense aggregate
C30 Concrete with post-tensioned tendons
C40 Concrete with pre-tensioned tendons
Table 1.1 Lowest grade of concrete for use
5
1.6.2 Reinforcing Steel
The characteristic strength of the more common types of reinforcement are shown
below.
Designation Nominal Sizes (mm) Specified Characteristic

Strength (N/mm²)
Hot-rolled mild steel (6), 8, 10, 12, 16,

250
(CS2:1995) 25, 32, 40 & (50)
Hot-rolled high yield
(CS2:1995)
(6), 8, 10, 12, 16,
460
25, 32, 40 & (50)
Cold-worked High Yield
(BS4461)
Hard drawn steel wire
(6), 8, 10 & 12 485
(BS4482)
Table 1.2 Nominal Steel with strength
1.7 Concrete Cover
1.7.1 Nominal cover against corrosion
The nominal cover should protect steel against corrosion and fire. The cover to a
main bar should not be less than the bar size or in the case of pairs or bundles the size
of a single bar of the same cross-sectional area.
The cover depends on the exposure conditions shall be as follows.
Mild concrete is protected against weather

Moderate concrete is sheltered from severe rain
concrete under water
concrete in non-aggressive soil
Severe concrete exposed to severe rain or to alternate wetting and drying
Very severe concrete exposed to sea water, de-icing salts or corrosive fumes
Extreme concrete exposed to abrasive action
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Limiting values for nominal cover are given in the following Table 1.3. Note that the
water-to-cement ratio and minimum cement content are specified. Good
workmanship is required to ensure that the steel is property placed and that the
specified cover is obtained.
Conditions of exposure Nominal cover (mm)

Mild 25 20 20
Moderate 35 30
Severe 40
Very severe 50
Extreme -- -- --
Maximum free water-to-cement ratio 0.65 0.6 0.55

Minimum cement content (kg/m³) 275 300 325
Lowest grade of concrete C30 C35 C40
Table 1.3 Nominal cover to all reinforcement including links to meet durability requirements
1.7.2 Cover as fire protection
Nominal cover to all reinforcement shall meet a given fire resistance period for
various elements in a building is given in Table 1.4 and in the design code. Minimum
dimensions of members from the Code of Practice are shown in following Fig. 1.5.
Reference should be made to the complete table and figure in the Hong Kong Code of
Practice for Fire Resisting Construction.
Nominal Cover – mm
Fire
Resistance Beams Floors Ribs Column
Hour SS C SS C SS C
1.0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
1.5 20 20 25 20 35 20 20
2.0 40 30 35 25 45 35 25
SS simply supported, and C continuous
Table 1.4 Nominal cover to all reinforcement including links to meet specified FRP
7
Fire Min. beam Rib Min. floor Column width Min. wall
resistance thickness full exposed thickness
(hour) b b h b 0.4% < p < 1%
1.0 200 125 95 200 120
1.5 200 125 110 250 140
2.0 200 125 125 300 160
Dimensions mm
p = area of steel relative to concrete
Figure 1.5 Minimum dimensions for fire resistance
8
2. LIMIT STATE DESIGN
Introduction
The design of an engineering structure must ensure that
i) Under the worst loadings the structure is safe.
ii) During the normal working conditions the deformation of the members does not
detract from the appearance, durability or performance of the structure.
Design Methods
Three basic methods using factors of safety to achieve safe, workable structures have
been developed and they are:
i) The permissible stress method in which ultimate strengths of the materials are
divided by a factor of safety to provide design stresses, which are usually
within the elastic range. e.g. actual strength = 460N/mm2, applying F.O.S. = 2
∴ using 230N/mm2 for design.
The permissible stress method has proved to be a simple and useful method
but it does have some serious inconsistencies. Because it is based on an
elastic stress distribution, it is not really applicable to a semi-plastic material
such as concrete.
ii) The load factor method in which the working loads are multiplied by a factor
of safety. e.g. actual load = 20kN, applying F.O.S. = 2 ∴ using 40kN for
design.
In load factor method the ultimate strength of the materials should be used in
the calculations. As this method does not apply factors of safety to the
material stresses, it cannot directly take account of the variability of the
material.
iii) The limit state method which multiplies the working loads by partial factors
of safety and also divides the materials’ ultimate strength by further partial
factors of safety.
The limit state of design overcomes many of the disadvantages of the above
two methods.
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Limit States
The purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not
become unfit for its intended use – that is, that it will not reach a limit state.
The two principal types of limit state are the Ultimate Limit State and the
Serviceability Limit State.
i) Ultimate Limit State
The most important serviceability limit states are:
a) Deflection – the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must

not be adversely affected by deflection.
b) Cracking – local damage due to cracking and spalling must not affect the
appearance, efficiency or durability of the structure.
c) Durability – this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the

structure and its conditions of exposure.
Other limit states that may be reached include:
d) Excessive vibration – which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as

damage.
e) Fatigue – must be considered if cyclic loading is likely.
f) Fire resistance – this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse,

flame penetration and heat transfer.
g) Special circumstances – any special requirements of the structures which

are not covered by any of the more common limit states.
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Characteristic Strength
It is assumed that for a given material, the distribution of strength will be

approximately “normal”, so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of
sample results would be of the form shown in the Fig.2.1 The characteristic strength is
taken as that value below which it is unlikely that more than 5% of the results will fall.
This is given by
fk = fm – 1.64s
where fk = characteristic strength, fm = mean strength, s = standard deviation.
Figure 2.1 Normal frequency distribution of strengths
Characteristic Loads
Ideally, it should be possible to assess loads statistically, that
Characteristic Load = mean load ± 1.64 Standard Deviations
These characteristic values represent the limits within which at least 90% of values
will lie in practice. It is to be expected that not more than 5% will exceed the upper
limit and not more than 5% will fall below the lower limit.
* In Hong Kong, design loads should be obtained from the Building (Construction)
Regulations.
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Partial Factors of Safety
Partial Factors of Safety for Materials (γm)
Design Strength = Characteristic Strength ( fk ) / γm
e.g. 460kN/mm2 / 1.15 ≈ 0.87 fy
Factors to be considered in selecting γm
i) The strength of the material in an actual member.

e.g. The strength of concrete is easily affected by placing, compacting,
curing……=> higher γm
Steel is a relative consistent material, therefore, using small γm
ii) The severity of the limit state being considered.
Higher for ULS

Small or even neglected for SLS
Recommended values for γm, see table below. (to BS8110)
Limit state Material

Concrete Steel
Ultimate
Flexure 1.5 1.15
Shear 1.25 1.15
Bond 1.4
Serviceability 1.0 1.0
Table 2.1 Partial factors of safety applied to materials (γm)
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Partial Factors of Safety for Loads (γf )
Errors may arise due to: -
i) Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation

ii) Possible unusual load increases
iii) Unforeseen stress redistributions
iv) Constructional inaccuracies
These are taken into account in design by applying a partial factor safety (γf ) on
loading, so that,
Design Load = Characteristic Load x (γf )
The partial factor of safety (to BS8110) is as shown below.
Ultimate
Earth & Serviceability All
Load Combination Concrete Imposed Wind
Water
(γG) (γQ) (γQ) (γW) (γG˙γQ˙γW)
Dead & Imposed 1.4 1.6
1.4 - 1.0
(+ Earth & Water) (or 1.0) (or 0.0)
Dead & Wind 1.4
- 1.4 1.4 1.0
(+ Earth & Water) (or 1.0)
Dead & Imposed &
Wind 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0
(+ Earth & Water)
Table 2.2 Partial factors of safety for loadings
*It should be noted that the Partial Factors of Safety for Loadings in local code ( Code
of Practice for Structural Use of Concrete ) uses a different for LL and DL.
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3. ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE
Loading
Dead Load
Dead load includes the weight of the structure, and all architectural components such
as exterior cladding, partitions and ceilings. Equipment and static machinery, when
permanent fixtures, are considered as part of the dead load.
* The typical value for the self-weight of reinforced concrete is 24 kN/m3
Imposed Load
Imposed loads on buildings are: the weight of its occupants, furniture, or machinery;
the pressure of wind, the weight of snow, and of retained earth and water.
Load Combinations
For ULS the loading combination to be considered are as follows:
i) Dead and imposed load

1.4 Gk + 1.6 Qk
ii) Dead and wind load

1.0 Gk + 1.4 Wk
iii) Dead, imposed and wind load

1.2 Gk + 1.2 Qk + 1.2 Wk
Fig. 3.1 shows the arrangement of vertical loading for multi-span continuous beam to
cause (i) maximum sagging moment in alternate spans and (ii) maximum moment at
support A.
*BS8110 & HK Code of Practice allow the ultimate design moments at the supports
to be calculated from one loading condition with all spans fully loaded.
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Figure 3.1 Multi-span beam loading arrangements
Load Combination for SLS
A partial factor of safety γf = 1.0 is applied to all load combinations at SLS.
Frame Analysis
Braced Frame
A braced frame is where the sway deflection is reduced substantially by the

presence of cross bracing, shear wall or core wall.
Sub-frame analysis
All columns and beam spanning between joints which allow rotation take the
full stiffness. Beams having one end fixed take a reduced stiffness of 50% to
allow for the remote end of the beam is fixed against rotation. (see fig.3.2)
The structure will be subjected to the following loading cases:-
i) All spans with full loading (1.4Gk + 1.6 Qk)

ii) Alternative span full loading and the remainder with 1.0 Gk
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Unbraced Frame
An unbraced frame is where the sway due to the imposition of horizontal loading is
not limited (except the inherent stiffness of the columns and beams) and the
beam-column connection is required to resist the moment induced by sway.
Sub-frame analysis
Only the two frames shown in fig. 3.2b can be considered, i.e. the sub-frame (viii) and
the sub-frame (ix). The sub-frame (ix) is analysed by using 1.4Gk + 1.6 Qk and
1.2Gk + 1.2 Qk. The sub-frame (viii) is analysed by using 1.2 Wk. The most
critical loading case for the structural members is obtained by comparing the
results of the two loading cases.
i) 1.4Gk + 1.6 Qk
ii) 1.2Gk + 1.2 Qk + 1.2 Wk
The sub-frame (viii) is analysed under the loading of and is carried out by assuming
point of contraflexure at the mid-spans of all beams and mid-storey heights for all
columns.
16
Fig. 3.2 Basic frame with typical subframes for both the braced and unbraced case.
17
4. ANAYLSIS OF THE SECTION
The most important principles are:-
i) The stresses and strains are related by the material properties, including the
stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.
ii) The distribution of strains must be compatible with the distorted shape of the
cross-section.
iii) The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied loads
for static equilibrium.
Stress-Strain Relations
Concrete
The behavior of structural concrete (Fig. 4.1) is represented by a parabolic

stress-strain relationship, up to strain εo , from which point the strain increases while
the stress remains constant.
Figure 4.1 Short term design stress-strain curve for normal-weight concrete
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The ultimate strain = 0.0035 is typical for all grades of concrete. The ultimate
design stress is given by:-
0.67 fcu 0.67 fcu
= = 0.447 fcu ≈ 0.45 fcu
γm 1.5
Where 0.67 allows the difference between the bending strength and cube crushing
strength of concrete and γm = 1.5 is the usual partial safety factor.
Steel Reinforcement
Fig. 4.2 shows a typical short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement. The
behaviour of steel is identical in tension and compression.
Figure 4.2 Short term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement
fy
Design Yield Stress =
γm
Stress = Es × εs
fy
∴ Design Yield Strain εy = ( ) / Es
γm
For high-tensile steel (T), fy = 460 N/mm².

εy = 460/(1.15 × 200 × 10³ ) = 0.002
For mild steel (R), fy = 250 N/mm²

εy = 250/(1.15 × 200 × 10³ ) = 0.00109
19
Distribution of Strains and Stresses Across a Section
Assumptions:-
i) Concrete cracks in the region of tensile strain

ii) After cracking, all tension is carried by the reinforcement.
iii) Plane sections remain plane after straining.
The following Fig. 4.3 shown the cross-section of a member subjected to bending, and
the resultant stain diagram, together with three types of stress distribution in the
concrete.
Figure 4.3 Section with strain diagram and stress blocks
i) The triangular stress distribution applies to the serviceability limit state. (SLS)
ii) The rectangular parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure
when compressive strains are within the plastic range and if is associated with
the design for ultimate limit state. (ULS).
iii) The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the

rectangular-parabolic distribution. It is adopted in BS8110.
From the compatibility of stains,

d–x
εst = εcc = ( )
x
x – d’
and εsc = εcc = ( )
x
Where d and d’ are the effective depth & the depth of comp. reinf. Respectively
20
d–x
By rearranging (1), x = εst
1+
εcc
At ULS, the maximum compressive strain in concrete is 0.0035.
For steel with fy = 460 N/mm², the yield strain is 0.002.
d–x
∴ x = εst = 0.636 d
1+
εcc
Hence to ensure yielding of the tension steel at ULS,

x ≤ 0.636d
To be very certain of the tension steel yielding, BS8110 Limits the depth of neutral
axis so that
x ≤ (βb – 0.4)d
Where,
moment at the section after redistribution
βb =
moment at the section before redistribution
Thus with moment redistribution not greater than 10%

βb ≤ 0.9, ∴ x ≤ 0.5d
Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block
The rectangular stress block shown in Fig. 4.4 may be used in preference to the more
rigorous rectangular-parabolic stress block. This simplified stress distribution will
facilitate the analysis and provide more manageable design equations.
Note that the stress block does not extend to the neutral axis of the section but has a
depth s = 0.9x. This will result in the centroid of the stress block being s/2 = 0.45x
from the top edge of the section, which is very nearly the same location as for the
more precise rectangular-parabolic stress block; also the areas of the two types of the
stress block are approximately equal.
21
Figure 4.4 Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending
Fst – tensile force in the reinforcing steel

Fcc – resultant compressive force in concrete
For equilibrium, the ultimate design moment M must be balanced by the moment of
resistance of the section.
M = Fcc ˙ z = Fst ˙ z, z – lever arm
Fcc = Stress × Area of action

= 0.45 Fcu · bs
and z = d- s/2 => s = 2(d-z)
∴ M = 0.45bs · z fcu
= 0.45b · 2(d – z)z · fcu
= 0.9 fcu · b(d – z)z
Let K = M / (bd² fcu),

