Piping Engineering Course Material PDF

SITPL Piping Engineering
Post Graduate Diploma in
PIPING ENGINEERING
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PREFACE
SIT (Suvidya Institute of Technology) is a leading provider of industrial training to meet the requirements of
skilled manpower in the field of "OIL & GAS". Our aim is to develop skilled manpower in specialized field and
to provide expert engineers to the industry, who are not only confident about their subject but can also handle
their job activities independently & efficiently.
SIT is a team of young, efficient, qualified and hardcore professionals with broad spectrum of consultancy and
industrial background. Our industrial training programmes are based on sound engineering principles &
methodology, applicable code requirements and best industrial practices.
We are aware that, 'Engineer is the key person in the material progress of the world. It is his engineering that
converts the potential value of science into service by translating scientific knowledge into tools, resources
and energy. To make contributions of this kind the Engineer requires three things; the imagination to visualize
the needs of society, an eye to appreciate what is possible, last and most important is the technological and
broad social understanding to bring his vision into reality.
Swift changes in global scenario and market, have transformed the dimensions of professionals in every
industry. The specialist from any field of engineering has to focus more and more narrowly on his specialized
topics & work area rather than broad spectrum of faculty. This has heightened the challenges of young &
passionate Engineers.
By realizing, this great obligation to build Technocrat Engineers and well-grounded Indian Work force, to
compete global requirements of industry, young, energetic, qualified, top notch professionals from Software,
Consultancy & Industrial background, we have formed a Consortium and laid the foundation of SIT.
Keeping global competition in mind, SIT has designed professional courses which are a combination of
theory, latest industrial practices and practical sessions. Our institute offers numbers of courses to cover wide
spectrum of industrial aspects, which are recognized by industries.
Syllabus covered in these courses is exactly as per the global standards as well as latest working
requirements of various engineering companies. To develop proficient thinking skills in our participants we
have adopted case study approach.
Course structures are not at all dry accumulations of facts but it has way of thinking about possible difficulties,
ways to find solutions of obviously puzzling problems, which make our students well equipped to be in lead
roles. The overall structure assesses the students against the requirements, which include key skills,
Knowledge level and execution power that define competences.
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Our Faculty…
SIT is globally known for its educational values and ethics. Our faculty members are the experienced, leading
professionals from top relevant organizations. These experts have the skill of illustrating highly complex
subject with an engaging combination of clarity & wit. This transforms complex engineering into easy learning
states. Practical sessions have been designed to set to rest all difficulties in classroom learning. These
sessions are vital parts of our courses.
Having attained firm footing, our organization is very keen to be a livewire of Industry and offer consultancy
services on various industrial & development Projects. Our Students have made strong impact & carved niche
difference in the Industry. They are rendering their services to various Industries in India & Abroad. Their
every contribution to Industry has made us proud.
Our Services…
• Industry specific Training in various disciplines of Engineering.

• Corporate Training as per the Company requirement.
• In-plant Training facilities.
• Case Studies to develop rational thinking skill.
• Seminars to update knowledge.
• Industrial visit to develop visualization skills.
• Personality development and Mock Interviews to develop confidence.
• Opportunity to work on Live Projects.
• Guidance to choose a right career.
• Enhancing the non-technical students to build up their Career.
Some of the companies where our students have made strong impact…
• M/s. Petrofac Engineering India Ltd - Mumbai

• M/s. Aker Solutions Pvt. Ltd. – Mumbai
• M/s. Toyo Engineering India Ltd. - Mumbai
• M/s. Technimont ICB Pvt. Ltd. – Mumbai
• M/s. Reliance Engineering Associates Pvt. Ltd - Mumbai
• M/s. Bechtel India Pvt. Ltd. – Gurgaon
• M/s. Flour Daniel India Pvt. Ltd. – Gurgaon
• M/s. Mott MacDonald Pvt. Ltd. - Mumbai
• M/s. UHDE India Ltd,
• M/s. Chemtex Engineering India Ltd. - Mumbai
• M/s. Jacobs Engineering India Ltd. - Mumbai
• M/s. Larsen & Turbo Ltd. ….. and many more in India and abroad.
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Objectives of these Courses …
• To identify the basic vocabulary and to introduce the major concepts of design.
• To provide & understand the basic requirements for design as per the international codes & standards.
• To understand how to design cost effective new installation.
• To understand how to create cost effective design in trouble shooting as well as while improving existing
system.
SPECIALISED COURSES OFFERED BY US WHO CAN ATTEND:
• Piping Engineering - Mechanical, Chemical & Production Engineers
• Advanced Pipe Stress Analysis - Mechanical/Chemical Engineering/ Piping Engineers.
• H.V.A.C - Mechanical & Production Engineers.
• Process Engineering - Chemical Engineers.
• Mechanical Design of Process Equipment - Mechanical / Production Engineers.
• Structural Engineering. - Civil / Structural Engineers.
• Electrical Engineering - Electrical Engineers.
• Instrumentation & Control - Instrumentation / Electronics Engineers.
• Water & Waste Water Engineering. - Engineers, B.Sc & M.sc
• Engineering Design & Drafting. - HSC
• Piping Design & Drafting - ITI - Mechanical Draughtsman.
TOGETHER WE WILL BRING NEW DIMENSIONS TO ENGINEERING
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INDEX
Chapter No. Page No.
01. Introduction to Piping and About Oil & Gas Sector 6
02. Basic Engineering & Documents used in Piping 18
03. Codes & Standards 34
04. Piping Elements 47
05. Basics of Valves 84
06. Special parts 90
07. Instruments 96
08. Process Equipment Piping 114
09. Pipe Supports 145
10. Plot Plan Development 150
11. Piping Guidelines 157
12. Pipe Rack Piping 162
13. Tank Farm Piping 165
14. Distillation Column Piping 169
15. Stress Analysis 176
16. Caesar II Modeling Procedure 201
17. Other Documents 220
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INTRODUCTION TO PIPING
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INTRODUCTION TO PIPING
The Piping systems are an essential and integral part of our modern civilization just as arteries & veins and
are mainly used for transportation of liquid or gases.
In a modern city pipe lines are used for water transportation from lake to our home and also used for convey
waste from residential and commercial buildings and other civic facilities to the treatment facility or the point of
discharge. The storm and wastewater piping system transport large quantities of water away from residential
area in cities. Similarly, pipelines are used to carry crude oil from oil wells to refineries for processing, natural
gas transportation and distribution, such as power plants, industrial facilities, and commercial and residential
communities.
The piping systems in thermal power plants are used to convey high-pressure and high-temperature steam to
generate electricity. Other piping systems in a power plant transport high-and low-pressure water, chemicals,
low-pressure steam, and condensate. Pipe lines are also used in chemical plants, paper mills, food
processing plants, and other similar industries to carry liquids, chemicals, mixtures, gases and vapors.
Piping systems are used in hospitals to transport gases and fluids for medical purposes. The piping systems
are used in laboratories carry gases, chemicals, vapors and other fluids that are critical for conducting
research and development.
If you have strong visualization power and if you are very keen in learning every day in your life then only
there is a huge scope in Piping System Design, Construction of Piping, operation, maintenance of various
piping systems including Inspection and Testing.
To work in this field one need to understand the basic piping fundamentals, various materials used in projects
& selection criteria, specific design considerations, fabrication & installation, testing & inspection
requirements.
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GAS OIL SEPARATION PLANT

Gas Oil Separation Plant (GOSP) is a type of plant used primarily in the oil industry. The plant processes
crude oil from the well head and separates gases and contaminants from the crude for reasons of safety,
economy, and environmental protection. This makes the crude economically viable for storage, processing
and export.
Produced crude oil is sent to a GOSP to be divided into oil and associated gases, which are then streamed to
oil refineries and gas processing plants respectively. The products of these plants are then sent for supply and
distribution.
Reasons for processing
Pressure : The raw crude often leaves the well head under very high pressure. Production pressures of
greater than 3000 pounds per square inch have been encountered in some fields. The high pressure makes
transportation and storage difficult and dangerous.
Contaminants : Produced crude oil leaving the well head is both sour (contains hydrogen sulfide gas) and
wet (contains liquids). The crude leaving the well head must be processed and treated to make it safe,
environmentally acceptable, and economically viable for storage, processing and export.
Gas recovery : It is not appropriate to burn off the gases associated with crude oil. There are also economic
reasons for processing and treating the produced crude. Recovering associated gases prevents wasting a
natural resource, which was originally flared off.
Corrosion : There are also other economic reasons for GOSP. Removing contaminants from the crude, such
as salt and hydrogen sulfide, protects the plant from corrosion damage. The initial processing of produced
crude oil in a GOSP is also required to meet specifications of the crude for export and oil refining
Off shore Production platform
An increasing portion of oil and gas production is coming from offshore

