A Frequency and Curvature Based

Experimental Method for Locating

Colin P. Ratcliffe
Mechanical Engineering Department,
United States Naval Academy,
590 Holloway Road,
Annapolis, MD 21402
Damage in Structures
This paper presents a method for locating structural damage using experimental vibration
data. The method uses measured frequency response functions to obtain displacement as
a function of frequency. The displacement functions are converted to curvature functions,
which are further processed to yield a damage index, displayed on a plot of position
versus frequency. The method can be applied when there is no a priori knowledge about
the undamaged structure, and it is suitable for automation. This paper details the theory
of the broadband method, and the results of an experimental demonstration in which a
steel beam was damaged with a narrow slot. It is shown that this proposed damage
detection method is highly sensitive, and can locate a very small amount of damage. For
example, the narrow slot was correctly located when there was only a 0.8 percent reduc-
tion in thickness in the beam. Traditionally, damage causes a change in natural frequen-
cies, but at this small level of damage the frequency changes were within experimental
error. Other published methods failed to locate the slot until it was significantly deeper.
关S0739-3717共00兲01403-3兴

Introduction methods. Although they did not consider the gapped-smoothing

Vibration monitoring techniques have been used for many years
to identify damaged structures. More recently, resonant methods
based on modal data have been used both to identify that damage
exists, and to locate it. Some techniques, such as those by Kas-
hangaki 关1兴, Hajela and Soeiro 关2兴, Crema et al. 关3兴, Cawley and
Adams 关4兴, Manning 关5兴, Liu 关6兴, Chen and Garba 关7兴, Li and
Smith 关8兴, Adams et al. 关9兴, and Lim and Kashangaki 关10兴, treat
frameworks as discrete systems, and compare the modal behavior
of the damaged structure with that of the undamaged structure.
Damage detection in beams and bridges also focuses on the
changes in natural frequencies and/or mode shapes that occur
when the structure is damaged, as presented by Cawley and Ad-
ams 关11兴, Okafor et al. 关12兴, Peroni et al. 关13兴, Vantomme 关14兴,
Miller et al. 关15兴, Casas and Aparicio 关16兴, Liang et al. 关17兴, and
Chang et al. 关18兴. However, usually only relatively severe damage
will cause a change in the displacement mode shape that is suffi-
ciently large that it can be used to locate the damage. Therefore,
using a displacement mode shape by itself to locate damage may
not be reliable 关19兴. Some authors, including Pandey et al. 关20兴,
Ratcliffe 关21兴 and Maia et al. 关22兴 have found that in place of
using the displacement mode shapes, strain or curvature shapes
共surface strain in a beam is proportional to curvature兲 are more
effective at identifying the location of damage. A recent review
paper by Zou et al. 关23兴 discusses many different vibration-based
damage detection methods, categorizing them by their underlying
theoretical principals.
Damage detection procedures frequently inspect the change in
some parameter 共e.g., curvature兲 that takes place when the struc-
ture is damaged. Typically, the ‘‘footprint,’’ or baseline data set
used for comparison, can be obtained either from data measured
from the undamaged structure, or from a finite element 共FE兲
model of the undamaged structure. Ratcliffe and Bagaria 关24兴 de-
veloped a method that could locate damage such as a delamination
in a composite beam, even when the footprint was not available.
Their method utilized a ‘‘gapped-smoothing’’ method that pro-
cessed the modal curvature of a beam to yield a damage index. A
study by Farrar and Jauregui 关25兴 compared five different resonant
Contributed by the Technical Committee on Vibration and Sound for publication
in the JOURNAL OF VIBRATION AND ACOUSTICS. Manuscript received Aug. 1999;
revised Jan. 2000. Associate Technical Editor: M. I. Friswell.
method, one of their conclusions was that curvature based meth-
ods can be used to locate damage.