Eq.(3) becomes, (z/d)² - (z/d) + K/0.9 = 0
∴ z = d[0.5 + √(0.25-K/0.9)]
Also Fst = (fy / γm) ˙ As with γm = 1.15
M
∴ As =
0.87 fy z
22
The lever arm z can be found by using formula, table or design chart as shown below.
z = d[0.5 + √(0.25-K/0.9)] Formula
K = M/bd2fcu 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.156
Table
la = z/d 0.941 0.928 0.915 0.901 0.887 0.873 0.857 0.842 0.825 0.807 0.789 0.775
Design Chart
The % values on the K axis mark the limits for singly reinforced sections with
moment redistribution applied.
The upper limit of the lever-arm curve, z = 0.95d, is specified by BS8110. The
lower limit of z = 0.775d is when the depth of neutral axis x = d/2, which is the
maximum value allowed by the code for a singly reinforced section in order to
provide a ductile section which will have a gradual tension type failure.
With z = 0.775d,
M = 0.9 fcu b(d – 0.775d) × 0.775d
=> M = 0.156 fcu bd²
The coefficient 0.156 is calculated from the more precise concrete stress.
M
When = K > 0.156, compression reinforcement is required.
bd2 fcu
Rectangular Section with Compression reinforcement at ULS
23
Figure 4.5 Section with compression reinforcement
When M > 0.156 fcu bd², the design ultimate moment exceeds the moment of
resistance of the concrete. ∴ compression reinforcement is required.
Z = d – s/2 = d – 0.9 x/2

= d – 0.9 · 0.5d/2
= 0.775d
For equilibrium, Fst = Fcc + Fsc

∴ 0.87 fy As = 0.45 fcu bs + 0.87 fy As’
and with s = 0.9 × d/2 = 0.45d
0.87 fy As = 0.201 fcu bd + 0.87 fy As’
Take moment at the centroid of the tension steel As ,
M = Fcc z + Fsc (d – d’)

= 0.201 fcu bd(0.775d) + 0.87 fy As’ (d – d’)
= 0.156 fcu bd² + 0.87 fy As’ (d – d’)
M – 0.156 fcu bd2
∴ As’ =
0.87 fy (d – d’)
0.156 fcu bd2
and As = + As’ with z = 0.775d
0.87 fy z
the value 0.156 is usually denoted by K’
Moment Redistribution
24
The moment derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the
assumption that plastic hinges have formed at the sections with largest moments.
The formulation of plastic hinges requires relatively large rotations with yielding of
the tension reinforcement. To ensure large strains in the tension steel, the code of
practice restricts the depth of neutral axis.
X ≤ (βb - 0.4)d
Where d = effective depth
moment at the section after redistribution

βb =
moment at the section before redistribution
∴ Depth of stress block, s = 0.9 ((βb - 0.4)d

and z = d- s/2
= d – 0.9(βb - 0.4)d/2
Moment of resistance of the concrete in compression,

Mc = Fcc z = 0.45fcu bsz
= 0.45 fcu b · 0.9(βb - 0.4)d[d – 0.9(βb - 0.4)d/2]
Mc
∴ = 0.45 · 0.9(βb - 0.4) · [1-0.45(βb - 0.4)]
bd2 fcu
= 0.402(βb - 0.4)-0.18(βb - 0.4)²
Mc
Let = K’
bd2 fcu
∴ K’ = 0.402(βb - 0.4)-0.18(βb - 0.4)²
when M > K’bd²fcu , then compression steel is required such that
(K – K’) fcu bd2

As ’ =
0.87 fy (d – d’)
K’ fcu bd2
and As = + As ’
0.87 fy z
Table 4.1 shows the various design factors associated with the moment redistribution.
If the value of d’/d for the section exceeds that shown in the table, the compression
25
steel will not be yielded and the compressive stress shall be taken as fsc = Es·εsc.
Redistribution βb x/d z/d K’ d’/d

(per cent)
≤10 ≥0.9 0.5 0.775 0.156 0.215
15 0.85 0.45 0.797 0.144 0.193
20 0.8 0.4 0.82 0.132 0.172
25 0.75 0.35 0.842 0.119 0.150
30 0.7 0.3 0.865 0.104 0.129
Table 4.1 Moment redistribution design factors
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5. BOND & ANCHORAGE
Minimum Distance Between Bars

i) The recommended distance between bars are given in C1.3.12.11 of BS8110
Part 1, hagg (the maximum size of coarse aggregate).
ii) Horizontal Distance between bars ≥ hagg + 5mm.
iii) Vertical Distance between bars ≥ 2 hagg /3
iv) And if the bar size exceeds hagg + 5mm, a spacing of ≥ bar size is required.
Minimum Percentages of Reinforcement in Beams, Slabs and Columns

Situation Definition of Minimum percentage
percentage fy = 250 N/mm² fy = 450 N/mm²
% %
Tension reinforcement
Sections subjected mainly to pure tension 100As / Ac 0.8 0.45
Sections subjected to flexure
(a) Flanged beams, web in tension:
(1) b W / b < 0.4 100As /bwh 0.32 0.18
(2) b W / b ≥ 0.4 100As /bwh 0.24 0.13
(b) Flanged beams, flange in tension
over a continuous support:
(1) T-beam 100As /bwh 0.48 0.26
(2) L-beam 100As /bwh 0.36 0.20
(c) Rectangular section (in solid slabs this minimum 100As /Ac 0.24 0.13
should be provided in both directions)
Compression reinforcement (where such reinforcement is
required for the ultimate limit state)
General rule 100Asc /Acc 0.4 0.4
Simplified rules for particular cases:
(a) rectangular column or wall 100Asc /Ac 0.4 0.4
(b) flanged beam:
(1) flange in compression 100Asc /bht 0.4 0.4
(2) web in compression 100Asc /bwh 0.2 0.2
(c) rectangular beam 100Asc /Ac 0.2 0.2
Transverse reinforcement in flanges of flanges of flanged
beams (provided over full effective flange width near top 100Asc /htl 0.15 0.15
surface to resist horizontal shear)
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Anchorage Bond
The reinforcing bar subject to tension shown in Fig. 5.1 must be firmly anchored if it
not be pulled out of the concrete The anchorage depends on the bond between the
bar and the concrete, and the contract area.
Figure 5.1 Anchorage bond

L = Min. anchorage length to prevent pull out.
ø = Bar size or nominal diameter.
fbu = Ultimate anchorage bond stress.
fs = Direct tensile or compressive stress in the bar.
Consider the forces on the bar,

πø2
Tensile pull-out force = •fs
4
Anchorage force = ( Lπø ) •fbu
2
πø
∴ = ( Lπø ) •fbu
4
fs 0.87 fy
∴ L = •ø = •ø
4fbu 4 fbu
The ultimate anchorage bond stress, fbu = β√(fcu)

Values of β are given in table 5.2
Table 5.2 Values of bond coefficient β

Bar type -
Bars in tension Bars in compression
Plain bars 0.28 0.35
Type 1 : deformed bars 0.40 0.50
Type 2 : deformed bars 0.50 0.53
Fabric 0.65 0.81
∴ anchorage length L can be written as: L = KA ø
28
Table 5.3 Ultimate anchorage bond lengths and lap lengths as multiples of bar size
Reinforcement Grade 250 Grade 460
plain Plain Deformed Deformed Fabric
type 1 type 2
Concrete cube strength 25
Tension anchorage and lap length 39 72 51 41 31
1.4 x tension lap 55 101 71 57 44
2.0 x tension lap 78 143 101 81 62
Compression anchorage 32 58 41 32 25
Compression lap length 39 72 51 40 31
1.4 x tension lap 50 92 64 52 40
2.0 x tension lap 71 131 92 74 57
1.4 x tension lap 46 85 60 48 37
2.0 x tension lap 66 121 85 68 53
1.4 x tension lap 43 80 56 45 35
2.0 x tension lap 62 113 80 64 49
NOTE, The values are rounded up to the whole number and the length derived from these values may
differ slightly from those calculated directly for each bar or wire size.
Furthermore, anchorage length may be provided by hooks and bends in the

reinforcement as shown in below figure 5.2.
29
Figure 5.2 Anchorage provided by hooks & bends
Lapping of Reinforcement
Rules for lapping are:-
i) The laps should be staggered and be away from sections with high stresses.
ii) Tension laps should be equal to at least the design tension anchorage length,
but in certain conditions, it should be increased.
a) At top section and with min. cover < 2ø (Multiply by 1.4)
b) At corners where min. cover to either face < 2ø or clear distance between
adjacent laps < 75 mm or 6ø. (Multiply by 1.4)
c) Where both (a) and (b) apply. (Multiply by 2.0)
Figure 5.3 Lapping of reinforcing bars

iii) Compression laps should be at least 25% greater than the compression
anchorage length.
iv) Lap lengths for unequal size bars may be based on the smaller bar.
30
Shear
Shear reinforcement can be in the form of stirrups and inclined bars. However,
inclined bars are less frequently used in construction today, due to difficult in actual
construction work.
Stirrups
Fig. 5.4 shows an analogous truss in which the longitudinal reinforcement forms the
bottom chord, the stirrups are the vertical members and the concrete acts as the
diagonal and top chord compression member.
Figure 5.4 Stirrups and the analogous truss
The spacings of the stirrups are equal to the effective depth d.
Let Asv = Cross-sectional area of the two legs of the stirrup.

fyv = Characteristic strength of the stirrup reinforcement
V = Shear force due to the ultimate load.
Consider section x – x
0.87 fyv Asv = V = vbd
31
Where v = V/bd is the average shear stress.
If Sv is the actual spacing of stirrups, then

0.87 fyv Asv = vbd(sv/d)
Asv vb
∴ =
sv 0.87 fyv
Taken the shear resistance of concrete into account,

Asv b(v – vc)
=
sv 0.87 fyv
where vc is the ultimate shear stress that can be resisted by the concrete. The values
of vc is given in table 5.3
Table 5.4 Values of Vc, design concrete shear stress

100 As Effective depth (in mm)
bvd 125 150 175 200 225 250 300 >400
N/mm² N/mm² N/mm² N/mm² N/mm² N/mm² N/mm² N/mm²
≤ 0.15 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.34
0.25 0.53 0.51 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.40
0.50 0.67 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.50
0.75 0.77 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.62 0.57
1.00 0.84 0.81 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.63
1.50 0.97 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.72
2.00 1.06 1.02 0.98 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.80
≥ 3.00 1.22 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.98 0.91
NOTE 1. Allowance has been made in these figures for a γm of 1.25
NOTE 2. The values in the table are derived from the expression:
0.79 (100 As /(bvd)1/3(400/d)1/4/γm
where
100A Vs /bvd should not be taken as greater than 3:
400/d should not be taken as less than 1.
For characteristic concrete strengths greater than 25 N/mm², the values in the table may be
multiplied by (fcu/25) 1/3. The value of fcu should not be taken as greater than 40.
The values of Vc increases for shallow members and those with larger percentages of
tensile reinforcement.
32
Enhanced Shear Resistance
Within a distance of 2d from a support or a concentrated load, the design concrete

shear stress vc may be increased to
vc·2d / av
The distance av is measured from the support or concentrate load to the section being
designed.
* Average shear stress should never exceed the lesser of 0.8√(fcu) or 5 N/mm².
33
6 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETER BEAM
Preliminary Analysis and Member Sizing
The preliminary analysis need only provide the max. moments and shears in order to
ascertain reasonable dimensions. Beam dimension required are:-
i) Cover to reinforcement (c)

ii) Breath (b)
iii) Effective depth (d)
iv) Overall depth (h)
The strength of a beam is affected more by its depth than its breath. A suitable
breath may be 1/3 – 1/2 of the depth.
Suitable dimensions for ‘b’ and ‘d’ can be decided by a few trial calculations as
follows:-
i) For no compression reinforcement,

M/bd²fcu ≤ 0.156
With compression reinforcement,

M/bd²fcu ≤ 10 / fcu if the area of bending reinforcement
is no to be excessive.
ii) Shear stress v = V / bd and v should never exceed 0.8√fcu or 5 N/mm²

whichever is the lesser. To avoid congested shear reinforcement, v, shall be
in about 1/2 of the max. allowable value.
iii) The span-effective depth ratio for span ≤ 10m should be within the basic
values given below.
}
Cantilever Beam 7
Simply Supported Beam 20 Basic span- effective depth ratio.
Continuous Beam 26
* The basic span-effective depth ratio shall be modified according to M/bd² and
the service stress in the tension reinforcement.
34
* For span greater than 10m, the basic ratios shall be multiplied by 10/span.
iv) The overall depth of the beam is given by
h = d + cover + t
where t = estimated distance from the outside of the link to the center of the
tension bar.
Figure 6.1 Beam dimensions
Effective Span of Beam
i) Simply supported beam:- the smaller of the distance between the centre of
bearings, or the clear distance between support plus the effective depth.
ii) Continuous beam:- the distance between the centre of supports.
iii) Cantilever beam:- the length to the face of the support plus 1/2 effective depth,
or the distance to the center of the support if the beam is continuous.
Design for Bending
* An excessive amount of reinforcement indicates that a member is undersized and

it may also cause difficulty in fixing the bars and pouring of concrete.
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section (βb ≤ 0.9)
Refer to the diagram below.
35
Figure 6.2 Singly reinforced section

The design procedures and can be summarized as follows:-
i) Calculate K = M/bd²fcu
ii) Determine the lever-arm, z, by from formula, table or the design chart below.
z = d[0.5 + √(0.25-K/0.9)] Formula
K = M/bd2fcu 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.156
Table
la = z/d 0.941 0.928 0.915 0.901 0.887 0.873 0.857 0.842 0.825 0.807 0.789 0.775
Design Chart
The % values on the K axis mark the limits for singly reinforced sections with moment redistribution
applied.
iii) The area of tension steel is:-

M
As =
0.87 fy z
iv) Select suitable bar sizes
v) Check that the area of steel provided is within the limits required by the code,
i.e.: As /bh ≤ 4.0%
And As /bh ≥ 0.24% (for mild steel)
≥ 0.13% (for high yield steel)
36
Example 6.1. Design of Tension Reinforcement for a Rectangular Section
The beam section shown in figure 6.3 has characteristic material strengths of fcu = 45
N/mm² for the concreter and fy = 460 N/mm ² for the steel with R12 stirrups and
30mm concrete cover. The design moment at the ultimate limit state is 250 kN m
which causes sagging of the beam
Figure 6.3
Solution:
K = M/bd²fcu ⇒ assuming Y32 steel to be used, ∴ d = 600 – 30 – 12 – 32/2
= 542 mm
K = 250 × 106 / (300 × 5422 × 45)
= 0.063 < 0.156 ∴ compression steel is not required
by formula, lever arm, la = 0.5 +√(0.25 - K/0.9)

= 0.5 +√(0.25 -0.063/0.9)
= 0.942 < 0.95 ∴ use 0.942
⇒ la = z/d
∴ z = 0.942 × 542 mm = 500.9 mm
Calculating the required tension reinforcement,