fields. Advanced technologies now permit production from deepwater fields
and from marginal fields.
In parallel, platform technologies are evolving from fixed platforms suited for
shallow waters, to semi-submersible platforms (TLP, SPAR) and to Floating
Production Units (FPU, FPSO). The latter reduce project lead-time, have
higher performance flexibility, and may be moved from a depleted field to a
new field, thus greatly reducing investments. They are the most common
solution for deepwater and marginal fields.
Offshore platforms are equipped with the machinery needed to extract oil and natural gas but have some
critical challenges that should not be underestimated. Thanks to its many years of worldwide experience, GE
Oil & Gas can provide optimum technical solutions and the project management experience needed to
maximize production while helping customers to meet or accelerate their "First Oil" date.
Offshore production platforms/FPSO collect the hydrocarbons produced under the seabed by means of
specially designed flow-lines and risers. The platform also contains the necessary monitoring & control
equipment, and gear for furnishing electric and/or hydraulic power to the subsea equipment installed at the
various field wells.
Power generation, compression and pumping equipment are generally installed on the platform. This
machinery is used to collect the hydrocarbons and convey them to onshore receiving facilities, or for the re-
injection of associated gas back into the well to enhance production.
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Gas & Oil Field
Oil and gas fields are characterized by the geological structure of the field,
as well as by the quality and composition of the production streams. Each
set of conditions requires unique recovery processes. New discoveries of
oil and gas reserves generally require drilling of very deep wells. As a
consequence, the wellhead equipment must be capable of handling high
temperature/high pressure hydrocarbons, with a high degree of reliability.
Oil and gas reserves are brought to the surface through piping that runs the
entire depth of the well, and is hung within a steel casing. Since the casing
diameter is larger than that of the piping, there is a void space or "annulus"
between the tubing and the casing.
In many oil reservoirs the naturally occurring pressure is sufficient to force the crude oil to the surface of the
well. This production process is called "primary recovery" and generally does not require the use of a
compressor. But the duration of the primary recovery is limited because at a certain point the natural energy to
lift the oil is no longer sufficient. After this point, a compressor and choke valve combination is used to restore
or increase the pressure in the field. This phase of the well's life, known as Gas Depletion, is a form of
secondary recover.
In situations where the oil reservoir pressure is not sufficient to ensure the desired level of production,
pumping systems may also be added. Enhanced recovery systems are often installed to increase production
and/or to avoid decline of production over the years and increase the recovery ratio
Reinjection Plant
Re-injection is used as a method of enhanced oil recovery to compensate for the natural decline of an oil field
production by increasing the pressure in the reservoir, thus restoring the desired level of production and
stimulating the recovery of additional crude oil.
Using this technique the field exploitation can be increased by up to 20%.
The gas that is re-injected is usually the associated gas separated from the crude oil in the flash and
stabilization phases. Other gases, such as nitrogen, or carbon dioxide, may also be used. The gas is re-
injected into the reservoir in dedicated wells and forces the oil to migrate toward the well bores of the
producing wells.
Recent material technology advances allow associated sour gases containing high percentages of H2S and/or
CO2 to be re-injected without the need for sweetening.
Depending on the depth and physical characteristics of the field, very high injection pressures may be
required. High pressure barrel compressors are normally used in this application, or in the case of moderate
gas flows reciprocating compressors may be selected.
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Oil / Gas Treatment Plant
In an oil field the oil is generally mixed with associated gas, production
water and contaminants such as hydrogen sulfide. In the oil treatment
plant the associated gases, production water, and hydrogen sulfide are
separated from the oil. The stabilized oil is then stored and ready to be
shipped via pipeline or oil tanker.
The associated gas separated from the oil, or the raw natural gas
produced by a gas field, is gathered and collected in a gas plant where it
is dehydrated and processed to recover the heavy fractions and to
remove sulphur compounds. The treated gas can then be transported
via pipeline, forwarded to an LNG or GTL facility, or used locally or
abroad as feedstock for petrochemical processes.
In an oil treatment plant the crude oil is first sent to a gas-oil separation system where its pressure is reduced
in stages. In each decompression stage the associated gas is released in a separator until the pressure is
finally reduced to slightly above atmospheric pressure. The sour crude oil is then sent to the stabilizer column
where it is heated and cascaded through a series of bubble trays spaced throughout a column. The hydrogen
sulfide and remaining light hydrocarbons boil off in this process and are collected at the top of the column,
while the sweetened heavy crude is drawn off from the bottom. The stabilized oil is then cooled and stored.
The stream collected from the top of the stabilizer unit are treated in accordance with environmental
regulations.
In the gas plant the raw natural gas is dehydrated and processed through acid gas removal, molecular sieves,
and chilling units, to remove hydrogen sulfide, NGLs (Natural Gas Liquids) and LPG. These liquids are
typically ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, and pentane and have higher value than the bulk natural gas, as
they can be sold as specialized feedstocks for petrochemical processes.
Refinery Plant
Refineries convert the crude oil feedstock into commercial products by means of suitable distillation and
chemical reactions, resulting in the production of a variety of valuable fuels and lubricants, as well as feed
stocks for other downstream processes. Environmental regulations covering plant emissions and the
composition of fuels drive plant upgrades and set new standards for grass root refineries.
The basic component of a refinery is the primary distillation (Topping) process where the crude oil is distilled
into a number of fractions, from the lightest petroleum gases, to light and heavy naphtha, to the heaviest
fractions up to asphalts and resid. The fractions coming from the topping unit are then treated in other
processes for upgrading to commercially viable products; e.g., hydrodesulphurization and hydrotreating
processes are used to produce fuels with reduced sulphur content, cracking processes are used to create a
higher yield of lighter gasoil, kerosene and gasoline, the reforming process is used to increase the octane
number of the gasoline, etc. The configuration of a refinery depends on the range of crude gravity that it is
able to handle and on the final product mix it is designed for.
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Petrochemical Plant
In a Petrochemical Plant the feedstock (generally natural gas or petroleum liquids) is converted into fertilizers,
and/or other intermediate and final products such as olefins, adhesives, detergents, solvents, rubber and
elastomers, films and fibers, polymers and resins, etc.
Petrochemical plants show an infinite variety of configurations depending on the products being produced.
The main categories are:
Ethylene Plants: Ethylene is produced via steam cracking of natural gas or light liquid hydrocarbons.
Ethylene is one of the main components of the resulting cracked gas mixture and is separated by repeated
compression and distillation.
Fertilizer Plants: A reforming process converts the feedstock into a raw syngas which is then purified,
compressed, and fed to high pressure reactors where ammonia is formed. In most cases, the ammonia
synthesis plant is combined with a urea synthesis plant where the ammonia reacts at high pressure with CO2
(separated from the raw syngas and then compressed) to form urea.
Methanol Plants and other Alcohols: High temperature steam-methane reforming produces a syngas that
then reacts at medium pressure with a suitable catalyst to produce methanol.
Plastic Production Plants: several grades of plastic materials are produced from ethylene, propylene and
other monomers by means of a great variety of proprietary processes that cause polymerization occur in the
presence of suitable catalysts.
Other Petrochemical Plants: include Acetylene, Butadiene, Sulfuric Acid, Nitric Acid, PTA, Chlorine, and
Ethylene Oxide/Ethylene Glycol.
Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) plant
Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) is a rapidly developing technology that allows monetization of remote natural gas or
other gaseous hydrocarbons, by converting it into sulphur-free synthetic crude oil that can be easily exported
via tankers. The GTL products can be used as is or blended with diesel oils as a fuel for transportation and
power plants that has lower environmental impact
In a GTL plant the feed gas is first converted into syngas through a steam reforming and partial oxidation
process. To achieve this, very large volumes of oxygen or air, are necessary. Therefore a large air separation
unit (ASU) is often associated with the GTL plant.
The syngas, consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide with a 2:1 ratio, is then compressed and fed to the
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis reactors where the chain growth reaction occurs in the presence of a suitable
catalyst to form liquid hydrocarbons. Light or heavy syncrude may be obtained, depending on the
temperature, pressure and catalyst.
The product of the FT reaction can be further upgraded in a typical refining unit that may be associated with
the GTL plant.
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Oil sand
Oil sand is a mixture of bitumen, sand, water and clay. Today's declining production from traditional oil fields
and high oil prices make the exploitation of unconventional sources of oil, such as that contained in huge oil
sand deposits viable. The exploitation of oil sands is particularly active in Canada, where vast deposits are
excavated to recover the heavy oil compounds that they contain
Huge quantities of oil sands are excavated from just below the surface using mammoth earth moving
machinery. This material is processed with hot water to separate the bitumen from the sand.
The bitumen is cleaned by removing fine clay particles and water and the thick bitumen is diluted with naphtha
and stored. The mixture is then delivered via pipeline to an upgrading unit where the solvent is recovered and
recycled back to the extraction area.
The bitumen is upgraded to a commercial grade crude oil using a hydrogen conversion process to break the
heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lower molecular weight components. These upgraded crude oils are
suitable feedstocks for refineries.
In other processes the bitumen is heated in furnaces and sent to coke drums where coke is removed. The
hydrocarbon vapors from the coke drums are sent to fractionators where they are separated into naphtha,
kerosene and gas oil that are further treated in hydroprocessing units, as in a typical refinery.
LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) production plants
Whenever the source of natural gas production is a long distance from the location of potential usage and a
pipeline is not a viable solution, liquefaction of the natural gas may be an economical choice. The liquefaction
of natural gas reduces its volume about 600 fold and allows the gas to be exported to distant ports as a liquid
in LNG tankers.
New LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) production plants are constantly being built to satisfy the growing global
demand for natural gas. Likewise, in order to reduce the unit production cost, liquefaction line capacity has
been increasing year by year and is currently topped by Qatar's mega LNG lines, each producing about 8
Mtons/y of LNG.
The natural gas from the filed is first treated in a gas processing unit to remove higher molecular weight
hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds and water. It is then fed to the liquefaction process where it is, depending on
the process used, cooled in two or three cascade cooling cycles down to the liquefaction temperature of -
160°C (- 256 °F). The cold liquid LNG is then transferred to heavily insulated storage tanks at atmospheric
pressure, and from there it is loaded into LNG tankers for shipment.
PROCESS FLOW
Process Flow Diagram (the following are the steps from start to completion of project):
Assumption: Marketing/sales effort has taken place. Client is already interested in specific technology.
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Pre-project
• Client provides all pertinent information for desired plant, including desired plant capacity; types of
product[s] to be produced; available raw materials; available utilities; local environmental conditions (i.e.
climate, hurricane potential, seismic activity, etc.)
• A set of technical deliverables are mutually agreed upon; these are incorporated into the contract between
the parties.
• Contract executed; first payment received.
1st Phase of Project: Process Design Package (PDP)
• Prime 3 delivers to client a simplified process description for review and approval.
• Upon approval and sign off by client, begin Process Design Package.
• The PDP begins with Heat and Material Balance (HMB). Upon completion, HMB delivered to client for
approval.
• Time to complete HMB: 4 weeks – 3 months.
• From the HMB a process flow diagram is developed, including a detailed equipment list, raw material
consumption, average utility consumption, detailed process description, start up and shut down
procedures, control logic parameters, troubleshooting info.
• PDP completed and provided to client for approval.
• PDP is delivered electronically and both hard copy and CD/DVD.
2nd Phase of Project: Basic Engineering Package (BEP)
• Prime 3 and client agree upon a set of deliverables for the BEP. In almost every instance, the BEP will be
designed by consultants/licensor.
• Design Process and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID’s), which are submitted to client for review and
approval.
• Upon approval of P&ID’s, the development of a plot plan of the overall plant is started; preliminary plot
plan.
• Once preliminary plot plan is laid out, exact equipment is then specified; then exact utility requirements
are specified.
• After equipment and utilities are specified, electrical diagrams are completed.
• After completion of electrical diagrams, piping layout begins.
• Piping layout is completed.
• After piping layout is completed, plot plan is finalized.
• Depending on the agreed upon deliverables, several other items may be included.
• BEP is completed and delivered to the client for approval in electronic form as well as hard copy and
CD/DVD.
3rd Optional Phase: Pilot Plant Design
(If client desires a Pilot Plant, this phase will run concurrently with the 1st Phase and will in most instances be
sub-contracted to Mustang)
Parties agree upon deliverables for Pilot Plant such as size, type of products to be produced, and what they
are looking to achieve.
Typical Pilot Plant design goals include:
• New process development