One concern with most damage detection procedures based on
experimental modal data, including Ratcliffe and Bagaria’s
gapped-smoothing method, is that the mode shapes obtained from
an experimental modal analysis can be sensitive to a number of
factors, e.g., the frequency response function data measured near
resonance are typically of reduced accuracy when compared to
data measured away from resonance. Therefore, this paper inves-
tigates Ratcliffe and Bagaria’s gapped-smoothing method that op-
erated on modal curvature, and extends it to use broadband vibra-
tion data. The curvature of a beam at any frequency is a linear
superposition of the modal curvatures. Since the damage index
generated by the resonant gapped-smoothing method satisfactorily
located small amounts of damage when using resonant data, it
should also be successful when using broadband data. This paper
summarizes the resonant gapped-smoothing method. It then ex-
tends the method to use broadband vibration data. Finally, the new
method is demonstrated experimentally, where it is shown that
using broadband data can offer a significant improvement in dam-
age detection sensitivity over using resonant data.
Summary of the Resonant Gapped-Smoothing Method
Ratcliffe and Bagaria’s gapped-smoothing damage detection
method 关24兴 first processes the displacement mode shapes of a
damaged beam into curvature mode shapes; curvature being the
reciprocal of radius of curvature. The curvature C i at the ith test
grid point on the damaged beam can be estimated from displace-
ment, y using a finite difference approximation:
C i ⫽ 共 y i⫹1 ⫹y i⫺1 ⫺2y i 兲 /h 2 (1)
where h is the uniform spatial separation of the test grid. For the
first and last grid points, the curvature is estimated using the three
adjacent data points. Figure 1 shows the curvature for the funda-
mental mode of an FE free-free beam calculated using Eq. 共1兲.
The figure shows the curvature for the beam with two different
levels of damage 共10 percent and 15 percent thickness reduction兲
between grid points 7 and 8. There is a characteristic feature in
curvature coincident with the damage. It should be noted that 15
percent thickness reduction represents a significant level of dam-
age, which is easily located by many methods. As shown in Fig. 1,

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Fig. 1 Curvature for the fundamental mode of a finite element
free-free steel beam with 15 percent and 10 percent thickness
reductions between grid points 7 and 8
as the level of damage reduces, the curvature retains its overall
shape, but the characteristic feature at the location of the damage
is less pronounced.
In order to enhance the feature in the curvature at the location
of the damage, while also offering a degree of smoothing for
experimental data, the gapped-smoothing method fits a gapped
cubic polynomial to the modal curvature function. For example,
when the cubic calculated for the ith element of the curvature, C i ,
at position x i along the beam, is defined as:
p 0 ⫹p 1 x i ⫹p 2 x i2 ⫹p 3 x i3 (2)
Fig. 2 Damage index for the fundamental mode of a finite ele-
ment free-free steel beam with 15 percent and 10 percent thick-
ness reductions between grid points 7 and 8
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The coefficients p 0 , p 1 , p 2 and p 3 are determined using cur-
vature elements C i⫺2 , C i⫺1 , C i⫹1 and C i⫹2 . Curvature element
C i is gapped from 共left out of兲 the calculation. For the first and
last two grid points, the gapped cubic is determined slightly dif-
ferently. For the first grid point, the cubic is determined from
curvature elements C 2 , C 3 , C 4 and C 5 . For the second grid
point, the cubic is determined from curvature elements C 1 , C 3 ,
C 4 and C 5 . There are similar calculations for the last and last-
but-one grid points. The damage index, ␦ i , for the ith grid point is
calculated from the gapped cubic and the curvature as follows:
␦ i ⫽ 共 p 0 ⫹p 1 x i ⫹p 2 x i2 ⫹p 3 x i3 ⫺C i 兲 2 (3)
A separate gapped cubic and damage index is determined for each
grid point in turn.
The damage indices calculated from the curvature shapes in
Fig. 1 are shown in Fig. 2. A small amount of damage triggers a
significant feature in the damage index coincident with the loca-
tion of the damage. As presented by Ratcliffe and Bagaria, the
procedure can be repeated for each observed mode shape.