M
As =
0.87 fy z
= 250 × 106 / (0.87 × 460 × 500.9) = 1247 mm2
Provide 2Y32 bars, area = 1608 mm² (As% = 0.99%) > 0.13% & < 4%
∴the section is satisfy for resisting the applied moment
Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beam
* Compression steel is required whenever the concrete in compression is unable to

develop the necessary moment of resistance.
37
Moment Redistribution Factor βb ≥ 0.9 and d’/d ≤ 0.2
Compression reinforcement is required if M > 0.156 fcu bd²

that is K > 0.156
i) Area of compression steel

M – 0.156 fcu bd²
As ’ =
0.87 fsc (d-d’)
ii) Area of tension steel,

0.156 fcu bd²
+ As’ and z = 0.775d
As = 0.87 fy z
* If d’/d > 0.2, the stress in compression steel should be determined by the
stress-strain relationship.
Figure 6.4 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a sagging moment
Moment Redistribution Factor βb < 0.9
The design procedures and can be summarized as follows:-

i) Calculate K = M/bd² fcu
ii) Calculate K’ = 0.402 (βb – 0.4) – 0.18 (βb – 0.4)²
If K < K’, no compression steel required.
If K > K’, compression steel required.
iii) Calculate x = (βb – 0.4)d
If d’ /x < 0.43, the compression steel has yielded and fsc = 0.87 fy
If d’ /x < 0.43, calculate the steel compressive strain εsc and then
38
calculate fsc = Es ·εsc

iv) Calculate the area of compression steel by
(K - K’) fcu bd²

As ’ =
fsc (d-d’)
v) Calculate the area of tension steel by,
K’ fcu bd² fsu

As = + As ’
0.87 fy z 0.87 fy
where z = d – 0.9 x/2
* Links should be provided to give lateral restraint to the outer layer of

compression steel according to the following rules.
A) The links should pass round the corner bars and each alternative bar.
B) The link size ≥ 1/4 of the size of largest compression bar.
C) The spacing of links ≤ 12φ of the smallest compression bars.
D) No compression bar should be more than 150 mm from a restrained bar
Example 6.2 Design of Tension and Compression Reinforcement, βb > 0.9
The beam section shown in figure 6.5 has characteristic material strengths of fcu = 30
N/mm² and fy = 460 N/mm². The ultimate moment is 165 kNm, causing hogging of the
beam.
Figure 6.5 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a hogging moment

Solution:
K = M/bd²fcu ⇒ K = 160 × 106 / (230 × 3302 × 30)
= 0.22 > 0.156 ∴ compression steel is required
d’/d = 50/330 = 0.15 < 0.2
39
∴ fcu = 0.87 fy
By formula, required compression steel
’ M – 0.156 fcu bd²
As =
0.87 fsc (d-d’)
165 × 106 – 0.156 × 30 × 230 × 3302
= = 427 mm2
0.87 × 460 (330 - 50)
and required tension steel

0.156 fcu bd² ’
As = + As
0.87 fy z
0.156 × 30 × 230 × 3302
= + 427 = 1572 mm2
0.87 × 460 × 0.775 × 330
Provide 2Y20 bars for As, area = 628 mm² and 2Y32 bars for As, area = 1610 mm².
Checking of As%,
100As’ 100 × 628
= = 0.70
bh 230 × 390
100As 100 × 1610

= = 1.79
bh 230 × 390
> 0.13% & < 4%
∴the section is satisfy for resisting the applied moment
Example 3 Design of Tension and Compression Reinforcement, βb = 0.7
The beam section shown in figure 6.6 has the characteristic material strengths of fcu =
30 N/mm² and fy = 460 N/mm². The ultimate moment is 370 kNm causing hogging
of the beam.
40
Figure 6.6 Beam doubly reinforced to resist a hogging moment
As the moment reduction factor βb = 0.7, the limiting depth of the neutral axis is
x = (βb – 0.4)d
= (0.7 – 0.4) 540 = 162 mm
K = M/bd² fcu
= 370 × 106/(300 × 5402 × 30)
= 0.141
K = 0.402 (βb – 0.4) – 0.18 (βb – 0.4)²
= 0.104
K > K’ therefore compression steel is required
therefore fsc < 0.87 fy
0.0035 (x – d’)
(1) Steel compressive strain εsc =
X
0.0035 (162 – 100)
= = 0.00134
162
(2) Steel compressive stress = Es·εsc
= 200 000 × 0.00134
= 268 N/mm2
(K - K’) fcu bd²
(3) Compression steel As’ =
fsc (d-d’)
(0.141 – 0.104) × 30 × 300 × 5402
=
268 (540 – 100)
K’ fcu bd² fsu
(4) Tension Steel As = + As ’
0.87 fy z 0.87 fy
As = 0.104 × 30 × 300× 5402 + 823 × 268
41
0.87 × 460 (540 – 0.9 × 162/2) 0.87 × 460
Provide 2Y25 bars for As, area = 982 mm² and 2Y32 & 1Y25 bars for As area = 2101
mm², which also meet the requirements of the code for steel areas..
T-Beam and L-Beam
Fig. 6.7 shows a T-beam and an L-beam. Where the beams are resisting sagging
moment, part of the slab acts as a compression flange and the members may be
designed as a T-beam or L-beam.
* With hogging moment, the slab will be in tension and assumed to be crack, ∴
the beam must be designed as a rectangular section of width bw and overall
depth h.
Figure 6.7 T-beam and L-beam
BS8110 defines effective width as follows:-
i) T-section, the lesser of the actual flange width, or the width of the web + 1/5 of
the distance between point of zero moment.
ii) L-section, the lesser of the actual flange width or the width of the web +
1/10 of the distance between point of zero moment.
* As a simple rule, the distance between the points of zero moment may be
taken as 0.7 times the effective span for a continuous beam.
* When the N.A. falls within the flange, design the T-beam or L-beam as an
equivalent rectangular section of breath bf.
* Transverse reinforcement should be placed across the top flange with an area
42
of not less than 0.15% of the longitudinal cross-section of the flange.
Design Procedures for T or L Beam
i) Calculate K = M/ bfd² fcu and determine the lever-arm.

ii) If d – z < hf /2, the stress block falls within the flanged depth, and the design is
proceeded as for a rectangular section.
iii) Provide transverse steel in the top of the flange.
Area = 0.15hf × 1000/100
= 1.5hf mm² per meter length of the slab.
Curtailment of Bars
In every flexural member every bar should be extend beyond the theoretical cut-off
point for a distance equal to greater of :-
i) The effective depth of the member or

ii) 12φ
This applies to compression and tension reinforcement, but reinforcement in the

tension zone should satisfy the following additional requirements.
iii) The bars extend a full anchorage bond length beyond the theoretical cut-off
point.
iv) At the physical cut-off point, the shear capacity is at least twice the actual
shear force.
v) At the physical cut-off point, the actual bending moment is not more than half
the moment at theoretical cut-off point.
For example:-
Figure 6.8 Locations of Cut-off Points along a beam
43
For condition (i) and (ii), AB is the greater of d or 12φ

For condition (iii), AB equals the full anchorage bond length.
For condition (iv), At B, actual shear < half the shear capacity.
For condition (v), At b, moment < half moment at A.
* Where the loads on a beam are substantially uniformly distributed, simplified

rules for curtailment may be used. These rules only apply to continuous beam
if the characteristic imposed load does not exceed the characteristic dead load
and the spans are equal. Fig. 6.9 shows the rules in a diagrammatic form.
Figure 6.9 Simplified rules for curtailment of bars in beams
Design for Shear
If V is the shear force at a section, then the shear stress v is given by v = V/bd.
( * v must never exceed the lesser of 0.8√fcu or 5 N/mm² )
Vertical Stirrups
Rules:
i) Min. spacing Sv of stirrup should not be less than 80 mm.
44
ii) Max. spacing Sv of stirrup should not exceed 0.75d longitudinally along the
span.
iii) At right angles to the span, the spacing of the vertical legs should not exceed d,
and all tension bars should be within 150 mm of a vertical leg.
* The choice of steel type is often governed by the fact that mild steel may be
bent to a smaller radius than high-yield steel. This is important in narrow
members to allow correct positioning of the tension reinforcement.
The size and spacing of the stirrups is given by the following equation.
Asv b(v-vc)
≥
Sv 0.87fyv
Where Asv = Area of the legs of a stirrup

Sv = Spacing of the stirrup
B = Breath of the beam
V = V/bd = shear stress
vc = The ultimate shear stress of conc.
fyv = Characteristic strength of the link reinforcement.
If v is less than vc nominal links must still be provided unless the beam is a very minor
one and
vc
v<
2
The nominal links should be provided such that

Asv 0.4b
=
Sv 0.87fyv
Example 6.4 Design of Shear Reinforcement for a Beam
Shear reinforcement is to be designed for the one span beam of example as shown in
figures 6.10. The characteristic strength of the mild steel links in fyv = 250 N/mm².
(a) Check maximum shear stress

Total load on span F = wu × span = 75.2 x 6.0
= 451 kN
At face of support
45
Shear Vs = F/2 - wu × support width /2

= 451/2 – 758.2 × 0.15= 214 kN
Figure 6.10 Non-continuous beam-shear reinforcement
shear stress
vs 214 × 103
v= =
bd 300 × 550
= 1.3 N/mm2 < 0.8√fcu
(b) Shear links

Distance d from face of support
shear Vd = Vs - wu d
= 214 – 75.2 × 0.55 = 173 kN
shear stress v = 173 × 103 / ( 300 × 550)
= 1.05 N/mm²
Only 2 Nos. 25 mm bars extend a distanced d past the critical section.

Therefore for determining vc
100As 100 × 982
= = 0.59
bd 300 × 550
From table 5.4. vc = 0.56 N/mm²

Asv b (v – vc) 300 (1.05 – 0.56)
= = = 0.68
Sv 0.87fyv 0.87 × 250
46
Provide R10 links at 220 mm centers

Asv 2 × 78.5
= = 0.71
Sv 220
(c) Nominal links

for mild steel links
Asv 0.4b 0.4 × 300

= = = 0.55
Sv 0.87fyv 0.87 × 250
Provide R10 links at 280 mm centers
Asv 2 × 78.5
= = 0.56
Sv 280
(d) Extent of shear links

shear resistance of nominal links + concrete is
Asv
Vn = ( Sv
0.87 fyv + bvc )d
= (0.56 × 0.87 × 250 + 300 × 0.56) 550
= 159 kN
shear reinforcement is required over a distance s given by
Vs - Vn 214 - 159
s= =
Wu 75.2
= 0.73 metres from the face of the support
Number of R10 links at 220 mm required at each end of the beam is

l + (s/220) = l + (730/220) = 5
* There is a section at which the shear resistance of the concrete plus the nominal
stirrups equals the shear force form the envelope diagram. At this section, the
stirrups necessary to resist shear can stop and replaced by the nominal stirrups.
The shear resistance Vn of the concrete plus the nominal stirrups is given by
47
Vn = (0.4 + Vc )bd
Design for Torsion
Design procedures consist of determining an additional area of longitudinal and link

reinforcement required to resist the torsional shear forces.
i) Determine As and Asv to resist the bending moments and shear forces.
ii) Calculate the torsional shear stress.
2T
vt =
h2min (hmax – hmin/3)
T – Torsional moment
hmin – The smaller dimension of the beam section.
hmax – The larger dimension of the beam section.
iii) If vt > vtmin , in Table 6.1, then torsional reinforcement required. Refer to Table
6.2 for the reinforcement requirements with a combination of torsion and shear
stress v.
iv) v + vt ≤ vtu (refer to Table 6.1), where v is the shear stress due to shear force.
Also, for sections with yl < 550mm
vtu · y1
vt (
550
where yl is the larger c/c dimension of link
v) Calculate additional shear reinforcement required from
Asv T
=
sv 0.8x1y1(0.87fyv)
where xl is the smaller c/c dimension of link.
This value of Asv /sv is added to (i), and a suitable link size and spacing is
chosen.
48
* Sv < 200 mm or xl and the link should be of the closed type.
vi) Calculate the additional area of longitudinal steel.
Asv fyv
As =
sv ( fy ) (x1 + y1)
Asv
Where is the value from step (v).
sv
* As should be evenly distributed around the inside perimeter of the links.

At least four corner bars should be used and the clear distance between
bars should not exceed 300mm.
Figure 6.11 Torsion example
Concrete grade
25 30 40
or more
yl min 0.33 0.37 0.40
vtu 4.00 4.38 5.00
Table 6.1 Ultimate torsion shear stresses (N/mm²)
49
vt < vt min vt > vt min
v ≤ vc + 0.4 Nominal shear reinforcement. Designed torsion reinforcement

only, but not less than nominal
shear reinforcement
v > vc + 0.4 Designed shear reinforcement, Designed shear and torsion

not torsion reinforcement reinforcement
Table 6.2 Reinforcement for shear and torsion
Example 5 Design of Torsional Reinforcement
The rectangular section of figure 6.11 resists a bending moment of 170 kN m, a shear
of 160 kN and a torsional moment of 10kN m. The characteristic material strengths
are fcu = 30N/mm² fy = 460 N/mm² and fyv = 250 N/mm².
(1) Calculations for bending and shear would give

2
As = 1100mm
and
Asv
= 0.79
sv
(2) Torsional shear stress
2T
vt = 2
h min (hmax – hmin/3)
2 × 10 × 106
vt = 2 = 0.56 N/mm2
300 (500 – 300/3)
(3) 0.56> 0.37 from table 6.1. Therefore torsional reinforcement

is required.
(4)
V 160 × 103
v= = = 1.19 N/mm2
bd 300 × 450
Therefore
v + vs = 1.19 + 0.56 = 1.75 N/mm2
vut from table 6.1 = 4.38 N/mm2, therefore
50
vtu · y1 4.38 × 400