• Process demonstration and process economics
• Technical service and problem solving for am existing or planned commercial plant
• New product development
• New market development and market assistance (sample preparation for new and existing clients)
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Engineering steps to complete Pilot Plant design:
• Complete process flow diagrams

• Complete heat and material balance
• Mutually define materials of construction
• Complete process and instrumentation diagrams
• Size and specify custom (non-catalog) major equipment
• Size heat exchangers and heaters
• Size major process lines
• Size major utility lines
• Size control valve trims
• Size safety valves and rupture disks
• Size major vent lines
• Complete process bill of materials for all P&ID tagged items
• Complete 3D layout drawing for major equipment
• Complete Pilot Plant Design Description Document
• Provide Final Design Package consisting of all deliverables electronically and both hard copy and
CD/DVD
EPC COMPANIES
EPC stands for Engineering, Procurement and Construction.
It is a common form of contracting arrangement within the construction industry. Under an EPC contract, the
contractor will design the installation, procure the necessary materials and construct it, either through own
labour or by subcontracting part of the work. In some cases, the contractor will carry the project risk for
schedule as well as budget in return for a fixed price, called lump sum or LSTK depending on the agreed
scope of work.
When scope is restricted to engineering and procurement only, this is referred to as an EP or E and P (E+P)
contract. This is often done in situations where the construction risk is too great for the contractor or when the
Owner has a preference for doing the construction himself.
In an EPC contract, the EPC contractor (EPCC) agrees to deliver the keys of a commissioned plant to the
owner for an agreed amount, just as a builder hands over the keys of a flat to the purchaser. The EPC way of
executing a project is gaining importance worldwide. But it is also a way that needs good understanding, by
the EPCC, for a profitable contract execution. An owner decides for an EPC contract for several vital reasons.
Some are:
• The owner puts in minimum efforts for his project and, so, has less stress
• EPC gives the owner one point contact. It is easy to monitor and coordinate
• It is easy for the owner to get post-commissioning services
• EPC way ensures quality and reduces practical issues faced in other ways
• Owner is not affected by the market rise
• Investment figure is known at the start of the project
Besides the plant siting, in an EPC contract the owner will define the following:
• Scope and the specifications of the plant

• Quality
• Project duration, and
• Cost
.Owner and contractor liabilities
Once an EPC contract is done, the EPC contractor becomes liable for completing the project according to the
conditions mentioned in the tender. The EPC contractor, in turn, may hire several sub-contractors or sub-
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vendors to complete different portions of the project. The payment in such contracts commensurate with the
work done though an up-front advance is normally preferable by a contractor.
The essence of such contracts is that the owner, due to inexperience in EPC, doles out the whole contract of
building up the project to a contractor. Hence, the major risk faced by an owner in such a contract is that of
delay by the contractor. On the contrary, an EPC contractor now takes all the risk and attempts to complete
the task as and when required.
In case of multiple EPC contracts, where an owner divides the complete project into smaller projects, several
EPC contractors may come into play. In such cases, coordination among the contractors becomes a major
issue. The owner or the project consultant in such cases has to continuously monitor and maintain the
progress of the work and iron out differences or coordination issues, if any.
Global arena
An EPC contract is a complex phenomenon. It involves various agencies and characteristics. So the EPC
contract, especially in global context, needs thorough understanding. The EPCC must know about the various
factors that will affect the working, the results and success or failure of the contract, in global arena. The
EPCC must have data and expertise in all the required fields. A thorough knowledge of many aspects is
required. Some important areas are:
• Local (where the plant will be located) market conditions for the materials supply and labour
availability and performance
• Local code, statutory etc., requirements
• Availability of local supervisory personnel
• Availability of local and global engineering services
• Local and global contractors, their experience and performance
Cost variation
An important factor that can affect the EPCC's performance is cost variation. An EPC contract normally has
no price escalation clause, so, any variation in prices from the contract stage is on the account of the
contractor.
The cost variation to the EPC Contractor can occur on various accounts, main being:
• Change in scope of work
Change in scope of work either addition or omission will result in change in cost variation.
Regarding materials' prices oscillation or exhange rate oscillation: in most cases the contract contains a
clause that eliminate this issue and bear this risk on the contractor's shoulders.
Monitoring by owner and EPCC
The following points will be helpful to the owner for monitoring the project:
• Define guarantees well

• Define scope and quality very carefully
• Define milestones meticulously
• Have the LD/penalty clauses well-defined
The handling of an EPC contract is a complicated and complex phenomenon for the EPCC management.
Some important points to know are:
• Have payment terms very specific

• Have similar terms and conditions regarding quality, guarantee etc., as demanded by owner's with
various vendors
• Do not keep terms open-ended
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• Coordinate vigilantly to reduce chances of errors at site
Departments of EPC (may change company to company)
• PROCESS
• PROPOSAL
• PROCUREMENT
• PIPING (SUB DEPARTMENTS : LAYOUT/MATERIAL/STRESS ANALYSIS AND SUPPORT DESIGN)
• MECHANICAL (SUB DEPARTMENTS : STATIC/ROTARY AND PACKAGE GROUP)
• STRUCTURAL
• CIVIL
• ELECTRICAL
• INSTRUMENTATION
• HVAC
• HSE/QA/QC/INSPECTION AND TESTING
• FIRE FIGHTING
• PURCHASE
• PROJECT
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BASIC ENGINEERING
AND
DOCUMENTS USED IN PIPING
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BASIC ENGINEERING
PROCESS DESIGN
Process design is the design of processes for desired physical and/or chemical transformation of materials.
Process design is central to chemical engineering and it can be considered to be the summit of chemical
engineering, bringing together all of the components of that field.
Process design can be the design of new facilities or it can be the modification or expansion of existing
facilities. The design starts at a conceptual level and ultimately ends in the form of fabrication and construction
plans.
Process design is distinct from equipment design, which is closer in spirit to the design of unit operations.
Processes often include many unit operations.
Process design documents serve to define the design and they ensure that the design components fit
together. They are useful in communicating ideas and plans to other engineers involved with the design, to
external regulatory agencies, to equipment vendors and to construction contractors.
In order of increasing detail, process design documents include:
• Block Flow Diagrams (BFD):
Very simple diagrams composed of rectangles and lines indicating major material or energy flows.
• Process Flow Diagrams (PFD's):
Typically more complex diagrams of major unit operations as well as flow lines. They usually include a
material balance, and sometimes an energy balance, showing typical or design flowrates, stream
compositions, and stream and equipment pressures and temperatures.
• Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&ID's):
Diagrams showing each and every pipeline with piping class (carbon steel or stainless steel) and pipe size
(diameter). They also show valving along with instrument locations and process control schemes.
• Specifications:
Written design requirements of all major equipment items.
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Contents:
SECTION I : PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
1. Introduction
2. Specification of product
3. Uses of Product
4. Physical properties of Raw Materials
5. Process Description
6. Material Balance
7. Energy Balance
8. Raw Materials & Utility Requirements
9. Effluent Treatment & Environmental Control
10. Operating Instructions for the plant
11. Testing Methods
SECTION II : EQUIPMENT LIST & DATASHEETS
1. Equipment List of Process & Utility Equipments