Damage Detection Using Broadband Curvature
There are several reasons for considering using broadband data
to locate damage, instead of using modal data. As discussed in the
introduction to this paper, experimental frequency response func-
tion 共FRF兲 data obtained near resonance are often less accurate
than the data obtained away from resonance. Also, an experimen-
tal modal analysis rarely determines sufficient parameters for the
model to fully define the complete dynamic behavior of the actual
structure. For example, it is rare to be able to determine the modal
parameters for rotational degrees of freedom, full three-
dimensional motion at all parts of the structure, and all local
modal activity. However, the measured frequency response func-
tions do include the effects of this unidentified behavior. There-
fore, using broadband data potentially offers improved accuracy
when compared to selective resonant procedures such as modal
analysis. Also, a modal analysis of vibration data, and therefore
also any modal based technique, only uses a very small amount of
the total data typically captured during a vibration trial. The
broadband method presented in this paper uses the data at all
frequencies, further improving its sensitivity when compared to
modal methods. Finally, using broadband data directly for damage
detection means there is no need for a modal analysis. Removing
this requirement is potentially of major importance, since modal
analysis is normally not an automated procedure, and is subject to
variations depending on the engineering judgement of the analyst.
As discussed previously, modal curvature has a characteristic
feature which can be used to locate damage. An experimental
modal analysis is a data reduction based on theoretical assump-
tions, and therefore, the derived modal model will hold less total
information about the structure than is held in the measured fre-
quency response functions. However, the concept of linear super-
position of the modal curvatures still suggests that the curvature at
any frequency will have a feature at the location of damage, and
that this feature may be used to locate the damage. Furthermore,
since the resonant 共modal兲 gapped-smoothing method has been
shown to be both sensitive and suitable for experimental data, it is
that method which is here extended to use broadband data.
The raw data for this damage detection method is a set of FRFs,
measured for an equally-spaced grid of test points along the length
of the structure. Typically, these FRFs will be obtained using a
digital spectrum analyzer, and will contain data at discrete fre-
quencies. The first step in the damage detection method is to
determine the displacement shape 共function兲 of the structure at
each analysis frequency. The displacement function is taken as the
values of the FRFs at that frequency; each displacement function
thus determined is therefore a set of complex numbers. The sec-
ond step in the process is to convert the displacement functions
into curvature using Eq. 共1兲. This results in a set of complex
experimental curvature functions, one for each analysis frequency.
JULY 2000, Vol. 122 Õ 325
 Note that since absolute values have little significance for this
damage detection method, the spatial separation, h, does not have
to be factored into Eq. 共1兲, and instrumentation does not have to
be calibrated for absolute levels. Also, when measured FRFs are
acceleration-based, as is often the case for experimental work,
there is no need to convert the acceleration measurements into
displacement.
The next step in locating the damage is to apply the gapped-
smoothing method to the curvature functions. Separate gapped-
cubic polynomials are calculated for each of the real and imagi-
nary parts of the complex curvature functions. Equation 共3兲 is
modified to take account of the complex curvature, with the dam-
age index at each frequency, f, and grid point, i, being determined
as the 共magnitude兲2 of the difference between the two cubic poly-
nomials, and the experimental curvatures as follows:
␦ f ,i ⫽ 共 p 0 ⫹p 1 x i ⫹p 2 x i2 ⫹p 3 x i3 ⫺C i 兲 2f ,REAL ⫹ 共 p 0 ⫹p 1 x i ⫹p 2 x i2
⫹p 3 x i3 ⫺C i 兲 2f ,IM AGINARY (4)
This method results in N L ⫻N G separate damage indices, where
N L is the number of frequency lines in each FRF, and N G is the
number of grid points to which Eq. 共4兲 is applied.
Finally, the damage indices are normalized. The reason for this
is that the FRF data have a wide dynamic range. As a result, the
damage indices also have a large dynamic range. Plotting the
damage indices ‘‘raw’’ means the damage indices determined for
data near resonance tend to dominate the picture, and the advan-
tages of using broadband data are lost. One disadvantage of the
normalization is that when the damage is located near a point of
very low curvature, the damage index for this frequency will in-
dicate damage at some other place. However, these ‘‘false’’ indi-
cations are frequency dependent, and only appear for small fre-
quency ranges. As explained below, damage is identified by
observing frequency independent behavior that is consistent for a
given spatial location. The normalization procedure used for the
data presented in this paper is to scale the damage indices at each
analysis frequency such that the mean value is one.