= = 3.5
550 550
So that vt < vtu y1 / 500 as required
(5)
Asv T
Additional =
sv 0.8x1y1(0.87fyv)
10.0 × 106
=
0.8 × 240 × 440 × 0.87 × 250
= 0.55
Therefore
Asv
Total = 0.79 + 0.55 = 1.34
sv
Provide R10 links at 100 centres
Asv
= 1.57
sv
(6) Additional longitudinal steel
Asv fyv
As =
sv ( fy ) (x1 + y1)
250
= 0.55 × (240 + 440) = 203 mm2
460
Therefore
Total steel area – 1100 + 203 = 1303 mm2
Provide the longitudinal steel shown in figure 6.11.
(7) The torsional reinforcement should extend at least hmax

beyond where it is required to resist the torsion.
51
6.10 Checking of Deflection
BS 8110 specifies a set of basic span-effective depth ratios to control deflections

which are given in table 6.3 for rectangular sections and for flanged beams with spans
less than 10 m. Where the ratios for spans > 10 m are factored by 10/Span.
Rectangular Flanged
section (bw > 0.3b)
Cantilever 7 5.6
Simply supported 20 16.0
Continuous 26 20.8
Table 6.3 Basic span-effective depth ratios
The basic ratios given in table 6.3 are modified in particular cases according to
(a) The service stress in the tension steel and the value of M/bd² in table 6.4,
(b) The area of compression steel as in table 6.5
Reinforcement M/bd
service (N/mm²)
stress 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
100 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.86 1.63 1.36 1.19 1.08 1.01
150 2.0 2.0 1.98 1.69 1.49 1.25 1.11 1.01 0.94
(fy = 250) 156 2.0 2.0 1.96 1.66 1.47 1.24 1.10 1.00 0.94
200 2.0 1.95 1.76 1.51 1.35 1.14 1.02 0.94 0.88
250 1.90 1.70 1.55 1.34 1.20 1.04 0.94 0.87 0.82
(fy = 460) 288 1.68 1.50 1.38 1.21 1.09 0.95 0.87 0.82 0.78
300 1.60 1.44 1.33 1.16 1.06 0.93 0.85 0.80 0.76
NOTE 1. The values in the table derive from the equation:
(477 – fs)
Modification factor = 0.55 + ≤ 2.0
M
120 ( 0.9 + bd ) 2
where M is design ultimate moment at the center of the span or, for a cantilever, at the support
NOTE 2. The design service stress in the tension reinforcement in a member may be estimated
from the equation:
5 fy As, require 1
fs = ×
8 As, provided βb
NOTE 3. For a continuous beam, if the percentage of redistribution is not known but the design
ultimate moment at mid-span is obviously the same as or greater than the elastic
ultimate moment, the stress, fs, in this table may be taken as ⅝ fy.
Table 6.4 Tension reinforcement modification factors
52
100 As prov
Factor
bd
0.00 1.00
0.15 1.05
0.25 1.08
0.35 1.10
0.50 1.14
0.75 1.20
1.0 1.25
1.5 1.33
2.0 1.40
2.5 1.45
3.0 1.50
NOTE 1. The values in this table are derived from the following
equation:
Modification factor for compression reinforcement =
100 As’, prov 100 As’, prov
1 +
bd
/( 3 + bd
) ≤ 1.5
NOTE 2. The area of compression reinforcement As’, prov used in this
table may include all bars in the compression zone, even
those not effectively tied with links.
Table 6.5 Compression reinforcement modification factors
1 Example 6.6 Span-Effective Depth Ratio Check
A rectangular continuous beam spans 12 m with a mid-span ultimate moment of 400

kN m. If the breadth is 300 mm, check the acceptability of an effective depth of 600
mm when high yield reinforcement fy = 460 N/mm² is used. Two 16 mm bars are
located within the compressive zone.
Basic span-effective depth ratio from Table 6.3 = 26
To avoid damage to finishes modified ratio = 26 × 10/12 = 21.7.

Tensile reinforcement modification factor:
M 400 × 106
= = 3.7
bd2 300 × 6002
53
thus, from table 6.4 for fy = 460 N/mm², modification factor = 0.89.
Compression reinforcement modification factor:

100As’ 100 × 402
= = 2.2
bd 300 × 600
thus from table 6.5, modification factor = 1.07
Hence, modified span-effective depth ratio is equal to

21.7 × 0.89 × 1.07 = 20.7
12 × 103
Span-effective depth ratio provided = = 20
600
Which is less than the allowable upper limit, thus deflection requirements are likely to
be satisfied.
6.11 Worked Examples
Example 6.6 Design of a simply supported L-beam in footbridge
(a) Specification
The section through a simply supported reinforced concrete footbridge of 7 m
span shown in Fig.6.12. The imposed load is 5 kN/m2 and the materials to be
used are grade 30 concrete and grade 460 reinforcement. Design the L-beams
that support the bridge. Concrete weights 2400 kg/m³ and the weight of the
handrails are 16 kg/m per side.
(b) Loads, shear force and bending moment diagram

The dead load carried by one L-beam is
[(0.15 × 0.8) + (0.2 × 0.28)] 23.5 + 16 × 9.81/10³ = 4.3 kN/m
The imposed load carried by one L-beam is 0.8 × 5 = 4 kN/m. The design load
(1.4 × 4.3) + (1.6 × 4) = 12.42 kN/m
The ultimate moment at the center of the beam is
54
12.42 × 7² / 8 = 76.1 kNm

The load, shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig 6.12(b),
6.12(c) and 6.12(d) respectively.
(c) Design of moment reinforcement
The effective width of the flange of the L-beam is given by the lesser of
1. the actual width, 800mm, or
2. b = 200 + 7000/10 = 900 mm
From Table 1.3 (BS 8110: Part 1. Table 3.4) the cover for moderate exposure is 35
mm. The effective depth, d = 400 – 35 – 8 –12.5 = 344.5 mm say 340 mm
55
Fig.6.12 Section through footbridge; (b) design load; (c) shear force diagram; (d) bending
moment diagram.
56
Figure 6.13 (a) Beam section; (b) beam support; (c) beam elevation.
The L-beam is shown in Fig. 6.13(a)
The moment of resistance of the section when 0.9 of the depth to the neutral axis is
equal to the slap depth hf = 120 mm is
MR = 0.45 × 30 × 800 × 120 (340 – 0.5 × 120)/106

= 362.9 kNm
The neutral axis lies in the flange.
76.1 × 106
K = = 0.027
800 × 3402 × 30
z = 340 [0.5 + √(0.25 – 0.027/0.9)]
= 329.5 mm
> 0.95d ∴ using 0.95d = 0.95 × 340 = 323 mm
76.1 × 106
As = = 589 mm2
0.87 × 460 × 323
Provide 4Y16 mm, As = 804 mm². Using the simplified rules for curtailment of bars,
2 bars are cut off as shown in Fig. 6.13(c) at 0.08L of the span from each end.
57
(d) Design of shear reinforcement
The enhancement of shear strength near the support using the simplified
approach is taken into account in the design of shear. The maximum shear
stress at the support is
43.5 × 103
v = = 0.64 N/mm2
300 × 340
This is less than 0.8√30 = 4.38 N/mm² or 5 N/mm². The shear at d = 340mm
from the support is
V = 43.5 – 0.34 × 12.43 = 38.8 kN
38.8 × 103
v = = 0.57 N/mm2
200 × 340
The effective area of steel at d from the support is 2Y16 of area 402 mm²
100 As 100 × 402
= = 0.59
bd 200 × 340
The design concrete shear strength from the formula in Table 5.4 (BS 8110: Part
1, Table 3.9) is
vc = 0.79 (0.59)1/3(400/340)1/4(30/20)1/3/1.25
= 0.586 N/mm2
Provide R8 vertical links (two legs), Asv = 100mm², in grade 250 reinforcement.
The spacing required is determined using Table 6.6 (BS 8110: Part 1, Table 3.8).
v < vc
The spacing for minimum links is

0.87 × 250 × 100
sv = = 271.9
0.4 × 200
∋ 0.75 × 340 = 255 mm
The links will be spaced at 250 mm throughout the beam. 2Y20 are to be
provided to carry the links at the top of the beam. The shear reinforcement is
shown in Figs 6.13(b) and 6.13(c)
58
(e) End anchorage
The anchorage of the bars at the supports must comply with BS8110: Part 1,
clause 3.12.9.4. The bars are to be anchored 12 bar diameters past the center of
the support. This will be provided by a 90º bend with an internal radius of three
bar diameters. From clause 3.12.8.23, the anchorage length is the greater of
1. 4 × internal radius = 4 × 48 = 192 mm but not greater than 12 × 16 = 192
mm
2. the actual length of the bar (4 × 16) + 56 × 2π/4 = 151.9 mm
The anchorage is 12 bar diameters.
Value of v Form of shear reinforcement Area of shear reinforcement to

2
(N/mm ) to be provided be provided
Less than 0.5 vc throughout See note 1 -
the beam
0.5 vc < v < ( vc + 0.4 ) Minimum links for whole Asv ≥ 0.4 bvsv / 0.87fyv
length of beam (see note 2)
( vc + 0.4 ) < v < 0.8√fcu or Links or links combined with Where links only provided:
5 N/mm2 bent-up bars. Not more than Asv ≥ bvsv ( v - vc ) / 0.87f yv
50% of the shear resistance
provided by the steel may be
in the form of bent-up bars
(see note 3)
NOTE 1. While minimum links should be provided in all beams of structural importance,
it will be satisfactory to omit them in members of minor structural importance
such as lintels or where the maximum design shear stress is less than half vc.
NOTE 2. Minimum links provide a design shear resistance of 0.4 N/mm2.
NOTE 3. Spacing of links. The spacing of links in the direction of the span should not
exceed 0.75d. At right-angles to the span, the horizontal spacing should be such
that no longitudinal tension bar is more than 150mm from a vertical leg; this
spacing should in any case not exceed d.
Table 6.6 Form and area of shear reinforcement in beams
59
(f) Deflection check

The deflection of the beam is checked using the rules given in table 6.4 & 6.5
(BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.6).
web width bw 200

= = = 0.25 < 0.3
effective flange width b 800
The basic span-to-effective depth ration is 16

M 76.1 × 106
= = 0.82
bd2 800 × 3402
The service stress is

5 × 460 × 589
fs = = 210.6N/mm2
8 × 804
The modification factor for tension reinforcement using the formula in Table 6.4
is
477 – 210.6
0.55 + = 1.84 < 2.0
120 × ( 0.9 + 0.82 )
For the modification factor for compression reinforcement, with A’s.prov = 226
mm² according to Table 6.5 is
100 As’, prov 100 × 226
= = 0.083
bd 800 × 340
Therefore, the modification factor by the formula is

1 + [0.083 / (3 + 0.083)] = 1.027
allowable span / d = 16 × 1.84 × 1.027 = 30.23
actual span / d = 7000/340 = 20.5 < 30.23
The beam is satisfactory with respect to deflection.
60
Example 6.7 Design of simply supported doubly reinforced rectangular beam
(a) Specification
A rectangular beam is 300 mm wide by 450 mm effective depth with inset to the
compression steel of 55 mm. The beam is simply supported and spans 8 m.
The dead load including an allowance for self-weight is 20 kN/m and the
imposed load is 11 kN/m. The materials to be used are grade 30 concrete and
grade 460 reinforcement. Design the beam.
(b) Loads and shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown in Fig. 6.14.
design load = ( 1.4 × 20 ) + (1.6 × 11 ) = 45.6 kN/m
ultimate moment = 45.6 × 82 / 8 = 364.8 kN
(c) Design of the moment reinforcement (section 4.6)
When the depth x to the neutral is 0.5d, the moment of resistance of the concrete
only is MRC = 0.156 × 30 × 300 × 450² / 106 = 284 kNm. Compression
reinforcement is required.
Figure 6.14 (a) Design Loading; (b) ultimate shear force diagram; (c) ultimate bending
61
moment diagram.
The stress in the compression reinforcement is 0.87 fy. The area of
compression steel is
( 364.8 – 274 ) × 106
As ’ = = 508 mm2
( 450 – 55 ) × 0.87 × 460
Provide 2Y20, As’ = 628 mm²
( 0.203 × 30 × 300 × 450 ) + ( 0.87 × 460 × 508 )

As =
0.87 × 460
Provide 6Y25, As = 2945 mm². The reinforcement is shown in Fig. 6.15(a). In

accordance with the simplified rules for curtailment, 3Y25 tension bars will be
cut off at 0.08 of the span from each support. The compression bars will be
carried through to the ends of the beam to anchor the links. The end section and
the side elevation of the beam are shown in Figure 6.15(b) and 6.15(c)
respectively. The cover to the reinforcement is taken as 35 mm for moderate
exposure.
(d) Design of shear reinforcement
The maximum shear stress at the support is
182.4 × 103
v= = 1.31 N/mm2
300 × 462.5
This is less than 0.8√30 = 4.38 N/mm² or 5 N/mm². The shear at d = 462.5
mm from the support is
V = 182.4 – 0.46 × 45.6 = 161.4 kN
161.4 × 103
v= = 1.16 N/mm2
300 × 462.5
The area of steel at the section is 1472mm².

100 As 100 × 1472
= = 1.06
bd 300 × 462.5
62
The design shear strength from the formula in BS8110: Part 1, Table 3.9. is
vc = 0.79 ( 1.06 )1/3 ( 30/25 )1/3 / 1.25
= 0.68 N/mm2
Provide R10 (two-leg vertical) links, Asv = 157 mm². The spacing required is:
157 × 0.87 × 250
sv = = 237.1 mm
300 × ( 1.16 – 0.68)
For minimum links the spacing is

157 × 0.87 × 250
sv = = 284.6 mm
300 × 0.4
The spacing is not to exceed 0.75d = 346.8 mm. This distance x from the
support where minimum links only are required is determined. In this case v =
vc. The design shear strength where As = 2945 mm2 is
100 As / bd = 2.18
vc = 0.87 N/mm2
For the distance x, it is found by solving the equation

0.87 × 300 × 450 / 10³ = 182.4 – 45.6x
x = 1.42m
Space links at 200 mm centres for 2 m from each support and then at 250 mm
centres over the center 4 m. Note that the top layer of three 25 mm diameter bars
continues for 780 mm greater than d past the section when v = vc
(e) Deflection check
The basic span-effective depth ratio from Table 6.3 is 20 for a simply supported
rectangular beam
Tensile reinforcement modification factor:
M 364.8 × 106
= = 6.0
bd2 300 × 4502
63
The service stress is

5 × 460 × 2631.2
fs = = 256.9 N/mm2
8 × 2945
The modification factor for tension reinforcement using the formula in Table 6.4
is
477 – 256.9
0.55 + = 0.816 < 2.0
120 × ( 0.9 + 6.0 )
For the modification factor for compression reinforcement, with A’s.prov = 628
mm² according to Table 6.5 is
100 As’, prov 100 × 628
= = 0.46
bd 300 × 450
Therefore, the modification factor by the formula is

1 + [0.083 / (3 + 0.46)] = 1.13
allowable span / d = 20 × 0.816 × 1.13 = 18.4
actual span / d = 8000/450 = 17.8 < 18.4
The beam is satisfactory with respect to deflection.
64
Figure 6.15 (a) Section at centre; (b) end section; (c) part side elevation.
Example 6.8 Design of a Continuous Beam
The beam is 300 mm wide by 660 mm deep with three equal 5.0 m spans. In the
transverse direction, the beams are at 4.0 m centres with a 180 mm thick slab, as
shown in figure 6.17.
The live load qk on the beam is 50 kN/m and the dead load gk, including self weight is
85 kN/m.
Characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm², fy = 460 N/mm² for the
longitudinal steel fyv and 250 N/mm² for the links. For a mild exposure the
minimum concrete cover is to be 25 mm.
For each span

Ultimate load wu = (1.4gk + 1.6qk) kN/metre
(1.4 × 85 + 1.6 × 50) = 199 kN/metre
65
Figure 6.16 Continuous beam with ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients
Total ultimate load on a span is