2. Process datasheets of Fabricated & Proprietary Equipments
3. Supplier’s list
SECTION III : DESIGN DRAWINGS
1. Process Flow Diagram ( PFD )

2. Material Balance Diagram
3. Energy Balance Diagram
4. Piping & Instrumentation Diagrams –Process, Utility, Tank farm
5. Conceptual Equipment Layout
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PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Process flow diagram (PFD) is the starting document for Basic and further detailed engineering design.
PFD helps to understand the process scheme, different process equipments involved , raw materials/product
details ,utilities required. Piping & Instrumentation diagram ( PI & D) is generated from the PFD which is the
source for further detailed engineering.
To develop PFD, one has to study process technology or manufacturing process in detail and then arrive at
selection of equipments, utilities, material of construction and basic material flow scheme.
A Process Flow Diagram - PFD - (or System Flow Diagram - SFD) shows the relationships between the
major components in the system. PFD also tabulate process design values for the components in different
operating modes, typical minimum, normal and maximum. A PFD does not show minor components, piping
systems, piping ratings and designations.
A PFD should include:
Process Piping
Major equipment symbols, names and identification numbers
Control, valves and valves that affect operation of the system
Interconnection with other systems
Major bypass and recirculation lines
System ratings and operational values as minimum, normal and maximum flow, temperature and pressure
Composition of fluids
Flow Diagrams should not include:
• pipe class
• pipe line numbers
• minor bypass lines
• isolation and shutoff valves
• maintenance vents and drains
• relief and safety valve
• code class information
• seismic class information
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PIPING AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM
A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram - P&ID, is a schematic illustration of functional relationship of piping,
instrumentation and system equipment components
P&ID shows all of piping including the physical sequence of branches, reducers, valves, equipment,
instrumentation and control interlocks.
The P&ID are used to operate the process system.
A P&ID should include:

• Instrumentation and designations
• Mechanical equipment with names and numbers
• All valves and their identifications
• Process piping, sizes and identification
• Miscellaneous - vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers, increasers and swages
• Permanent start-up and flush lines
• Flow directions
• Interconnections references
• Control inputs and outputs, interlocks
• Interfaces for class changes
• Seismic category
• Quality level
• Annunciation inputs
• Computer control system input
• Vendor and contractor interfaces
• Identification of components and subsystems delivered by others
• Intended physical sequence of the equipment
A P&ID should not include:
• Instrument root valves

• control relays
• manual switches
• equipment rating or capacity
• primary instrument tubing and valves
• pressure temperature and flow data
• elbow, tees and similar standard fittings
• extensive explanatory notes
22
COMMONLY USED SYMBOLS IN PFD and P&ID
23
24
25
26
ABBREVIATION
LINES / SIGNALS
PIPING
SERVICES
FO = FUEL OIL.
HPS = HIGH PRESSURE STEAM .
MPS = MEDIUM PRESSURE STEAM.
LPS = LOW PRESSURE STEAM .
HPC = HIGH PRESSURE CONDENSATE.
MPC = MEDIUM PRESS. CONDENSATE.
LPC = LOW PRESSURE STEAM .
HOS = HOT OIL SUPPLY.
HOR = HOT OIL RETURN.
HWS = HOT WATER SUPPLY.
HWR = HOT WATER VRETURN.
CWS = COOLING WATER SUPPLY.
CWR = COOLING WATER RETURN.
CHWS= CHILLED WATER SUPPLY.
CHWR= CHILLED WATER RETURN.
CHBS = CHILLED BRINE SUPPLY.
CHBR = CHILLED BRINE RETURN.
CA = COMPRESSED AIR.
IA = INSTRUMENT AIR
V = VENT / VAPOUR.
N2 = NITROGEN.
PW = PROCESS WATER.
P = PROCESS.
IW = INDUSTRIAL WASTER.
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EQUIPMENT
R = REACTOR
T = TANK.
HE = HEAT EXCHANGER.
B = BLOWER.
D = DIKE
J = EJECTOR.
V = VESSEL.
C = COLUMN.
P = PUMP.
K = COMPRESSOR.
S = SUMP.
IC = INCINEZATOR.
F = FILTER.
AG = AGITATOR.
H = FURNACE.
M = MOTOR.
SC = SCRUBBER.
X = MISCELLNEOUS.
FLUID CODES (PROCESS).

VA = SULPHURIC ACID.
HA = HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
CT = CATALYST.
CA = AMINES.
T = EQUIPMENT TRIM.
WD = DESALINATED WATER.
WS = SEAL WATER
WC =COOLING ATER (FRESH).
WE = EFFLUENT WATER.
WA = DEMINERALISED WATER.
WT = TREATED EFFLUENT WATER.
WK = CONTAMINATED WATER.
FG = FUEL GAS (SWEET).
AB = BREATHIN AIR.
FL = FLUSHING OIL.
SO = SEAL OIL.
RL = REGENERATION GAS.
PA = GENERAL HYDROCARBONS.
PC = HYDROCARBON WITH HYDROGEN.
PD = HYDROCARBONS WITH HYDROGEN
&HZS
PE = HYDROCARBONS WTH SOUR
WATER
GA = GASEOUS EXTINGUISHANT.
PVC = POLY VINLY CHLORIDE
CC = LOW STRENGTH CAUSTIC.
HY = HYDROGEN.
N1 = NITROGEN.
SU = MOLTEN SULPHUR.
WB = BOILER FEED WATER.
WF = FIRE WATER (FRESH).
WO = WATER WITH OIL.
WW = COOLING WATER (SEA WATER)
WP = PORTABLE WATER.
WU = UTILITY WATER
WX = SOUR WATER.
DL = DIESEL.
FS = FUEL GAG (SOUR).
LO = LUBE OIL.
FF = FIRE FOAM.
RT = REFRIGERANT.
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RG = REDUCTION GAS.
PB = HYDROCARBONS WITH SULPHUR.
AP = PLANT AIR.
PP = POLY PROPYLENE.
INSULATION
IC = COLD INSULATION.
IH = HOT INSULATION.
IP = PERS , PROTECTION INSULATION
MOSTLY USING
SMLS = SEAMLESS
BBE = BEVEL BOTH END
THD = THREADED
BW = BUTT WELDED
SW = SOCKET WELDED
EQ.TEE= EQUAL TEE
RED.TEE = REDUCING TEE
ELB = ELBOW
VOL = VOLUME
VLV = VALVE
EL = ELEVATION
FLG = FLANGE
SCH = SCHEDULE
THK = THICKNESS
EQPT. = EQUIPMENT
NB = NOMINAL BORE
NS = NOMINAL SIZE
BE = BEVELED END
FSU = FLAT SIDE UP
FSD = FLAT SIDE DOWN
SWT = SOCKET WELDED TEE
BWT = BUTT WELDED TEE
S = SOCKOLET
W = WELDOLET
SOB = SET ON BRANCH
SPW = SPIRAL WOUND
SORF = SLIP ON RAISE FACE.
SOFF = SLIP ON FLAT FACE.
WN = WELD NECK.
WNRF = WELD NECK RAISED FAICE.
WNRTJ= WELD NECK RING TYPE JOINT.
BOP = BOTTOM OF PIPE.
BOS = BOTTOM OF STEEL. CAF = COMPRESSED ASBESTOS FIBER.X

STG = EXTRA STRONG TOP = TOP OF PIPE
XX STG = DOUBLE EXTRA STRONG. TOS = TOP OF STEEL.
XH = EXTRA HEAVY NPSH = NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD.
XX H = DOUBLE EXTRA HEAVY. SUC = SUCTION.
ECC.RED = ECCENTRIC REDUCER. DISCH = DISCHARG.
CONC.RED = CONCENTRIC REDUCER WP.EL = WORK POINT ELEVATION
UFD = UTILITY FLOW DIAGRAM. GAD = GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
ULD = UTILITY LINE DIAGRAM. DRAWING
BL = BATTERY LIMIT. P&ID = PIPING AND INSTRUMENT
H =HANDHOLE. DRAWING
M =MANHOLE. A/G = ABOVE GROUND
TT =TEMPERATURE TRANSMITTER. ERW = ELEC. RESISTANCE WELDED
GR.EL = GROUND ELEVATION EFW = ELECTRIC FUSION WELD.
FOF.EL = FINISH FLOOR ELEVATION
U/G = UNDER GROUND
29
Sample PMS
30
Sample PMS
31
Sample MDS
32
Sample HOOK UP
33
CODES AND STANDARDS
34
CODES AND STANDARDS