The normalized damage indices contain the damage potential as
a function of both frequency and spatial position. There are sev-
eral different ways of presenting the data, e.g., as a three-
dimensional surface, or as a contour plot. Experience suggests that
a color contour plot is easiest to interpret. Damage causes a fea-
ture in the damage indices at the same structural position, irre-
spective of frequency, and irrespective of whether the structure is
at resonance or not. Therefore, when the damage indices are
shown on a contour plot, the damage will appear as a feature
parallel to the frequency axis, and normal to the position axis.
Data Requirements
It is worth noting that in order to apply the detection method
presented in this paper, it is necessary to measure data with a fine
mesh of test points. This is consistent with most other damage
detection methods 共including those that are based on technologies
other than vibrations兲, where the spatial sensitivity of the detec-
tion is directly related to the spatial resolution of measurements.
The data required for the procedure in this paper are frequency
response functions. A vibration experiment designed to capture
data for a modal analysis can typically use a single fixed reference
accelerometer, with structural excitation being achieved with a
roving, instrumented hammer. With modern equipment and meth-
ods, it is not unusual during a detailed vibration analysis of a
structure to measure data at hundreds of test points, and often well
in excess of 1000. However, modern equipment is well suited to
handling this quantity of data. As an example, 1000 frequency
response functions, each with 1601 spectral lines, require a total
disk space of about 10 megabytes 共15 megabytes if the coherence
functions are also stored兲. In these days of 2 gigabyte removable
disk media, this file size is well within current capabilities. The
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data requirements for the damage detection method in this paper
are therefore consistent with modern experimental methods and
hardware capabilities.
Experimental Demonstration
A steel beam, 0.914 m long⫻6.33 mm thick⫻76.2 mm wide
was suspended with monofilament through 6.22 mm diameter
holes positioned 1/4 and 3/4 down the length, and 12.25 mm from
one edge. A schematic of the experimental configuration is shown
in Fig. 3. Test grids were marked at 25.4 mm intervals along the
centerline, starting 12.7 mm from one end. A reference acceler-
ometer was placed at grid point #1, and the FRFs between grid
point #1 and each grid point in turn were measured by impacting
the structure. The force and resulting acceleration time histories
were captured and converted to FRFs with a Hewlett Packard
3562A analyzer which generated 801 line spectra from 0-1560
Hz. The FRFs were transferred to computer for analysis with pro-
grams written in Matlab® 关26兴. Note that Fig. 3 shows a second
line of test grid points. Data were also measured from this second
line. The set of data taken from all the test points was subject to a
modal analysis to assist in quality control, and to help visualize
the performance of the beam. Only the data taken from the cen-
terline were used for the damage detection procedure reported
below.
The beam was first tested in an undamaged state. Damage was
then introduced by milling a 2.8 mm wide slot across the width of
the beam. This slot width was chosen because it was the size of
the thinnest available mill saw blade. The slot was centered 305
mm from one end of the beam. Fourteen tests of the damaged
beam were conducted, with the slot varying in depth from 0.05
mm to 2.79 mm 共0.8 percent to 44.2 percent reduction in thick-
ness兲. Although natural frequencies are not of concern for this
broadband damage detection method, it was observed that the test
frequency range of 0–1560 Hz included about 15 natural frequen-
cies. The change in the frequencies of the first four bending modes
as the slot was made deeper are shown in Fig. 4. When the slot
was less than 0.35 mm deep 共5.6 percent reduction in thickness兲,
the change in the natural frequencies was less than 0.1 percent. A
1 mm deep slot 共15.7 percent reduction in thickness兲 caused the
natural frequencies to change by less than 0.3 percent. It is also of
note that the location of the slot meant that the frequency of the
third bending mode did not change. Although not reported here,
these changes in natural frequency are consistent with the results
of a finite element analysis.