F = 199 × 5.0 = 995 kN
As the loading is uniformly distributed, qk ( gk and the spans are equal, the
coefficients shown in figure 6.16 have been used to calculate the design moment
and shears.
Bending
(a) Mid-span of 1st and 3rd Spans – Design as a T – section

Moment M = 0.09 FL = 0.09 x 995 × 5 = 448 kNm
Effective width of flange = bw + 0.7 L/5
0.7 × 5000
= 300 + = 1000 mm
5
therefore
M 448 × 106
= = 0.041
bd2 fcu 1000 × 6002 × 30
From the lever-arm curve, la = 0.95 therefore

z = 0.95 × 600 = 570 mm
and
d – z = 600 – 570 = 30 < hf / 2
so that the stress block must lie within the 180 mm thick flange.
Therefore
M 448 × 106
As = = = 1964 mm2
0.87 fy z 0.87 × 460 × 570
66
Provide 2Y32 plus 1Y25, As = 2101 mm² (bottom steel)
(b) Interior Supports – Design as a Rectangular Section
M = 0.11FL = 0.11 × 995 × 5 = 547 kNm hogging
M 547 × 106
= = 0.18 > 0.156
bd2 fcu 300 × 5802 × 30
Thus. Compression steel is required,

M – 0.156 fcu bd2
As ’ =
0.87 fy ( d – d’ )
547 × 106 – 0.156 × 30 × 300 × 5802

= = 352 mm2
0.87 × 460 ( 580 – 50 )
This area of steel will be provided by extending the span reinforcement beyond the
supports
0.156 fcu bd2
As = + As ’
0.87 fy z
0.156 × 30 × 300 × 5802

= + 352 = 2977 mm2
0.87 × 460 × 0.775 × 580
Provide 2Y32 plus 3Y25, As = 3080 mm² (top steel).
(c) Mid-span of 2nd Span – Design as a T-section
M = 0.07 FL = 0.07 × 995 × 5 = 348 kNm
Using the lever-arm curve, it is found that la = 0.95

M 348 × 106
As = = = 1525 mm2
0.87 fy z 0.87 × 460 × (0.95 × 600)
Provide 1Y32 plus 2Y25, As = 1786 mm² (bottom steel)
67
Shear
(a) Check maximum shear stress

Maximum shear at face of support is
Vs = 0.6F – wu × support width / 2
= 0.6 × 995 – 199 × 0.15 = 567 kN
Vs 567 × 103
v= =
bd 300 × 580
= 3.26 N/mm2 < 0.8√fcu
(b) Nominal links

Asv 0.4 b 0.4 × 300
= = = 0.55
sv 0.87 fyv 0.87 × 250
Provide R10 links at 280 mm centres, Asv / sv = 0.56
(c) End supports

Shear distance, d from support face is
Vd = 0.45F - wu ( d + support width / 2 )
= 0.45 × 995 – 199 (0.6 + 0.15)
= 299 kN
Vd 299 × 103
v= = = 1.66 N/mm2
bd 300 × 600
Therefore from table 5.4

vc = 0.70 N/mm²
Asv b ( v – vc )
= = = 1.32
sv 0.87 fyv
Provide R10 links at 110 mm centres Asv / Sv = 1.41

Shear resistance of nominal links + concrete is
Asv
Vn = ( s v
0.87 fyv + bvc d )
= (0.56 × 0.87 × 250 + 300 × 0.7) 600= 199 kN
68
Shear reinforcement other than the nominal is required over a distance
Vd - Vn 299 – 199
s= +d= + 0.6 = 1.1 m
wu 199
from the face of the support.
Figure 6.17 End-span reinforcement details
69
(d) First and third spans interior supports

Distance d from support face
Vd = 0.6 × 995 – 199 (0.58 + 0.15)
= 452 kN
452 × 103
v= = 2.60 N/mm2
300 × 580
100 Asv 100 × 3080
= = 1.77
bd 300 × 580
therefore from table 5.4

vc = 0.81
Asv 300 ( 2.6 – 0.81)
= = 2.47
sv 0.87 × 250
Provide R12 links in pairs at 180 mm centres, Asv / sv = 2.51. Using Vn from
part (c) as a conservative value, shear links are required over a distance
Vd - Vn 452 - 199
s= +d= + 0.58 = 1.85 m
wu 199
A similar calculation would show that single R12 links at 120 mm centres would
be adequate 1.0 m from the support face.
(e) Second span
Distance d from support face
Vd = 0.55 × 995 – 199 (0.58 + 0.15) = 402 kN

Calculation would show that R10 links in pairs at 150 mm centres would be
adequate.
70
7. SLAB
Types of Slab
Slabs are plate elements forming floors and roofs in buildings which normally carry
uniformly distributed loads. Slabs may be simply supported or continuous over
supports. Slabs can be classified according to the method of support as follows:
i) Spanning one way between beams or walls
ii) Spanning two ways between the supports
iii) Flat slabs carried on columns and edge beams or walls with no interior beams.
One Way Spanning Solid Slabs
Idealization for Design
a) Uniformly Loaded Slabs
One way slabs carrying uniform load are designed on the assumption that they
consists of a series of rectangular beam 1 m wide spanning between
supporting beams or walls. The sections through a simply supported slab and
a continuous slab are shown in Fig. 7.1.
Figure 7.1 (a) Simply Supported Slab; (b) Continuous One-way Slab
71
Effective Span, Loading and Analysis
a) Effective Span
The effective spans for one-way slabs are:-

i) Simply supported slabs:- the smaller of the centres of bearings or the
clear span + d.
ii) Continuous slabs:- centres of supports.
b) Arrangement of Loads
The code states that the slab should be designed to resist the most
unfavourable arrangement of loads. However, it is possible to design for a
single-load case of max. design load on all spans. This is permitted subject
to the following conditions:
i) The area of each bay, i.e. the building width × column spacing > 30m².
ii) The ratio of Qk to Gk ≤ 1.25
iii) Qk ≤ 5 kN/m² (excluding partition)
c) Analysis and Redistribution of Moments
The code states that if the analysis is carried out for a single-load case of all spans
loaded, the support moment except at the supports of cantilevers should be
reduced by 20%. This gives an increase in span moment. (No further
redistribution is to be carried out).
d) Analysis using Moment Coefficients
BS8110 states that where the spans of the slab are approx. equal, the moment and
shears for design may be taken from Table 7.1. This table allows for 20%
redistribution.
Table 7.1 Ultimate bending moment and shear force coefficients in one way spanning
slabs
Outer Middle of First interior Middle of Interior
support end span support interior span supports
Moment 0 0.086 FL 0.086 FL 0.063 FL - 0.063 FL
Shear 0.4F - 0.6F - 0.5F
Note: F is the total design ultimate load on the span and L is the effective span
72
Section Design and Slab Reinforcement
a) Main Reinforcement
The min. area of main reinf. is:-

For rectangular sections and solid slabs:-
100 As
Mild Steel, fy = 250 N/mm2, = 0.24
Ac
100 As
High Yield Steel, fy = 250 N/mm2, = 0.13
Ac
b) Distribution Steel
The distribution steel runs at right angles to the main moment steel and serves
the purpose of tying the slab together. The area of distribution steel is the
same as the min. area for main reinforcement in (a).
c) Curtailment of Bars in Slabs
BS8110 sets out simplified rules for curtailment of bars for slabs. These
rules may be used subject to the following provisions:-
i) The slabs are designed for predominately uniformly distributed loads;
ii) In continuous slabs the design has been made for the single load case of
max. design load on all spans.
The simplified rules are shown in Fig. 7.2
d) Cover
The amount of cover required for durability and fire protection is taken from
Table 1.3 and 1.4 (Table 3.4 and 3.5 of BS8110).
73
Figure 7.2 (a) Simply Supported Span; (b) Cantilever; (c) Continuous Span
Shear
Under normal loads shear stresses are not critical and shear reinforcement is
not required. Shear reinforcement is provided in heavily loaded thick slabs
but should not be used in slabs less than 200 mm thick.
In design, the average shear stress v is given by
74
v = V/bd (where b is normally taken as 1m wide)
The design procedures for slab is essentially the same as that for beams.
However, in the design of slab in shear, the following points should be noted.
i) v should not exceed 0.8√fcu or 5 N/mm² whichever is less.

ii) if v < vc , then no shear reinforcement is required.
iii) if vc < v ≤ (vc + 0.4), then provide min. links as :-
Asv 0.4b
≥
Sv 0.87fyv
iv) if v > (vc + 0.4), provide shear links as

Asv b(v-vc)
≥
Sv 0.87fyv
Deflection
In slab design, deflections are usually controlled by limiting the span/effective

depth ratio.
iii) Basic span/effective depth ratio:-

Cantilever slab 7
Simply supported slabs 20
Continuous slabs 26
iv) The basic span/effective depth ratio is multiplied by a modification factor

for tension reinforcement. Only the tension steel at the centre of span is
taken into account.
Crack Control
To control cracking in slabs, max. values for clear spacing between bars are set
out in BS8110, Cl.3.12.11.2.7. The clause states that in no case should the
clear spacing exceed the lesser of three times the effective depth or 750 mm.
75
Example 7.1 Design of a Simply Supported Slab
Figure 7.3 Simply Supported Reinforced Concrete Slab
The slab shown in figure 7.3 is to be designed to carry a live load of 3.0 kN/m² plus
floor finishes and ceiling loads of 1.0 kN/m². The characteristic material strengths
are fcu = 30 N/mm² and fy = 460 N/mm². Basic span-effective depth ratio = 20.
Span
therefore minimum effective depth d =
20 × modification factor, m.f.
4500 225
= =
20 × m.f. m.f.
(1) Estimating the modification factor to be of the order of 1.3 for a lightly
reinforced slab. Try effective depth d = 170 mm. For a mild exposure the
cover = 25 mm. Allowing say 5 mm as half the diameter of the reinforcing bar
Overall depth of slab, h = 170 + 25 + 5 = 200 mm

Self-weight of slab = 200 × 24 × 10-3 = 4.8 kN/m²
Total dead load = 1.0 + 4.8 = 5.8 N/m²
For a 1 m wide slab

ultimate load = (1.4 gk + 1.6 qk) 4.5
= (1.4 × 5.8 + 1.6 × 3.0) 4.5 = 58.1 kN
M = 58.1 × 4.5/8 = 32.7 kNm
76
Span-Effective Depth Ratio

M 32.7 × 106
= = 1.13
bd2 1000 × 1702
From table 6.4 for fs = 288 N/mm² the span-effective depth modification factor = 1.34
Therefore :
span
limiting = 20 × 1.34 = 26.8
effective depth
span
actual = 4500 / 170 = 26.5
effective depth
Thus d = 170 mm is adequate.
Bending Reinforcement
M 32.7 × 106
K = = = 0.038
bd2 fcu 1000 × 1702 × 30
∴ z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 - K/0.9)]
= d[0.5 + √(0.25 - 0.038/0.9)]
= 0.956 d ( > 0.95 d)
= 0.95 d
= 0.95 × 170 mm = 161 mm
M
As =
0.87 fy z
= 32.7 × 106 / (0.87 × 460 × 161) = 508 mm2 /m
Provide Y10-150 mm centers, As = 523 mm²/m
77
Shear
At the face of the support

58.1 2.25 – 0.5 × 0.23
Shear, V =
2 ( 2.25 ) = 27.6 kN
V 27.6 × 103
Shear stress, v = = = 0.16 /mm2 < 0.8√fcu
bd 1000 × 170
100 As 100 × 523
= = 0.31
bd 1000 × 170
from table 5.4 vc = 0.55 N/mm² and since v < vc no further shear checks or
reinforcement are required
Distribution Steel
0.13 bh
Area of transverse high-yield reinforcement =
100
0.13 × 1000 × 200
=
100
= 260 mm2/m
Provide Y10 at 300 mm centers (As = 261 mm2/m)
2) The second part of this example illustrates how a smaller depth of slab is
adequate provided it is reinforced so that there is a low service stress in the steel
and therefore a high modification factor for the span-effective depth ratio. Try
a thickness of slab h = 170mm and d = 140mm
Self-weight of slab = 0.17 × 24 = 4.08 kN/m²
total dead load = 5.08 kN/m²
ultimate load = (1.4gk + 1.6qk) 4.5
= (1.4 × 5.08 + 1.6 × 3.0) 4.5 = 53.6 kN
Bending
4.5
M = 53.6 × = 30.2 kNm
8
M 30.2 × 106
K = = = 0.051
bd2 fcu 1000 × 1402 × 30
78
∴ z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 - K/0.9)]

= d[0.5 + √(0.25 - 0.051/0.9)]
= 0.94 d ( < 0.95 d)
= 0.94 d
= 0.94 × 140 mm = 131.6 mm
M
As =
0.87 fy z
= 30.2 × 106 / (0.87 × 460 × 131.6)
= 1055 mm2 /m
Provide R12-100 mm centers, As = 1130 mm²/m
Service stress fs is given by the equations of Table 6.4 as

5 fy As, require 1
fs = ×
8 As, provided βb
5 × 250 × 1055 1
= × = 146 N/mm2
8 × 1130 1
(477 – fs)
∴ Modification factor = 0.55 +
M
(
120 0.9 + bd2 )
(477 – 146)
= 0.55 +
30.2 × 106
120 ( 0.9 + 1000 × 140 ) 2
= 1.7 ≤ 2.0
Therefore
span
limiting = 20 × 1.7 = 34
effective depth
span
actual = 4500 / 140 = 32.1
effective depth
Therefore, d = 140 mm is adequate
79
Two-way Spanning Solid Slabs
Slab Action, Analysis and Design
When floor slabs are supported on four sides two-way spanning action occurs as
shown in Fig. 7.4. In square slabs, the action is equal in each direction. In narrow
slabs where the length is greater than twice the breath the action is effectively one way.
However the end beams always carry some slab load.
Figure 7.4 (a) Two-way action: (b) one-way action.
Slabs may be classified according to the edge conditions. They can be defined as
follows:-
i) Simply supported one panel slabs where the corners can lift away from the
supports.
ii) A one panel slab held down on four sides by integral edge beams (the stiffness
of the edge beam affects the slab design)
iii) Slabs with all edges continuous over supports
iv) A slab with one, two or three edges continuous over support(s) may be simply
supported or held down by integral edge beams.
Simply Supported Slabs
The design of simply supported slabs may be made in accordance with BS8110,
C13.5.3.3. This clause gives the following equations for maximum moment msx and
msy at mid-span on strips of unit width for spans lx and ly respectively, where lx is the
length of shorter span, ly is length of the longer span, n = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk per unit area
and αsx, αsy are the moment coefficients from Table 7.1 (Table 3.14 of the code)
80
msx =αsx n lx ², msy =αsy n lx ²
Table 7.1 Bending moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions at
right-angles, simply-supported on four sides
ly / lx 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
αsx 0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.118
αsy 0.062 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029
Example 7.2 Design the Reinforcement for a Simply Supported Slab 220 mm
Thick and spanning in Two Directions
The effective span in each direction is 4.5 m and 6.3 m and the slab supports a live
load of 10 kN/m². The characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm² and fy =
460 N/mm².
ly / lx = 6.3 / 4.5 =1.4
From table 7.1 αsx = 0.099 and αsx = 0.051

self-weight of slab = 220 × 24 × 10-³ = 5.3 kN/m²
ultimate load n = 1.4gk + 1.6qk
= 1.4 × 5.3 + 1.6 × 10.0 = 23.4 kN/m²
Bending – Short Span