CODE :
CODE is a group of general rules or systematic procedure or guidelines required for design, fabrication,
installation & inspection and is prepared in such a manner that it can be adopted by legal jurisdiction & made
into law.
STANDARDS :
Standards prepared by a professional group or committee which are believed to be good and proper
engineering practice and which contain mandatory requirements and dimensions.
The STDS are mainly of two types : i) Dimensional STDS

ii) Pressure Integrity STDS
DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS:
They provide configuration control Information for components. The main purpose of Dimensional STD is to
assure Similar components manufactured by different supplier will be physically Interchangeable. Mainly this
document I giving dimensions of various parts.
PRESSURE INTEGRITY STANDARDS:

They Provide performance criteria. The components designed & manufactured to the same STDS Will run an
equivalent manner
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES :
Recommended Practices prepared by professional group or committee indicating good engineering practices
but which are optional. Companies also develop Guide in order to have consistency in the documentation.
These cover various engineering methods which are considered good practices, without specific
recommendation or requirements.
Each country has its own Codes and Standards. Normally American National standards are most widely used
all over the world and compliance with those requirements are accepted globally.
In India, other than American standards, British standards and Indians are also used for the design and
selection of equipment and piping systems.
MAJOR ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDS:
Country Organization
• India BIS : Bureau of Indian standards.
• U.S.A ASME : American Society of Mechanical Engineers
• United Kingdom BSI : British Standards Institute
• Germany DIN : Deutsches Institute for Normung.
• Japan JIS : Japanese Industrial Standards
• Europe CEN : Europe Community for Standardisation
• Canada CSA : Canadian Standards Association
• France AFNOR : Association Francoise
35
1.0 AMERICAN STANDARDS
Commonly used American Standards in Piping
• The American Petroleum Institute (API).

• The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).
• The American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
• The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
• The American Welding Society (AWS).
• The American Water Works Association (AWWA).
• The Manufactures Standardisation Society & Industry-Standards practices (MSS-SP)
• The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
Commonly used American CODE in Piping
ASME B31 - Codes of Pressure Piping
B31 Code for pressure piping, developed by American Society of Mechanical Engineers - ASME, covers
Power Piping, Fuel Gas Piping, Process Piping, Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and
Other Liquids, Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components and Building Services Piping. ASME B31
was earlier known as ANSI B31.
B31.1 - Power Piping
Piping for industrial plants and marine applications. This code prescribes minimum requirements for the
design, materials, fabrication, erection, test, and inspection of power and auxiliary service piping systems for
electric generation stations, industrial institutional plants, central and district heating plants.
The code covers boiler external piping for power boilers and high temperature, high pressure water boilers in
which steam or vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 PSIG; and high temperature water is
generated at pressures exceeding 160 PSIG and/or temperatures exceeding 250 degrees F.
B31.2 - Fuel Gas Piping
This has been withdrawn as a National Standard and replaced by ANSI/NFPA Z223.1, but B31.2 is still
available from ASME and is a good reference for the design of gas piping systems (from the meter to the
appliance).
B31.3 - Process Piping
Design of chemical and petroleum plants and refineries processing chemicals and hydrocarbons, water and
steam. This Code contains rules for piping typically found in petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical,
textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants; and related processing plants and terminals.
This Code prescribes requirements for materials and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection,
examination, inspection, and testing of piping. This Code applies to piping for all fluids including: (1) raw,
intermediate, and finished chemicals; (2) petroleum products; (3) gas, steam, air and water; (4) fluidized
solids; (5) refrigerants; and (6) cryogenic fluids. Also included is piping which interconnects pieces or stages
within a packaged equipment assembly.
B31.4 - Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly, inspection, and testing
of piping transporting liquids such as crude oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied
petroleum gas, carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia and liquid petroleum products
between producers' lease facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries, stations, ammonia
plants, terminals (marine, rail and truck) and other delivery and receiving points.
Piping consists of pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets, valves, relief devices, fittings and the pressure containing
parts of other piping components. It also includes hangers and supports, and other equipment items
necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing parts. It does not include support structures such
as frames of buildings, buildings stanchions or foundations
36
• Primary and associated auxiliary liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping at pipeline
terminals (marine, rail and truck), tank farms, pump stations, pressure reducing stations and metering
stations, including scraper traps, strainers, and prover loop;
• Storage and working tanks including pipe-type storage fabricated from pipe and fittings, and piping
interconnecting these facilities;
• Liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property which has been set aside for
such piping within petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas processing, ammonia, and bulk plants;
• Those aspects of operation and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems relating to the safety and
protection of the general public, operating company personnel, environment, property and the piping
systems.
B31.5 - Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components
This Code prescribes requirements for the materials, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, test, and
inspection of refrigerant, heat transfer components, and secondary coolant piping for temperatures as low as -
320 deg F (-196 deg C), whether erected on the premises or factory assembled, except as specifically
excluded in the following paragraphs.
Users are advised that other piping Code Sections may provide requirements for refrigeration piping in their
respective jurisdictions.
This Code shall not apply to:
• any self- contained or unit systems subject to the requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or other
nationally recognized testing laboratory:
• water piping;
• piping designed for external or internal gage pressure not exceeding 15 psi (105 kPa) regardless of size;
or
• pressure vessels, compressors, or pumps,
but does include all connecting refrigerant and secondary coolant piping starting at the first joint adjacent to
such apparatus.
B31.8 - Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems
This Code covers the design, fabrication, installation, inspection, and testing of pipeline facilities used for the
transportation of gas. This Code also covers safety aspects of the operation and maintenance of those
facilities.
B31.8S - Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines
This Standard applies to on-shore pipeline systems constructed with ferrous materials and that transport gas.
Pipeline system means all parts of physical facilities through which gas is transported, including pipe, valves,
appurtenances attached to pipe, compressor units, metering stations, regulator stations, delivery stations,
holders and fabricated assemblies.
The principles and processes embodied in integrity management are applicable to all pipeline systems. This
Standard is specifically designed to provide the operator (as defined in section 13) with the information
necessary to develop and implement an effective integrity management program utilizing proven industry
practices and processes.
The processes and approaches within this Standard are applicable to the entire pipeline system.
B31.9 - Building Services Piping
This Code Section has rules for the piping in industrial, institutional, commercial and public buildings, and
multi-unit residences, which does not require the range of sizes, pressures, and temperatures covered in.
37
This Code prescribes requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, installation, inspection, examination
and testing of piping systems for building services. It includes piping systems in the building or within the
property limits.
B31.11 - Slurry Transportation Piping Systems
Design, construction, inspection, security requirements of slurry piping systems.
Covers piping systems that transport aqueous slurries of no hazardous materials, such as coal, mineral ores
and other solids between a slurry processing plant and the receiving plant.
ASME/ANSI B16 - Standards of Pipes and Fittings
The ASME B16 Standards covers pipes and fittings in cast iron , cast bronze, wrought copper & steel
ASME/ANSI B16.1 - Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
This Standard for Classes 25, 125, and 250 Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings covers:
• pressure-temperature ratings,
• sizes and method of designating openings of reducing fittings,
• marking,
• minimum requirements for materials,
• dimensions and tolerances,
• bolt, nut, and gasket dimensions and
• tests.
•
ASME/ANSI B16.3 - Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings
This Standard for threaded malleable iron fittings Classes 150, and 300 provides requirements for the
following:
• pressure-temperature ratings
• size and method of designating openings of reducing fittings
• marking
• materials
• dimensions and tolerances
• threading
• coatings
•
ASME/ANSI B16.4 - Cast Iron Threaded Fittings
This Standard for gray iron threaded fittings, Classes 125 and 250 covers:
• size and method of designating openings of reducing fittings
• marking
• material
• threading, and
• coatings
The ASME B16.5 Pipe Flanges and Flange Fittings standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials,
dimensions, tolerances, marking, testing, and methods of designating openings for pipe flanges and flanged
fittings.
The standard includes flanges with rating class designations 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 in sizes
NPS 1/2 through NPS 24, with requirements given in both metric and U.S units. The Standard is limited to
flanges and flanged fittings made from cast or forged materials, and blind flanges and certain reducing flanges
38
made from cast, forged, or plate materials. Also included in this Standard are requirements and
recommendations regarding flange bolting, flange gaskets, and flange joints.
ASME/ANSI B16.9 - Factory-Made Wrought Steel Butt welding Fittings
This Standard covers overall dimensions, tolerances, ratings, testing, and markings for wrought factory-made
butt welding fittings in sizes NPS 1/2 through 48 (DN 15 through 1200).
ASME/ANSI B16.10 - Face-to-Face and End-to-End Dimensions of Valves
This Standard covers face-to-face and end-to-end dimensions of straightway valves, and center-to face and
center-to-end dimensions of angle valves. Its purpose is to assure installation interchangeability for valves of a
given material, type size, rating class, and end connection
ASME/ANSI B16.11 - Forged Steel Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded
This Standard covers ratings, dimensions, tolerances, marking and material requirements for forged fittings,
both socket-welding and threaded.
ASME/ANSI B16.12 - Cast Iron Threaded Drainage Fittings
This Standard for cast iron threaded drainage fittings covers:
• size and method of designating openings in reducing fittings