Figure 5 shows the damage index plot for the 0.05 mm deep
slot 共0.8 percent reduction in thickness兲. As mentioned previously,
the damage index plots are best observed in color. In order to
produce a monochromatic figure for this paper, the level of the
damage index is shown on a gray scale, with black representing
the highest levels. There are also two contour lines to help visu-
alize the peaks of the plot. Despite the degradation caused by this
reduction to monochrome, and the very small amount of structural
damage, the damage index in Fig. 5 shows a trend parallel to the
frequency axis at grid position 12.5. This is coincident with the
location of the damage. This feature on the plots became further
Fig. 3 Schematic of the experimental configuration, showing
the beam suspension, test grid, and location of the slot
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 4 Measured percentage change in the natural frequencies
of the first four bending modes vs. slot depth as a percentage
of the beam thickness. Note that the curves for Modes 2 and 4
almost overlay.
enhanced as the slot was made deeper into the beam. When the
slot was 0.13 mm or deeper 共2.0 percent reduction in thickness兲,
the damage detection method presented in this paper always cor-
rectly located the slot without ambiguity. Figure 6 shows the dam-
age index for the 0.13 mm deep slot.
The damage detection method presented by Ratcliffe and
Bagaria 关24兴 operates on mode shape data. Using their resonant
method, the slot was first detected by the fundamental mode when
the slot was 0.36 mm deep 共5.6 percent reduction in thickness兲.
The Ratcliffe and Bagaria damage index 共fundamental mode兲 for
the 0.36 mm slot is shown in Fig. 7. However, as the slot was
Fig. 5 Broadband damage index for the 0.05 mm deep slot.
The slot was at grid point 12.5, as marked.
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Fig. 6 Broadband damage index for the 0.13 mm deep slot.
The slot was at grid point 12.5, as marked.
made deeper, this method did not locate the slot unambiguously
and repeatably until the slot was 2.29 mm deep. This result dem-
onstrates that the extension of Ratcliffe and Bagaria’s method
from modal 共resonant兲 to broadband has resulted in a significant
increase in sensitivity of the damage detection procedure.
Some procedures, such as that by Chang et al. 关18兴, locate dam-
age by looking for features in modal curvature. For this experi-
ment, modal curvature by itself did not locate the damage until the
slot was 2.29 mm deep 共36 percent reduction in thickness兲. Figure
8 shows the curvature for the fundamental mode for this slot
depth. Separately, Pandey et al. 关20兴 have reported that features in
a plot of the difference in modal curvature between a damaged
and undamaged structure will locate damage more effectively than
by looking at modal curvature alone. That was not the finding of
this experiment. The modal curvature difference never correctly
located the damage. Figure 9 shows the difference in fundamental
Fig. 7 Modal Damage Index for the fundamental mode of the
beam with the 0.36 mm deep slot at grid point 12.5, as marked
JULY 2000, Vol. 122 Õ 327
 index as a contour plot of frequency versus position. One advan-
tage of this broadband method is that the procedure can be fully
automated, since no modal analysis is required. Also, when com-
pared to modal techniques which only use a small amount of the
frequency response function data, this new method employs all of
the data to make a large number of estimates of the damage
index—one at each frequency in the spectrum. This approach
gives the method presented in this paper a much improved sensi-
tivity when compared to modal based techniques.
An experimental demonstration of the method presented here
showed that it can be significantly more sensitive than some pre-
viously published procedures. The experiment successfully lo-
cated a 0.05 mm deep slot in a 6.35 mm thick beam. At this low
level of damage, the natural frequencies changed by less than 0.03
percent.

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Fig. 8 Experimental modal curvature for the fundamental
mode of the beam with the 2.29 mm deep slot at grid point 12.5,
as marked
Fig. 9 Experimental modal curvature difference „Damaged-
Undamaged… for the fundamental mode of the beam with the
2.79 mm deep slot at grid point 12.5, as marked
modal curvature at the maximum tested slot depth of 2.79 mm
共44.2 percent reduction in thickness兲, where there is no feature
indicative of damage.
Conclusions
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