With mild exposure conditions take d = 185 mm
Msx = αsx n lx ² = 0.099 × 23.4 × 4.5²
= 46.9 kNm
Msx 46.9 × 106
K = = = 0.046
bd2 fcu 1000 × 1852 × 30
∴ z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 - K/0.9)]
= d[0.5 + √(0.25 - 0.046/0.9)]
= 0.95 d
= 0.95 × 185 mm = 176 mm
Msx
As =
0.87 fy z
= 46.9 × 106 / (0.87 × 460 × 176)
= 666 mm2 /m
81
Provide Y12-150 mm centres, As = 754 mm²/m
Msx 46.9 × 106

= = 1.37
bd2 1000 × 1852
Service stress fs is given by the equations of Table 6.4 as

5 fy As, require 1
fs = ×
8 As, provided βb
5 × 460 × 666 1
= × = 254 N/mm2
8 × 754 1
(477 – fs)
∴ Modification factor = 0.55 +
M
120 ( 0.9 + bd2 )
(477 – 254)
= 0.55 +
120 ( 0.9 + 1.37 )
= 1.37 ≤ 2.0
Therefore
span
limiting = 20 × 1.37 = 27.4
effective depth
span
actual = 4500 / 185 = 24.3
effective depth
Therefore, d = 185 mm is adequate
Bending – Long Span
Since the reinforcement for this span will have a reduced effective depth that
d = 185 – 12 = 173 mm.
Msy = αsy n lx ² = 0.051 × 23.4 × 4.5²
= 24.2 kNm
Msx 24.2 × 106
K = = = 0.027
bd2 fcu 1000 × 1732 × 30
∴ z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 - K/0.9)]
= d[0.5 + √(0.25 - 0.027/0.9)]
= 0.97 d
82
∴ z = 0.95 × 173 mm = 164.4 mm

Msx
As =
0.87 fy z
= 24.2 × 106 / (0.87 × 460 × 164.4) = 413 mm2 /m
Provide Y10-200 mm centres, As = 393 mm²/m

100 As 100 × 393
= = 0.18 > 0.13
bh 1000 × 220
Which is greater than 0.13 the minimum for transverse steel
Figure 7.5 Simply supported slab spanning in two directions
The centre strips and location of maximum moments are shown in Fig. 7.6
83
Figure 7.6 (a) Centre strips; (b) end support; (c) loads on beams and slab shears
* The tension reinforcement can be designed using formulae for rectangular beams.
(i.e. same as one-way spanning slab)
* For deflection control, it is necessary to check the span/effective depth ratio of the
shorter span.
84
8. COLUMN
General requirements for design of columns are treated in BS8110: Part I, Section
3.8.1. The provisions apply to columns where the greater cross-sectional dimension
does not exceed four times the smaller dimension.
The code classifies columns as:
i) Short column when the ratio lex /h and ley /b are both less than 15 for braced
column and less than 10 for unbraced column.
ii) Slender column when the ratios are larger than the values give above.
where lex – effective column height when bending about x-x axis.
ley – effective column height when bending about y-y axis.
Figure 8.1 Cross-section of a column
Design Provision
85
Minimum percentage of Reinforcement
The minimum percentage of reinforcement for both grade 250 and grade 460
reinforcement is
100 Asc / Acc = 0.4

where
Asc – Area of steel reinforcement in compression.
Acc – Area of concrete in compression.
Maximum Area of Reinforcement

The maximum area of reinforcement should not exceed 6% of the gross
cross-sectional area of a vertically cast column except at laps where 10% is permitted.
Requirements for Links
i) The φ of links ≥ 6mm or ¼φ of the largest longitudinal bar.

ii) The maximum spacing is to be 12φ of the smallest longitudinal bar.
iii) The links should be arranged so that every corner bar and each alternate bar in
an outer layer is supported by a link passing round the bar and having an
included angle of not more than 135°. No bar is to be further than 150mm
from a restrained bar.
Short Brand Axially loaded Column
Code Design Expressions
BS8110: Part I, cl.3.8.4.3 gives the following expression for the ultimate load N that a
short braced axially loaded column can support.
N = 0.4 fcu Ac + 0.75 Ascfy
where Ac is the net cross-sectional area of conc. in column.

Asc is the area of vertical reinforcement.
This expression allows for eccentricity due to construction tolerances but applies only
to a column that cannot be subjected to significant moments. An example is column
86
A in Fig. 8.2, which supports a symmetrical arrangement of floor beams.
Figure 8.2 Typical Floor and Column Arrangement
* For pure axial load the ultimate capacity Nuz of a column given in clause 3.8.3.1
of the code is
Nuz = 0.45 fcu Ac + 0.87 fy Asc
Clause 3.8.4.4 gives a further expression for short braced columns supporting an
approximately symmetrical arrangement of beams. These beams must be designed
for uniformly distributed loads and the span must not differ by more than 15% of the
longer span. The ultimate load is given by the expression:
Nuz = 0.35 fcu Ac + 0.67 fy Asc
Example 8.1 Axially loaded short column
A short braced axially loaded column 300mm square in section is reinforced with four
25 mm diameter bars. Find the ultimate axial load the column can carry and the
pitch and diameter of the links required. The materials are grade 30 concrete and
grade 460 reinforcement.
steel area, Asc = 1936 mm2
87
concrete area, Ac = 3002 – 1963 = 88037 mm2

N = 0.4 × 30 × 88037 × 10-3 + 0.75 × 1963 × 460 × 10-3
= 1056 + 677 = 1733 kN
The links are not to be less than 6 mm in diameter or one-quarter of the diameter of
the longitudinal bars. The spacing is not to be greater than 12 times the diameter of
the longitudinal bars. Provide 8 mm diameter links at 300 mm centres. The
column section is shown in Fig. 8.3. Form Table 3:4 of the code the cover for mild
exposure is 25 mm.
Figure 8.3 Steel arrangement of the Column
Example 8.2 Axially loaded short column
A short braced column has to carry an ultimate axial load of 1366 kN. The column
size is 250mm × 250mm. Find the steel area required for the longitudinal
reinforcement and select suitable bars. The materials are grade 30 concrete and
grade 460 reinforcement.
Substitute in the expression for the ultimate load
1366 × 10³ = 0.4 × 30 ( 250² - Asc ) + 0.75 × 460 Asc

Asc = 1850 mm²
88
Provide four 25 mm diameter bars to give a steel area of 1963 mm². Check:
100 Asc 100 × 1963

= = 3.14
bh 2502
>0.4% & <6% ∴ O.K.
This is satisfactory.
Short columns subjected to axial load and bending about one axis –
symmetrical reinforcement
Code Provisions
i) Cl. 3.8.2.3 states that in column and beam construction in monolithic braced
frames the axial force in column can be calculated assuming the beams are
simply supported. If the arrangement of beam is symmetrical, the column
can be designed for axial load only as in 8.2. The column may also be
designed for axial load and a moment due to the nominal eccentricity given in
(ii).
ii) No section in a column that the design moment be taken as less than the
ultimate load acting at a minimum eccentricity emin equal to 0.05 times the
overall dimension of the column in the plane of bending, but not more than 20
mm.
iii) Cl. 3.8.4.2 states that design charts for symmetrical reinforced columns are
given in BSS8110: Part 3.
Bending Plus Axial Load at UL S
Fig. 8.4 represents the cross-section of a member with typical strain and stress
distribution for varying positions of neutral axis. The cross-section is subjected to a
moment M and an axial force N.
89
Figure 8.4 Bending plus axial load with varying positions of the neutral axis
Let Fcc be the compressive force in concrete.

Fsc be the compressive force in reinf. As ’
Fs be the tensile or compressive (depending on the position of N.A.) force in
reinforcement, As .
Basic Equations and Design Charts
N = Fcc + Fsc + Fs (Applied F = Resisting F)
In this equation, Fs will be negative whenever the position of the neutral axis is such
that the reinforcement, As is in tension.
∴ N = 0.45 fcu bs + fsc As ’ + fs As
where fsc – compressive stress in As ’

fs – tensile or compressive stress in As
The design moment M must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the forces
developed within the cross-section. Take moment about the mid-depth of the
90
section.
h s h h
M = Fcc ( 2 - 2 ) + F ( 2 - d’ ) + F ( 2 -d )
sc s
h s h h
∴ M = 0.45 fcu•b•s (2 -2)+f sc •As’( 2 - d’) + f
s •As ( 2 -d)
* In these equations, the steel strains and hence the stresses fsc and fs vary with the
depth of N.A. ∴ N/bh and M/bh² can be calculated for a specified ratios of
As/bh and x/h so that column design chart can be obtained as in Fig. 8.5.
91
Modes of Failure
The relative magnitude of the moment (M) and axial load (N) govern the modes of
92
failure. With large effective eccentricity (e = M/N) a tensile failure is likely, but with
a small eccentricity a compression failure is more likely. (see Fig. 8.6)
Figure 8.6 Bending, plus axial load chart with modes of failure
Example 8.2 Column Design Using Design Charts
Figure 8.7 shows a frame of a heavily loaded industrial structure for which the centre
columns along line PQ are to be designed in this example. The frames at 4 m centres
are braced against lateral forces, and support the following floor loads:
dead load gk = 10 kN/m²

live load qk = 15 kN/m²
93
Figure 8.7 Columns in an industrial structure
Characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm² and fy = 460 N/mm².
Maximum ultimate load at each floor = 4.0 (1.4 gk + 1.6 qk) per metre length of beam
= 4 (1.4 × 10 + 1.6 × 15)
= 152 kN/m
Minimum ultimate load at each floor = 4.0 × 10 gk

= 4.0 × 10 = 40kN per metre length of beam
Consider first the design of the centre column at the underside (u.s.) of the first floor.
The critical arrangement of load, which will cause the maximum moment in the
column, is shown in figure 8.8(a).
Column loads
second and third floors = 2 × 152 × 10/2 = 1520 kN
first floors = 152 × 6/2 + 40 × 4/2 = 536 kN
94
Column self-weight = 3 × 14 (say) = 42 kN

Total = 2098 kN
Similar arrangements of load will give the axial load in the column at the underside
(u.s.) and top side (t.s.) of each floor level and these values of N are shown in table
8.1.
The moments on the column are not large and therefore the following equation may
be used for a preliminary sizing. Trying a 300 × 400 column
N = 0.35 fcu bh + 0.67 fyAsc

2098 × 10³ = 0.35 × 30 × 300 × 400 + 0.67 × 460 × Asc
from which
Asc = 2719 mm² and 100 Asc / bh = 2.27
This provides an adequate cross-section and a 300 × 400 column is to be used.
Column Moments
The loading arrangement and the substitute frame for determining the column
moments at the first and second floors are shown in figure 8.8(b). Member
stiffnesses are
kAB 1 bh3 1 0.3 × 0.73
= × = × = 0.71 × 10-3
2 2 12LAB 2 12 × 6
kBC 1 0.3 × 0.73
= × = 1.07 × 10-3
2 2 12 × 4
0.3 × 0.43
kCol = = 0.46 × 10-3
12 × 3.5
95
Figure 8.8 Loading and Moment Diagram of the framing system

therefore
Σ k = (0.71 + 1.07 + 2 × 0.46) 10-³ = 2.70 × 10-³
and
kcol 0.46
distribution factor for the column = = = 0.17
Σk 2.70
Fixed end moments at B are

152 × 62
F.E.M.BA = = 456 kNm
12
40 × 42
F.E.M.BC = = 53 kNm
12
Thus
column moment M = 0.17 (456 – 53) = 69 kNm
96
At the 3/F
Σ k = (0.71 + 1.07 + 0.46) 10-³
= 2.24 × 10-³
and
0.46
column moment, M = × (456 – 53) = 83 kNm
2.24
The areas of reinforcement in table 8.1 are determined by using the design chart of
figure 8.5. Sections through the column are shown in figure 8.9.
Cover for the reinforcement is taken as 50 mm and d/h = 320/400 = 0.8. The
minimum area of reinforcement allowed in the section is given by
Asc = 0.004 bh = 0.004 × 300 × 400 = 480 mm²
and the maximum area is
Asc = 0.06 × 300 × 400 = 7200 mm²
or at laps
Asc = 0.1 × 300 × 400 = 12000 mm²
and the reinforcement provided is within these limits
Table 8.1 Column Schedule

Floor N M N M 100 Asc Asc
(kN) (kN m) bh bh² bh (mm²)
3rd u.s. 536 83.0 4.47 1.73 0.4 480
2nd t.s. 774 69.0 6.45 1.44 0.4 480
+536
2nd u.s. 1310 69.0 10.92 1.44 0.4 480
1st t.s. 1548 69.0 12.9 1.44 0.9 1080
+536
1st u.s. 2084 69.0 17.37 1.44 2.1 2520
Foundation 2098 34.5 17.48 0.72 1.6 1920
A smaller column section could have been used above the first floor but this would
have involved changes in formwork and also increased areas of reinforcement. For
simplicity in this example no reduction was taken in the total live load although this is
permitted with some structures, as shown by table 9.1.
97
Figure 8.9 Column section in design example
Column Section Subject to Axial Load and Biaxial Bending
Method given in BS8110
The method is derived from the failure surface theory and consists of designing a
section subject to biaxial bending for an increased moment about one axis. The main
design axis depends on the relative values of the moments and the column section
dimensions. The amount of increase depends on the ratio of the axial load to the
capacity under axial load only. The code procedures are set out here.
Mx – design ultimate moment about x – x axis.