• marking
• materials
• threading
• ribs
• coatings
• Face bevel discharge nozzles, input shafts, base plates, and foundation bolt
holes (see Tables 1 and 2).
ASME/ANSI B16.14 - Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings and Locknuts with Pipe Threads
This Standard for Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings, and Locknuts with Pipe Threads covers:
• pressure-temperature ratings:
• size;
• marking;
• materials;
• dimensions and tolerances;
• threading; and
• Pattern taper.
ASME/ANSI B16.15 - Cast Bronze Threaded Fittings
This Standard pertains primarily to cast Class 125and Class 250 bronze threaded pipe fittings. Certain
requirements also pertain to wrought or cast plugs, bushings, couplings, and caps. This Standard covers:
• pressure-temperature ratings;
• size and method of designating openings of reducing pipe fittings;
• marking;
39
• minimum requirements for casting quality and materials;

• dimensions and tolerances in U.S. customary and metric (SI) units;
• threading.
ASME/ANSI B16.18 - Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings
This Standard for cast copper alloy solder joint pressure fittings designed for use with copper water tube,
establishes requirements for:
• Pressure-temperature ratings;
• abbreviations for end connections;
• Sizes and method of designating openings of fittings;
• Marking;
• Material;
• Dimensions and tolerances; and
• Tests.
ASME/ANSI B16.20 - Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges-Ring-Joint, Spiral-Would, and Jacketed
This standard covers materials, dimensions, tolerances, and markings for metal ring-joint gaskets, spiral-
wound metal gaskets, and metal jacketed gaskets and filler material. These gaskets are dimensionally
suitable for used with flanges described in the reference flange standards ASME/ANSI B16.5, ASME B16.47,
and API-6A. This standard covers spiral-wound metal gaskets and metal jacketed gaskets for use with raised
face and flat face flanges. Replaces API-601 or API-601.
ASME/ANSI B16.21 - Nonmetallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges
This Standard for nonmetallic flat gaskets for bolted flanged joints in piping includes:
• types and sizes;

• materials;
• dimensions and allowable tolerances.
ASME/ANSI B16.22 - Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings
The Standard establishes specifications for wrought copper and wrought copper alloy, solder-joint, seamless
fittings, designed for use with seamless copper tube conforming to ASTM B 88 (water and general plumbing
systems), B 280 (air conditioning and refrigeration service), and B 819 (medical gas systems), as well as
fittings intended to be assembled with soldering materials conforming to ASTM B 32, brazing materials
conforming to AWS A5.8, or with tapered pipe thread conforming to ASME B1.20.1. This Standard is allied
with ASME B16.18, which covers cast copper alloy pressure fittings. It provides requirements for fitting ends
suitable for soldering. This Standard covers:
• pressure temperature ratings;

• size and method of designating openings of fittings;
• marking;
• material;
• dimension and tolerances; and
• tests.
ASME/ANSI B16.23 - Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings (DWV)
The Standard establishes specifications for cast copper alloy solder joint drainage fittings, designed for use in
drain, waste, and vent (DWV) systems. These fittings are designed for use with seamless copper tube
conforming to ASTM B 306, Copper Drainage Tube (DWV), as well as fittings intended to be assembled with
soldering materials conforming to ASTM B 32, or tapered pipe thread conforming to ASME B1.20.1. This
standard is allied with ASME B16.29, Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage
Fittings - DWV. It provides requirements for fitting ends suitable for soldering. This standard covers:
• description;
• pitch (slope);
40

• sizes and methods for designing openings for reducing fittings;
• marking;
• material; and
• Dimensions and tolerances.
ASME/ANSI B16.24 - Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
This Standard for Classes 25, 125, 250, and 800 Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings covers:
• pressure temperature ratings,

• sizes and methods of designating openings for reduced fittings,
• marking,
• minimum requirements for materials,
• dimensions and tolerances,
• bolt, nut, and gasket dimensions, and
• Tests.
ASME/ANSI B16.25 - Buttwelding Ends
• The Standard covers the preparation of butt welding ends of piping components
to be joined into a piping system by welding. It includes requirements for welding
bevels, for external and internal shaping of heavy-wall components, and for
preparation of internal ends (including dimensions and tolerances). Coverage
includes preparation for joints with the following.
• no backing rings;
• split or non continuous backing rings;
• solid or continuous backing rings;
• consumable insert rings;
• Gas tungsten are welding (GTAW) of the root pass. Details of preparation for
any backing ring must be specified in ordering the component.
ASME/ANSI B16.26 - Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Copper Tubes
This standard for Cast Copper Alloy Fitting for Flared Copper Tubes covers:
• pressure rating;
• material;
• size;
• threading;
• Marking.
ASME/ANSI B16.28 - Wrought Steel Buttwelding Short Radius Elbows and Returns
This Standard covers ratings, overall dimensions, testing, tolerances, and markings for wrought carbon and
alloy steel buttwelding short radius elbows and returns. The term wrought denotes fittings made of pipe,
tubing, plate, or forgings.
ASME/ANSI B16.29 - Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings
The standard for wrought copper and wrought copper alloy solder joint drainage fittings, designed for use with
copper drainage tube, covers:
• Description,
• Pitch (slope),
• Abbreviations for End Connections,
• Sizes and Method of Designating Openings for Reducing Fittings,
• Marking,
• Material, Dimensions and Tolerances.
41
ASME/ANSI B16.33 - Manually Operated Metallic Gas Valves for Use in Gas Piping Systems Up to 125
psig
General This Standard covers requirements for manually operated metallic valves sizes NPS 1.2 through NPS
2, for outdoor installation as gas shut-off valves at the end of the gas service line and before the gas regulator
and meter where the designated gauge pressure of the gas piping system does not exceed 125 psi (8.6 bar).
The Standard applies to valves operated in a temperature environment between .20 degrees F and 150
degrees F (.29 degrees C and 66 degrees C). Design This Standard sets forth the minimum capabilities,
characteristics, and properties, which a valve at the time of manufacture must possess, in order to be
considered suitable for use in gas piping systems.
ASME/ANSI B16.34 - Valves - Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End
This standard applies to new valve construction and covers pressure-temperature ratings, dimensions,
tolerances, materials, nondestructive examination requirements, testing, and marking for cast, forged, and
fabricated flanged, threaded, and welding end, and wafer or flangeless valves of steel, nickel-base alloys, and
other alloys shown in Table 1. Wafer or flangeless valves, bolted or through-bolt types, that are installed
between flanges or against a flange shall be treated as flanged end valves.
ASME/ANSI B16.36 - Orifice Flanges
This Standard covers flanges (similar to those covered in ASME B16.5) that have orifice pressure differential
connections. Coverage is limited to the following:
• welding neck flanges Classes 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500
• slip-on and threaded Class 300
• Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi Flow Rate Meters
ASME/ANSI B16.38 - Large Metallic Valves for Gas Distribution
The standard covers only manually operated metallic valves in nominal pipe sizes 2 1/2 through 12 having the
inlet and outlet on a common center line, which are suitable for controlling the flow of gas from open to fully
closed, for use in distribution and service lines where the maximum gage pressure at which such distribution
piping systems may be operated in accordance with the code of federal regulations (cfr), title 49, part 192,
transportation of natural and other gas by pipeline; minimum safety standard, does not exceed 125 psi (8.6
bar). Valve seats, seals and stem packing may be nonmetallic.
ASME/ANSI B16.39 - Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions
This Standard for threaded malleable iron unions, classes 150, 250, and 300, provides requirements for the
following:
• design
• size
• marking
• materials
• joints and seats
• threads
• hydrostatic strength
• tensile strength
• air pressure test
• sampling
• coatings
• dimensions
ASME/ANSI B16.40 - Manually Operated Thermoplastic Gas
The Standard covers manually operated thermoplastic valves in nominal sizes 1.2 through 6 (as shown in
Table 5). These valves are suitable for use below ground in thermoplastic distribution mains and service lines.
The maximum pressure at which such distribution piping systems may be operated is in accordance with the
42
Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Title 49, Part 192, Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline;
Minimum Safety Standards, for temperature ranges of .20 deg. F to 100 deg. F (.29 deg. C to 38 deg. C). This
Standard sets qualification requirements for each nominal valve size for each valve design as a necessary
condition for demonstrating conformance to this Standard. This Standard sets requirements for newly
manufactured valves for use in below ground piping systems for natural gas [includes synthetic natural gas
(SNG)], and liquefied petroleum (LP) gases (distributed as a vapor, with or without the admixture of air) or
mixtures thereof.
ASME/ANSI B16.42 - Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150 and 300
The Standard covers minimum requirements for Class 150 and 300 cast ductile iron pipe flanges and flanged
fittings. The requirements covered are as follows:
• sizes and method of designating openings
• marking
• materials
• bolts, nuts, and gaskets
• tests
ASME/ANSIB16.44 - Manually Operated Metallic Gas Valves for Use in House Piping Systems
This Standard applies to new valve construction and covers quarter turn manually operated metallic valves in
sizes NPS 1/2-2 which are intended for indoor installation as gas shutoff valves when installed in indoor gas
piping between a gas meter outlet & the inlet connection to a gas appliance.
ASME/ANSI B16.45 - Cast Iron Fittings for Solvent Drainage Systems
The Standard for cast iron drainage fittings used on self-aerating, one-pipe Solvent drainage systems, covers
the following:
• description
• sizes and methods for designating openings for reducing fittings
• marking
• material
• pitch
• design
• tests
ASME/ANSI B16.47 - Large Diameter Steel Flanges: NPS 26 through NPS 60
This Standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, and testing
for pipe flanges in sizes NPS 26 through NPS 60 and in ratings Classes 75, 150,0300, 400, 600, and 900.
Flanges may be cast, forged, or plate (for blind flanges only) materials. Requirements and recommendations
regarding bolting and gaskets are also included.
ASME/ANSI B16.48 - Steel Line Blanks
The Standard covers pressure-temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, marking, and testing
for operating line blanks in sizes NPS 1/2 through NPS 24 for installation between ASME B16. 5 flanges in the
150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 pressure classes.
This Standard covers design, material, manufacturing, testing, marking, and inspection requirements for
factory-made pipeline bends of carbon steel materials having controlled chemistry and mechanical properties,
produced by the induction bending process, with or without tangents. This Standard covers induction bends
for transportation and distribution piping applications (e.g., ASME B31.4, B31.8, and B31.11) Process and
power piping have differing requirements and materials that may not be appropriate for the restrictions and
examinations described herein, and therefore are not included in this Standard.
43
API - Valve Standards
An overview of the American Petroleum Institute - API - valve standards
API 5L : Specification for Line pipe
API 6D : Specification for Pipeline Valves. API Specification 6D is an adoption of
API 6F : Recommended Practice for Fire Test for valves.
API 6RS : Referenced Standards for Committee 6, Standardization of Valves and Wellhead
Equipment.
API 11V6 : Design of Continuous Flow Gas Lift Installations Using Injection Pressure Operated
Valves. The standard sets guidelines for continuous flow gas lift installation designs
using injection pressure operated valves.
API RP 11V7 : Recommended Practice for Repair, Testing, and Setting Gas Lift Valves.
ball, check, gate and plug valves for application in pipeline systems.
API 520-1 : Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries: Part
I Sizing and Selection. The recommended practice applies to the sizing and
Selection of pressure relief devices used in refineries and related industries for
equipment that has a maximum allowable working pressure of 15 psig (1.03 bar g or
103 kPa g) or greater.
API 520-2 : Recommended Practice 520: Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure
Relieving Devices in Refineries-Part II, Installation. The recommended practice
covers methods of installation for pressure-relief devices for equipment that has a
maximum allowable working pressure of 15 psig (1.03 bar g or 103 kPa g) or greater.
It covers gas, vapor, steam, two-phase and incompressible fluid service.
API 526 : Flanged Steel Pressure Relief Valves. The standard is a purchase specification for
flanged steel pressure relief valves. Basic requirements are given for direct spring-
loaded pressure relief valves and pilot-operated pressure relief valves as follows:
orifice designation and area; valve size and pressure rating, inlet and outlet;
materials; pressure-temperature limits; and center-to-face dimensions, inlet and
outlet.
API 527 : Seat Tightness of Pressure Relief Valves R(2002). Describes methods of
Determining The seat tightness of metal- and soft-seated pressure relief valves,
including those of conventional, bellows, and pilot-operated designs.
API 574 : Inspection Practices for Piping System Components. The standard covers the
Inspection of piping, tubing, valves (other than control valves) and fittings used in
petroleum refineries.
API 576 : Inspection of Pressure Relieving Devices. The recommended practice describes
The Inspection and repair practices for automatic pressure-relieving devices
commonly used in the oil and petrochemical industries.
API 593 : Ductile Iron Plug Valves-flanged ends.
API 594 : Check Valves: Flanged, Lug, Wafer and Butt-welding. API Standard 594 covers
Design, material, face-to-face dimensions, pressure-temperature ratings, and
examination, inspection, and test requirements for two types of check valves.
API 598 : Valve Inspection and Testing. The standard covers inspection, supplementary
examination, and pressure test requirements for both resilient-seated and metal-to-
metal seated gate, globe, plug, ball, check, and butterfly valves. Pertains to
inspection by the purchaser and to any supplementary examinations the purchaser
may require at the valve manufacturer's plant.
API 599 : Metal Plug Valves - Flanged, Threaded and Welding Ends. A purchase
44
Specification that covers requirements for metal plug valves with flanged or butt-
welding ends, and ductile iron plug valves with flanged ends, in sizes NPS 1 through
NPS 24, which correspond to nominal pipe sizes in ASME B36.10M. Valve bodies
conforming to ASME B16.34 may have flanged end and one butt-welding end. It also
covers both lubricated and nonlubricated valves that have two-way coaxial ports, and
includes requirements for valves fitted with internal body, plug, or port linings or
applied hard facings on the body, body ports, plug, or plug port.
API 600 : Bolted Bonnet Steel Gate Valves for Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries -
Modified National Adoption of ISO 10434:1998.
API 601 : Metallic Gasket for Refinery piping.
API 602 : Compact Steel Gate Valves - Flanged, Threaded, Welding, and Extended-Body
Ends. The standard covers threaded-end, socket-welding-end, butt-welding-end, and
flanged-end compact carbon steel gate valves in sizes NPS4 and smaller.
API 603 : Corrosion-Resistant, Bolted Bonnet Gate Valves - Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends.
The standard covers corrosion-resistant bolted bonnet gate valves with flanged or
butt-weld ends in sizes NPS 1/2 through 24, corresponding to nominal pipe sizes in
ASME B36.10M, and Classes 150, 300, and, 600, as specified in ASME B16.34.
API 604 : Ductile Iron Gate Valves-flanged ends.
API 605 : Large Diameter Carbon Steel Flanges.
API 607 : Fire Test for Soft-Seated Quarter Turn Valves. The standard covers the
Requirements for testing and evaluating the performance of straightway, soft-seated
quarter-turn valves when the valves are exposed to certain fire conditions defined in
this standard. The procedures described in this standard apply to all classes and
sizes of such valves that are made of materials listed in ASME B16.34.
API 608 : Metal Ball Valves - Flanged and Butt-Welding Ends. The standard covers Class 150
And Class 300 metal ball valves that have either butt-welding or flanged ends and are
for use in on-off service.
API 609 : Butterfly Valves: Double Flanged, Lug- and Wafer-Type. The standard covers
Design, materials, face-to-face dimensions, pressure-temperature ratings, and
examination, inspection, and test requirements for gray iron, ductile iron, bronze,
steel, nickel-base alloy, or special alloy butterfly valves that provide tight shutoff in the
closed position and are suitable for flow regulation.
API 1104 : Standard for welding pipeline and facilities.
BSi - British Standard Valves : An overview of BSi - British Standard institute valve standards
BSi - British Standard institute valve standards:
BS 341-1 : Transportable gas container valves. Specification for industrial valves for working
pressures up to and including 300 bar
BS 341-2 : Transportable Gas Container Valves. Valves with Taper Stems for Use with
Breathing Apparatus.
BS 341-3 : Transportable gas container valves. Valve outlet connections
BS 341-4 : Transportable gas container valves. Pressure relief devices
BS 759-1 : Valves, gauges and other safety fittings for application to boilers and to piping
installations for and in connection with boilers. Specification for valves, mountings
and fittings
BS 1123-1 : Safety valves, gauges and fusible plugs for compressed air or inert gas installations
Code of practice for installation
45
BS 1212-1 : Float operated valves - Specification for piston type float operated valves (copper
alloy body) (excluding floats)
BS 1414 : Gate valves for petroleum industry
BS 1552 : Specification for open bottomed taper plug valves up to 200 mbar
BS 1570 : Flanged and but weld-welding end steel plug valves for the petroleum industry
(excluding well -head and flow-line valves)
BS1655 : Flanged automatic control valves for the process control industry (face to face
dimensions)
BS 1735 : Flanged cast iron outside-screw-and-yoke wedge gate valve, class 125, sizes 1 1/3 in
to 24 in, for the petroleum industry
BS 1868 : Specification for steel check valves (flanged and butt-welding ends) for the
petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries
BS 1873 : Specification for steel globe and globe stop and check valves (flanged and butt-
welding ends) for the petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.
BS1952 : Copper alloy valves for general purposes
BS1953 : Copper alloy check valves for general purposes.
BS1963 : Specification for pressure operated relay valves for domestic, commercial and
catering gas appliances.
BS2080 : Specification for face to face, center to face, end to end and center to end
dimensions of valves
BS2995 : Cast and forged steel wedge gate, globe, check and plug valve, screwed and
Socket welding, sizes 2 in and smaller, for the petroleum industry
BS 3464 : Cast iron wedge and double disk gate valves for general purposes
BS3808 : Cast and forged steel flanged, screwed and socket welding wedge gate valves
(compact design), sizes 2 in and smaller, for the petroleum industry
BS3948 : Cast iron parallel slide valves for general purposes
BS3952 : Cast iron butterfly valves for general purposes
BS3961 : Cast iron screw down stop valves and stop and check valves for general purposes
BS4090 : Cast iron check valves for general purposes
BS4133 : Flanged steel parallel slide valves for general purposes
BS 4460 : Steel ball valves for the petroleum industry
BS 5041 : Fire hydrant systems equipment - Specification for landing valves for wet risers
BS 5154 : Specification for copper alloy globe, globe stop and check, check and gate valves
46
PIPING ELEMENTS
47
PIPING ELEMENTS
Piping systems are for various purposes and includes Pipe, Flanges, Fittings, Bolting, Gaskets, Valves of
various types including instruments for measuring flow, pressure, temperature and Level. Piping systems
required various supports for proper installation of system rigid supports and flexible supports. Therefore, pipe
sections when joined with fittings, valves, and other mechanical equipment and properly supported by
hangers and supports are called piping.
1. Pipe
Pipe is hollow & circular cross section used for transportation of fluid and gases in various process plants, fire
water systems, drinking water systems etc… conforming to the dimensional requirements of :
Nominal Diameter (DN) : A dimensionless designator of pipe used in

metric system
Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) : A dimensionless designator of pipe in Inch

and is near to Inside Diameter (ID) of Pipe.
Pipe Thickness : Schedule represent thickness of the pipe.
Some of the Pipes used in Industry and their specifications.
PIPE
BASE MATERIAL TYPE OF PIPE SIZE RANGE APPLICATION IN INDUSTRY
SPEC./ASTM NO.
Ordinary use in gas, air, oil, water,