Mx’ – effective uniaxial design moment about the x – x axis.
My – design ultimate moment about the y – y axis.
My’ – effective uniaxial design moment about the y – y axis.
h – overall depth perpendicular to the x – x axis.
h’ – effective depth perpendicular to the x – x axis.
b – overall width perpendicular to the y – y axis.
b’ – effective width perpendicular to the y – y axis.
Mx My
If ≥
h’ b’
h’
Mx’ = Mx +β My
b’
98
Mx My
If <
h’ b’
b’
My’ = My +β Mx
h’
The coefficient β is taken from Table 8.2 (Table 3.24 of the Code) as shown below.
Figure 8.10 Biaxial moment acting on a column
Table 8.2 Values of the coefficient β

N
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 ≥ 0.6
bh fcu
β 1.00 0.88 0.77 0.65 0.53 0.42 0.30
Example 8.3 Design of a Column for Biaxial Bending
The column section shown in figure 8.11 is to be designed to resist an ultimate axial
load of 1200 kN plus moments of Mxx = 75 kNm and Myy = 80 kNm. The
characteristic material strengths are fcu = 30 N/mm² fy = 460 N/mm²
99
Figure 8.11 Biaxial bending example
Mx 75
= = 0.268
h’ (350 – 70)
My 80
= = 0.333
b’ (350 – 60)
Mx / h’ < My / b’
therefore increased single axis design moment is
b’
My’ = My +β Mx
h’
N/bh fcu = 1200 × 10³ / (300 × 350 × 30) = 0.38
From table 8.2, β = 0.55
240
My’ = 80 + 0.55 × × 75 = 115.4 kNm
280
N/bh = 1200 × 10³ / (300 × 350) = 11.4
M/bh² = 115.4 × 106 / (350 × 300²) = 3.66
From the design chart of figure 8.5

100 Asc/bh = 2.6
Therefore required Asc = 2730 mm²
100
Provide 4Y32 bars.
Effective Heights of Column
i) For a braced structure, the column is considered as short if both the

slenderness ratio lex /h and ley /b are less then 15. If either ratio is greater
than 15, the column is considered as slender.
ii) For an unbraced structure, the column is considered short if both the
slenderness ratio lex /h and ley /b are less than 10. If either ratio is greater
than 10, the column is considered as slender.
– h is the column depth perpendicular to the x – x axis.

– b is the column width perpendicular to the y – y axis.
– lex is the effective height of column when bending is about x – x axis.
– ley is the effective height of column when bending is about y – y axis.
The effective height of a column depends on:

i) the actual height between floor beams;
ii) the column sectional dimensions h × b;
iii) the end conditions; and
iv) whether the column is braced or undraced.
The theoretical effective height is the distance between the points of inflection along
the member length. These points may lie within the member as in a braced column
or on an imaginary line outside the member as in an unbraced column. Some
effective heights for columns are shown in Fig. 8.12.
101
Figure 8.5 (a) Braced columns; (b) unbraced columns
Effective Height Estimation from BS8110
Two methods are given in the Code to determine the effective height of a column:
i) Simplified recommendation given in Cl.3.8.1.6.

ii) A more rigorous method given in Section 2.5 of the Code.
Only the first method would be outlined here.
Cl. 3.8.1.6.1 gives the following general equation for obtaining effective heights:
le = β lo
where lo is the clear height between end restraints and β is a coefficient from Tables
102
8.3 and 8.4 (Tables 3.21 and 3.22 of the Code) for braced and unbraced columns.
Cl.3.8.1.6.2 End conditions. The four end conditions are as follows.
(a) Condition 1. The end of the column is connected monolithically to

beams on either side, which are at least as deep as the overall dimension of the
column in the lane considered. Where the column is connected to a foundation
structure, this should be of a form specifically designed to carry moment.
(b) Condition 2. The end of the column is connected monolithically to

beams or slabs on either side, which are shallower than the overall dimension of
the column in the plane considered.
(c) Condition 3. The end of the column is connected to members which,

while not specifically designed to provide restraint to rotation of the column will,
nevertheless, provide some nominal restraint.
(d) Condition 4. The end of the column is unrestrained against both lateral
movement and rotation (e.g. the free end of a cantilever column in an unbraced
structure).
Table 8.3 Values of β for braced columns
End condition at bottom

End condition at top
1 2 3
1 0.75 0.80 0.90
2 0.80 0.85 0.95
3 0.90 0.95 1.00
Table 8.4 Values of β for unbraced columns
End condition at bottom

End condition at top
1 2 3
1 1.2 1.3 1.6
2 1.3 1.5 1.8
3 1.6 1.8 –
4 2.2 – –
103
9. RETAINING WALL
Retaining walls are usually required to resist a combination of earth and hydrostatic
loadings. The retaining wall shall be capable of holding the retained materials in
place without undue movement arising from deflection, overturning and sliding.
Types of Retaining Walls
i) Gravity Wall
In a gravity wall stability is provided by the weight of concrete in the wall;
ii) Cantilever Wall

In a cantilever wall, the wall slab acts as a vertical cantilever. Stability is
provided by the weight of structure and earth on an inner base or the weight of
the structure only when the base is constructed externally.
iii) Counterfort and Buttress Walls

In counterfort and buttress walls, the slab is supported on three sides by the base
and counterforts or buttress. Stability is provided by the weight of structure in
case of buttress wall and by the weight of structure and earth on the base in the
counterfort wall.
104
Figure 9.1 Typical Retaining Walls
Analysis and Design
The design of retaining wall consists of three main steps.
i) Stability Analysis (ULS)

ii) Bearing Pressure Analysis (SLS)
iii) Member Design and Detailing (ULS + SLS)
Stability Analysis
A retaining wall must be stable in terms of resistance to overturning and sliding under
the action of the loads at ULS.
The critical conditions for stability are when a maximum horizontal force acts with a
minimum vertical load. To guard against failure, γf = 1.6 or higher should be used
105
for stability calculations. If this force is predominately hydrostatic and well defined,
a factor of 1.4 maybe used. A partial factor of safety of γf = 1.0 is usually applied to
the dead load Gk.
Refer to Fig. 9.2
For resistance to overturning, moments would be taken about the toe of the base, point
A.
∴ 1.0 Gk x ≥ γf ·Hk·y
Figure 9.2 Forces and pressures on a gravity wall
Resistance to sliding is provided by friction between the underside of the base and the
ground.
* Resistance provided by the passive earth pressure on the front face of the base
may make some contribution, but since this material is often backfilled against
the face, this resistance cannot be guaranteed and is usually ignored.
∴ 1.0µ Gk ≥ γk Hk
Where µ is the coefficient of friction between the base and soil.
If considering cantilever walls, a considerable amount of backfill is often placed on

the top of the base and this is taken into account in Stability Analysis.
Refer to Fig. 9.3, the worst condition for stability is with minimum dead load and
maximum imposed load.
∴ 1.0Gk x + 1.0 V kq ≥ γk Hk y (for overturning)
106
& µ (1.0Gk + 1.0 V k ) ≥ γk Hk (for sliding)
* When a heel beam is provided the additional passive resistance of the earth must
be included in the above equation.
Figure 9.3 Forces on a cantilever wall
Bearing Pressure Analysis
* The bearing pressures underneath retaining walls/foundation are assessed on the

basis of SLS. (i.e. γf = 1.0)
Refer to Fig. 9.3

M = γf1 Hk y +γf2 Gk (D/2 – x) +γf3 Vk (D/2 – q)
and the vertical load is

N = γf2 Gk + γf3 Vk
for SLS, γf1 = γf2 = γf3 = 1.0
107
The distribution of bearing pressures lies within the “middle third” of the base if
M D
≤
N 6
The maximum bearing pressure:-
N M D D3
P1 = + • where I =
D I 2 12
N 6M
∴ P1 = +
D D2
N 6M
& P2 = -
D D2
Member Design and Detailing
Reinforced concrete design for the wall is made for ultimate loads. The partial
safety factors for the wall and earth pressure are each 1.4. Surcharge, if present, may
be classified as either dead or imposed load depending on its nature.
i) For the wall, calculate shear forces and moments caused by the horizontal
earth pressure. Design the vertical moment steel for the inner face and check
the shear stresses. Minimum secondary steel is provided in the horizontal
direction for the inner face and both vertically and horizontally for the outer
face. (Refer to Fig. 9.4)
ii) The net moment due to earth pressure on the top and bottom faces of the inner
footing causes tension in the top.
iii) The net moment due to earth pressure causes tension in the bottom face of the
outer footing.
108
Fig. 9.4 Main Reinforcement of a Cantilever Retaining Wall
Example 9.1 Design of a Retaining Wall
The cantilever retaining wall shown in figure 9.5 supports a granular material of
saturated 2000 kg/m³ and the allowable bearing pressure is 110 kN/m². It is required
to
(1) check the stability of the wall

(2) determine the actual bearing pressure and
(3) design the bending reinforcement using high yield steel, fy = 460 N/mm² and
grade 35 concrete.
109
Figure 9.5 General Arrangement of the Retaining Wall
(a) Stability
Horizontal force: it is assumed that the coefficient of active pressure Ka = 0.33,

which is a typical value for a granular material. So that the earth pressure is
given by
p = Ka ρgh
where p is the density of the backfill and h is the depth considered. Thus at the
base
p = 0.33 × 2000 × 10-³ × 9.81 × 4.9
= 31.7 kN/m²
Therefore horizontal force on 1 m length of wall is
110
Hk = 0.5 ph = 0.5 × 31.7 × 4.9 = 77.7 kN
Vertical loads
wall = ½ (0.4 + 0.3) × 4.5 × 24 = 37.8 kN

base = 0.4 × 3.4 × 24 = 32.6 kN
-
earth = 2.2 × 4.5 × 2000 × 10 ³ × 9.81 = 194.2 kN
Total = 264.6 kN
For stability calculations a partial factor of safety of 1.6 is used for the lateral
loading while 1.4 will be used for strength calculations.
(i) Sliding: from equation in section 9.2.1, it is necessary that
µ (1.0Gk + 1.0 V k ) ≥ γk Hk for no heel beam
Assuming a value of coefficient of friction µ = 0.45
frictional resisting force = 0.45 × 1.0 × 264.6 = 119.1 kN

sliding force = 1.6 × 77.7 = 124.3 kN
Since the sliding force exceeds the frictional force, resistance must also
be provided by the passive earth pressure acting against the heel beam
and this force is given by
Hp = γf × 0.5 kp pga²
where Kp is the coefficient of passive pressure, assumed to be 3.0 for this

granular material and a is the depth of the heel. Therefore
Hp = 1.0 × 0.5 × 3.0 × 2000 × 10-³ × 9.81 × 0.6²

= 10.6 kN
Therefore total resisting force is

119.1 + 10.6 = 129.7 kN
which exceeds the sliding force.
111
(ii) Overturning: taking moments about point A at the edge of the toe at the
ultimate limit state
overturning moment = γf Hk h/3 = 1.6 × 77.7 × 4.9/3

= 203 kNm
restraining moment = 1.0 (37.8 ×1.0 + 32.6 × 1.7 + 194.2 × 2.3)
= 540 kNm
Thus the criterion for overturing is satisfied.
(b) Bearing Pressures
From equations in section 9.2.2, the bearing pressures are given by
N 6M
P = ±
D D2
where M is the moment about the base centre line. Therefore

M = 77.7 × 4.9/3 + 37.8 (1.7 – 1.0) + 194.2 (1.7 – 2.3)
= 126.9 + 26.5 – 116.5 = 36.9 kNm
Therefore
264.6 6 × 36.9
maximum bearing pressure P1 = +
3.4 3.42
= 77.8 + 19.2 = 97 kN/m²
which is less than the allowable.
(c) Bending Reinforcement
(i) Wall
Horizontal force = γf × 0.5 ka pgh²

= 1.4 × 0.5 × 0.33 × 2000 × 10-³ × 9.81 × 4.5²
= 91.8 kN
considering the effective span, the maximum moment is
112
M = 91.8 (0.2 + 4.5/3) = 156 kNm

M 156 × 106
K = = = 0.04
bd2 fcu 1000 × 3302 × 35
for which la = 0.95 from Design Chart. Therefore
M
As =
0.87 fy z
= 156 × 106 / (0.87 × 460 × 0.95 × 330) = 1243 mm2 /m
Provide Y20-200
(ii) Base: the bearing pressures are obtained form equations
The critical partial factors of safety are
γf1 = 1.4 and γf2 = γf3 = 1.0
Using the figures from part (b) of this example, the moment about the base
centre-line is
M = γf1 × 126.9 + γf2 × 26.5 - γf3 × 116.5 = 87.7 kNm
and
N = γf2 (37.8 + 32.6) + γf3 × 194.2 = 264.6 kN
Therefore
264.6 6 × 87.7
pressure, p1 = + = 78 + 45 = 123 kN/m2
3.4 3.42
p2 = 78 – 45 = 33 kN/m²
and in figure 9.5
113
p3 = p3 = 33 + (123 – 33) 2.2/3.4 = 91 kN/m²
Heel: taking moments about the stem centre-line for the vertical loads and
the bearing pressures
2.2
M = γf2 × 32.6 × +γf3 × 194.2 × 1.3 – 33 × 2.2 × 1.3 -
3.4
2.2
(91 – 33) × × 0.93 = 126 kNm
2
therefore
126 × 106
As = = 1004 mm²/m
0.87 × 460 × 0.95 × 330
Provide Y20-200 top steel
Toe: taking moments about the stem centre-line
0.8
M = γf2 × 32.6 × 0.6 × - γf3 × 132 × 0.8 × 0.6
3.4
= 55 kN m
(In fact for this wall the design moment for the toe would be marginally
higher with γf2 = 1.4 and γf3 = 1.4 throughout)
55 × 106
As = = 438 mm²/m
0.87 × 460 × 0.95 × 330
The minimum area for this, and for longitudinal distribution steel which is
also required in the wall and the base is
As = 0.13 × 1000 × 400 = 520 mm²/m
Thus provide Y12-200 mm bottom and distribution steel.
114
Also steel should be provided in the compression face of the wall in order
to prevent cracking – say, Y10-200 each way.
Bending reinforcement is required in the heel beam to resist the moment

due to the passive earth pressure. This reinforcement would probably be
in the form of closed links.
115
10. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SIMPLE BEAMS
Prestressing and the prestressed section
BS8110 divides prestressed concrete members into three classes: no tensile stress is
permitted in Class 1 members; in Class 2 members the permissible tensile stresses
are kept sufficiently low so that no visible cracking occurs; in Class 3 members, the
tensile stresses are restricted such that crack widths do not exceed 0.1 mm for very
severe environments and 0.2 mm for other conditions. However, we shall consider
only Class 1 and Class 2 members; hence, except when considering the ultimate limit
state of collapse, the members are analysed and designed as uncracked members, i.e.
the ordinary elastic beam theory applies.
Consider a beam subjected to a prestressing force P, as in Fig.10.1, which also shows

the stresses obtained by the elastic theory. The sign convention in the figure, is that
used in current British design practice:
Fig. 10.1 Prestressed beam and stresses at a typical section
(a) Moment due to applied load: sagging is positive and hogging is negative.
(b) Concrete stress: compressive is positive and tensile is negative.
(c) Tendon stress: tensile is positive (the term ‘tendon’ is defined later).
(d) Tendon eccentricity: downwards is positive, and upwards is negative.
Also, the subscripts 1 and 2 in the symbols refer respectively to the bottom and the top
faces of the beam. Thus, in Fig. 10.1, f1 is the prestress at the bottom fibres, and f2
that at the top fibres. Similarly, Z1 and Z2 are the elastic section moduli referred to
the bottom and the top fibres respectively; i.e. Z1 = I/α1 and Z2 = I/α2, where I is the
second moment of area of the cross-section about a horizontal axis through the
116
centroil G.
In practice, the prestressing force (P in Fig 10.1-1 (a)) is usually applied by means of
tendons, which may be:
(a) 7-wire strands of typical characteristic strength fpu of 1770 N/mm2 (BS 5896);
(b) cold-drawn wires of typical fpu 1570 N/mm2 (BS 5896);
(c) high-tensile alloy bars of typical fpu N/mm2 (BS 4486)
Note that both BS5896 and BS4486 use the term characteristic breaking load, the
breaking load being the tensile strength times the cross-sectional area. However, in
BS8110 it use the term characteristics strength (fpu ).
Stresses in service: elastic theory
In contrast to the design of reinforced concrete members, the design of Class 1 and
Class 2 prestressed concrete members is generally governed by the stress criteria in
service or at transfer, rather than by their ultimate strengths, though the latter must be
checked. Hence the elastic theory is very relevant in prestressed concrete design.
Designs are normally based on the conditions in service, but the stresses at transfer
(not discussed in the course) must be checked.
Consider the simply supported beam in Fig. 10.1. Suppose the prestressing force in
the tendon is P at transfer. When the beam is in service, the prestressing force will
be less than P, because of loss of prestress. In the meantime it is sufficient to note
that under service condition the effective prestressing force will be
Pc = Pα Equation 10.1
Fig. 10.2 Section of a prestressed beam
117
where P is the prestressing force at transfer, andαis the loss ratio, α= 0.8 being a
typical value.
For clarity, Fig. 10.1(b) is redrawn in Fig. 10.2. Under service conditions, we have
for the typical section:
Pe Pe es
f1 = + Equation 10.2
A Z1
Pe Pe es
f2 = – Equation 10.3
A Z1
where (see notation and sign convention in Section 10.1)
f = the compressive prestress in the concrete;

A = the concrete section area (usually taken as the nominal area of the
cross-section);
Z = the elastic section modulus;
es = the eccentricity of the prestressing force Pe;
subscript 1 refers to the bottom fibre and
subscript 2 refers to the top fibre
Still considering the typical section in Fig.10.2, let us introduce symbols as follows:
Md = sagging moment due to dead load
Mimax (Mimin) = maximum (minimum) sagging moment due to imposed load
Mr = the moment range Mimax – Mimin
The prestress values at a typical section must be such that the following stress criteria
are satisfied under service conditions:
Mimax + Md
f1 – ≥ famin Equation 10.4
Z1
Mimin + Md
f1 – ≤ famax Equation 10.5
Z1
Mimax + Md
f2 + ≤ famax Equation 10.6
Z2
118
Mimin + Md
f2 – ≥ famin Equation 10.7
Z2
where famax is the maximum allowable stress in the concrete and fimax the minimum
allowable stress, the sign convention being, as usual, positive for compression;
BS8110 gives the values in Tables 10.1 and 10.2, which include allowance for the
partial safety factor.
Table 10.1 Compressive stresses in concrete for the serviceability limit states (BS8110 : Clause
4.3.4.2)
Nature of loading Allowable compressive stress (famax )
Design load in bending 0.33 fcu (in continuous beams this may be increased to
0.4 fcu within the range of support moments)
Design load in direct 0.25 fcu

compression
Table 10.2 Flexural tensile stresses for Class 2 members: serviceability limit state of cracking
(BS8110 : Clause 4.3.4.3)
Allowable tensile stress (–famin )(N/mm²)
Characteristic strength fcu (N/mm²) 30 40 50 60
Pre-tensioned members – 2.9 3.2 3.5
Post-tensioned members 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.8
Note:
(a) For Class 1 members famin = 0
(b) Table 10.2 gives the allowable stresses in tension and hence a negative sign should be used when
assigning these stress values to famin.
(c) Designers usually limit the tensile stresses under service conditions to less than the limiting
values in Table 10.2. For example, for a post-tensioned member of fcu = 50 N/mm², famin may well
be taken as, say, – 2N/mm³ instead of –2.6N/mm2 as permitted by BS8110.
119
Figure 10.3 Stresses in a prestressed section
Figure 10.3 shows the stresses in a prestressed beam section. The line O1a1b1
represents level 1, i.e. the beam-soffit; the line O2a2b2 represents level 2, i.e. the beam
top. Line CGD is the stress distribution due to Pe; therefore O1D1 is the prestress f1
and O2C is f2 . Line HGJ is the stress distribution due to Pe + Mimin + Md and EGF that
due to Pe + Mimax + Md. The application of a sagging moment rotates the
stress-distribution line clockwise about G. O1O2 is the ordinate for zero stress;
similarly a1a2 and b1b2 are the ordinates for the stresses famin and famax respectively. It
should be noted that:
(a) Equation 10.4 represents the condition that point F must not pass beyond the line
a1a2 .
(b) Equation 10.5 represents the condition that point J must not pass beyond the line
b1b2 .
(c) Similarly, Equation 10.6 and Equation 10.7 represent the conditions that E and H
must not lie outside the region a2b2 .
(d) Under service condition, the maximum change of stress at the bottom fibres is
M1/Z1, when Mr is the range of imposed moments Mimax - Mimin.
(e) Similarly, the maximum change of service stress at the top fibres is Mr/Z2.
(f) Therefore the minimum Z’s to be provided must satisfy the conditions:
Z1 Mimax - Mimin
Z
2
} ≥ f
amax -f
amin
Equation 10.8
that is, the minimum Z’s are independent of Md , f1 and f2 .

(g) The critical section for the beam is where the imposed-load moment range Mr
(= Mimax - Mimin ) is a maximum. In particular, Mimax at the critical section is not
necessarily larger than that at another section, and Mimin at the critical section is
not necessarily smaller than that at another section.
(h) If at the critical section, the actual Z1 (or Z2 ) is exactly equal to the minimum
value of Equation 10.8, then the prestress f1 (or f2 ) must have that unique value
120
which makes Equations 10.4 and 10.5 (or Equations 10.6 and 10.7) identities.
Referring to Fig.10.3 for such a case the points F and J (or H and E) fall on a1
and b1 (or a2 and b2 ) respectively.
(i) In practice it is rare for the Z’s actually provided to be exactly the minima
required. Therefore, f1 and f2 may vary within limits. The minimum f1
required is that at which point F coincides with point a1; the minimum f2 required
is that at which H coincides with a2. Similarly, the maximum permissible f1 is that
which makes J coincide with b1, and the maximum permissible f2 makes E
coincide with b2. In other words, the minimum required pre-stresses are those
that make Equations 10.4 and 10.7 identities:
Mimax + Md
minimum required f1 = famin + Equation 10.9
Z1
Mimin + Md
minimum required f2 = famin - Equation 10.10
Z2
Similarly the maximum permissible prestresses are those that make Equations
10.5 and 10.6 identities:
Mimin + Md
maximum permissible f1 = famax + Equation 10.11
Z1
Mimax + Md
maximum permissible f2 = famax - Equation 10.12
Z2
(j) Referring to Fig.10.3, the prestress at the centroid of the section is
Pe
fep = Equation 10.13
A
where A is the cross-sectional area. Minimum fep is compatible with minimum

f1 and f2 ; hence, from Equation 10.13, the required minimum prestressing force
Pemin is that which gives the minimum f1 and f2 . From Equations 10.2 and 10.3,
( f1Z1 + f2Z2 ) A
Pe = Equation 10.14
Z1 + Z2
121
( f1 + f2 ) Z1Z2
es = Equation 10.15
( f1Z1 + f2Z2 ) A
To obtain Pemin , and the es to be used with Pemin , it is only necessary to insert in
these equations the minimum f1 and f2 . Substituting Equations 10.9 and 10.10
into Equations 10.14 and 10.15.
[ famin ( Z1 + Z2 ) + Mr ] A
Pemin = Equation 10.16
Z1 + Z2
es Z2Mimax + Z1Mimin + ( Z1 + Z2 ) Md
= Equation 10.17
(for Pemin) [ famin ( Z1 + Z2 ) + Mr ] A
Example 10.1
A Class 1 pre-tensioned concrete beam is simply supported over a 10 m span. The

characteristic imposed load Qk is a 100 kN force at midspan. The concrete
characteristic strength is 50 N/mm² and the unit weight of concrete is 23 kN/m³.
(a) Determine the minimum required sectional moduli for the service condition.
(b) If the section adopted is of area 120 000 mm² and exactly the minimum required
moduli, determine the effective prestressing force Pe required under service
conditon and the tendon eccentricity es at midspan.
Solution
For Class 1 members, famin = 0. From Table 10.1,
famax = 0.33 × 50 = 16.5 N/mm²
design imposed load for the service condition = 1.0 Qk = 100 kN
Therefore
Mimax = ¼ × 100 × 10 = 250 kNm; Mimin = 0
(a) From Equation 10.8,

250 × 106 - 0
minimum required Z = = 15.15 × 106 mm3
16.5 - 0
(b) Adopted section : A = 120 000 mm²; Z1 =Z2 = 15.15 × 106 mm3.
122
120 × 103
design dead load = × 23 = 2.76 kN/m
106
Md = ⅛ × 2.76 × 102 = 34.5 kNm
Since exactly the minimum required Z’s have been used, Equations 10.4 to 10.7
become identities, as explained in statement (h) above. Equations 10.4 and
10.5 will give the same value for f1 ; similarly Equations 10.6 and 10.7 will give
the same f2 . Use say, Equations 10.4 and 10.6:
250 × 106 + 34.5 × 106

f1 - =0 therefore f1 = 18.78 N/mm2
15.15 × 106
250 × 106 + 34.5 × 106

f2 + = 16.5 therefore f2 = -2.28 N/mm2
15.15 × 106
Substituting into Equations 10.14 and 10.15 (or Equations 10.2 and 10.3 ),
Pe = 990 kN es = 161 mm
Example 10.2
A Class 2 post-tensioned concrete beam is simply supported over a 10 m span. The

characteristic imposed load consists of a single 100 kN force at midspan. The
characteristic concreter strength is 50 N/mm² and the unit weight of concrete is
23 N/ m3. The beam is of uniform section having the following properties: area A =
120 000 mm², Z1 (bottom) = 19.0 × 106 mm3, Z2 (top) = 21.7 × 106 mm3. Determine
for the service condition:
(a) the minimum effective prestressing force required (Pemin ) and the corresponding
midspan tendon eccentricity (es );
(b) the maximum effective prestressing force (Pemax ) that may safely be used, and
the midspan tendon eccentricity (es ) for this force.
Solution
From Table 10.1,
famax = 0.33 × 50 = 16.5 N/mm²
From Table 10.2,
123
famin = -2.55 N/mm²

(but see note (c) following Table 10.2 )
By inspection, the critical section is at midspan, where
Mimax = 25 kNm Mimin = 0 and Md = 34.5 kNm
(all as in Example 10.1 ).
124
(a) Pemin is associated with the minimum required values of f1 and f2.
From Equations 10.9 and 10.10,
250 × 106 + 34.5 × 106
minimum required f1 = -2.55 + 6 = 12.42 N/mm2
19.0 × 10
0 + 34.5 × 106
minimum required f2 = -2.55 – = -4.14 N/mm2
21.7 × 106
Pemin = 431 kN es = 390 mm
Alternatively, Pemin and es can be obtained directly from Equations 10.16 and
10.17 without first calculating f1 and f2
(b) Pcmax is associated with the maximum permissible values of f1 and f2

From Equations 10.11 and 10.12,
0 + 34.5 × 106
maximum permissible f1 = 16.5 + 6 = 18.32 N/mm2
19.0 × 10
250 × 106 + 34.5 × 106

maximum permissible f2 = 16.5 – = 3.39 N/mm2
21.7 × 106
Pemax = 1243 kN es = 122 mm
125

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Construction Planning, Estimating Management,

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering Methods & Safety Engineering

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Structural Elements and Frames

Beams horizontal members carrying vertical and/or lateral

Figure 1.1 Composite action

1.4 Stress-Strain Relations

Figure 1.2 Stress-strain curve for concrete in compression

1.4.2 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

Figure 1.3 Moduli of elasticity of concrete

The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is required when investigating the

Short-term modulus of elasticity of concrete

Ec,t = Ec,28 (0.4 + 0.6 f cu,t /fcu,28)

Figure 1.4 Stress-strain curves for reinforcing bars.

i) the exposure conditions

1.6 Specification of Materials

GRADE Lowest Grade for Use as Specified

C15 Reinforced concrete with lightweight aggregate

C25 Reinforced concrete with dense aggregate

C30 Concrete with post-tensioned tendons

C40 Concrete with pre-tensioned tendons

Table 1.1 Lowest grade of concrete for use

1.6.2 Reinforcing Steel

Designation Nominal Sizes (mm) Specified Characteristic

Hot-rolled mild steel (6), 8, 10, 12, 16,

1.7 Concrete Cover

1.7.1 Nominal cover against corrosion

The cover depends on the exposure conditions shall be as follows.

Mild concrete is protected against weather

Conditions of exposure Nominal cover (mm)

Maximum free water-to-cement ratio 0.65 0.6 0.55

1.7.2 Cover as fire protection

2. LIMIT STATE DESIGN

i) Ultimate Limit State

The most important serviceability limit states are:

a) Deflection – the appearance or efficiency of any part of the structure must

c) Durability – this must be considered in terms of the proposed life of the

Other limit states that may be reached include:

d) Excessive vibration – which may cause discomfort or alarm as well as

e) Fatigue – must be considered if cyclic loading is likely.

f) Fire resistance – this must be considered in terms of resistance to collapse,

g) Special circumstances – any special requirements of the structures which

It is assumed that for a given material, the distribution of strength will be

where fk = characteristic strength, fm = mean strength, s = standard deviation.

Figure 2.1 Normal frequency distribution of strengths

Ideally, it should be possible to assess loads statistically, that

Characteristic Load = mean load ± 1.64 Standard Deviations

Partial Factors of Safety

Partial Factors of Safety for Materials (γm)

Design Strength = Characteristic Strength ( fk ) / γm

e.g. 460kN/mm2 / 1.15 ≈ 0.87 fy

Factors to be considered in selecting γm

i) The strength of the material in an actual member.

Steel is a relative consistent material, therefore, using small γm

ii) The severity of the limit state being considered.

Higher for ULS

Recommended values for γm, see table below. (to BS8110)

Limit state Material

Partial Factors of Safety for Loads (γf )

Errors may arise due to: -

i) Design assumptions and inaccuracy of calculation

Design Load = Characteristic Load x (γf )

The partial factor of safety (to BS8110) is as shown below.