ASTM A53 Carbon Steel Seamless/welded 1/8” to 26”
Low Pressure steam
ASTM A106 Carbon Steel Seamless Only 1/8” to 48” High Temperature Service
High Temperature Services (e.g.
ASTM A335 Low Alloy Steel Seamless Only Custom
Super Heated Steam)
1/8” and Service requiring excellent fracture
ASTM A333 Low Alloy Steel Seamless/Welded
larger toughness at low temperatures
Low
EFW (Electric 16” and
ASTM A671 Temperature Low Temperature Services
Fusion Welded) Above
Carbon Steel
ASTM A672 Carbon Steel Moderate-temperature service
ASTM A691 Low Alloy Steel High Temperature Services
1/8” and Low to high-temperature and
ASTM A312 Stainless Steel Seamless/Welded
Larger corrosive services
Line pipe, refinery, and
API 5L Carbon Steel Seamless/welded Custom
transmissionservice
PIPE JOINING METHODS
SOCKET WELDED JOINT BUTT WELDED JOINTS THREADED JOINTS
• Socket Welded joints are used • Butt Welded joints used in • Threaded joints are used in
for small bore pipes. Large Bore Pipes. general application like Water
• Economical size range • Economical size range and Air.
normally used in Industry is ½” normally used in industry is 2” • Threaded fittings are good for
to 1½”. and above. maintenance.
• Available size range ½” to 4” • Available size range ½”&above • Economical size range
• Dim. Standard ASME B 16.11 • Dim. Standard ASME B16.9 normally used is ½” to 1½”.
• Not recommended in food and • Used in food and • Available size range ½” to 4”
Pharmaceutical Industry pharmaceutical in main • Dim. Standard ASME B
because of stagnant fluid. process lines. 16.11.
• Not preferred in high • Best joint for high pressure and • Seal welding is required over
temperature services and for radiography application. threading if used in
radiography application. (Cyclic Condition) hydrocarbon service.
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Lines Pipe & Fittings
Technical Features
Operation Temperature: -80 ~ 200
Operation Pressure: 0.6 - 6.4 MP
Pipe: Carbon Steel Seamless Ste
Flange: Fixed & Loose Flange (D
Diameter: DN 25 - 300 mm
Length: 100 - 400 mm (DN 25 - 40
150 - 500 mm (DN 50 - 150)
200 - 8000 mm (DN 200 - 300)
PTFE Bellows
Model: PTFE Bellow, with SS braided, PTFE lined Bellows
Covolution: 3, 4, 5
Operation Temperature: -80 ~ 200 ºC
Operation Pressure: 0.6 - 1.6 MPa
Flange Material : Carbon Steel
Optional : Rubber Covered for vacuum
PTFE Lined Elbows

Model: PTFE Lined 45º, 90º Elbow
Pipe: Carbon Steel Seamless Steel
Flange: Fixed & Loose Flange (DIN or ANSI Class)
PTFE Lined Tee

Model: PTFE Lined Equal Tee, Reducing Tee
Flange: Fixed & Loose Flange(DIN or ANSI Class)
PTFE Lined Reducer

Model: PTFE Lined Concentric Reducer
PTFE Lined Eccentric Reducer
Flange: Fixed & Loose Flange (DIN or ANSI Class)
Minimum liner thickness as required by ASTM F1545.

Fitting JCS Standard Liner ASTM F1545
Approximate Finish ID of Fitting
Size Thickness(+/- .005") Minimum
1" 0.125" 0.120" 0.812"
1-1/2" 0.150" 0.120" 1.262"
2" 0.165" 0.120" 1.73"
3" 0.190" 0.120" 2.68"
4" 0.220" 0.120" 3.62"
6" 0.250" 0.125" 5.56"
8" 0.280" 0.125" 7.56"
3/4" 0.120" 0.120" 0.635"
1/2" 0.120" 0.120" 0.510"
81
FRP PIPES and FITTINGS
GRP / FRP are manufactured in various sizes, pressure ratings & stiffness class for potable water, raw water,
effluent & sewerage water, desalination plants, offshore oil production, chemical & fertilizer plants, refinery –
petrochemical & petroleum plants, power plants, pharmaceuticals & formulation plants, pickling – metal
finishing & metallurty industries, dye & intermediates, pulp – paper & printing plants, textile & synthetic fibre
plants, food stuff industries and biotech & biological parks.
EXTERNAL COATING ON PIPE
Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings are well known for their anti-corrosion properties over a wide
temperature range. Their high resistance to cathodic disbondment, long-term adhesion to steel and ability to
be stored in all climatic conditions make these thermosetting coatings an environmentally safe industry
standard. Dual-layer, fusion-bonded epoxy (DFBE) coatings combine the strengths of the mono layer with a
second layer acting as mechanical protection.
Three-layer Polyolefin coatings
These coating systems combine the performance of epoxy with the mechanical protection of polyolefin, which
may be polyethylene (3LPE) or polypropylene (3LPP). A copolymer adhesive layer binds the two products.
Both coating systems have excellent adhesion properties and offer proven high resistance to impact and
cathodic disbondment. They provide optimum stability over many years and their combination with adequate
cathodic protection is guaranteed to prolong the life of the pipeline. 3LPP coating has the advantage of
providing high temperature mechanical performance during production. This mechanical strength also proves
valuable during transport, handling and the laying phase.
82
Bituminous Asphalt steel pipe coating available (Fast and least expensive)
º Coal Tar Epoxy Coating (Typically applied in two coats, 16 mil minimum)
º Multi-Coat Exterior and Interior Paint systems, Polyurethane, and Tape Wrapping also available
Bare steel pipe will eventually corrode, or rust. Since the total performance of a pipe coating system involves
the three separate processes, application to the pipe, handling and storage of the pipe, and in-ground or
above-ground service of the pipe; the functional requirements and the resistance to deterioration should be
considered when establishing your criteria for the coating properties.
Bituminous Asphalt Coating
The principal uses for asphalt coatings include internal and external application to carbon steel pipe. This
coating is black in color. When applied correctly, this fast coating process provides the cathodic protection
required for most underground structural steel pipe.
Epoxy Coating - Sprayed Application
Typical applications include heavy-duty service conditions such as chemical plants, bridge piling structures,
and pipelines. Excellent resistance to immersion in salt-water, above ground extreme temperature swings and
abrasive wear and tear.
CEMENT COATING
A mixture of cement mortar is typically used as protective interior lining of steel pipe. Applied centrifugally,
cement mortar lining provides a smooth dense finish that protects the steel pipe from tuberculation and
also affords a measure of corrosion resistance. Additionally, the smooth interior surface of cement mortar
lining provides a high flow coefficient, which is generally maintained for a long period of time.
Cement mortar-lined steel water pipe is durable, easily handled in the field, and can be repaired with
minimal difficulty.
Raw Materials
• Portland cement/Sulphur resistant cement
• Sand
• Mixing water
• Curing compound
83
BASICS OF VALVES
84
VALVES
VALVES are the manual or automatic fluid-controlling elements in a piping system. They are constructed to
withstand a specific range of temperature, pressure, corrosion, and mechanical stress
Valves have some of the following primary functions:
• Starting, stopping, and directing flow

• Regulating, controlling, or throttling flow
• Preventing backflow
• Relieving or regulating pressure
Valves are used in piping for following purposes:
• Process control during operation.

• Controlling services & utilities.
• Isolating equipment or instruments for maintenance.
• Discharging gas, vapor, liquid.
• Draining piping & equipment on shut down.
• Emergency shutdown in the event of plant mishap or fire.
SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO VALVE
01 Gate Valve
• Gate Valves are designed to operate fully open or fully

closed. Because they operate slowly they prevent fluid
hammer, which is detrimental to piping systems.
• There is very little pressure loss through a gate valve.
• In the fully closed position, gate valves provide a

positive seal under pressure.
02 Globe Valve
• Globe valves, as is the case with all valve designs,
have both advantages and disadvantages.
• Like a gate, they close slowly to prevent fluid hammer.
You can throttle the flow and they will not leak under
low pressure when they are shut off.
• Flow and pressure control valves as well as hose bibs
generally use the globe pattern.
85
SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO VALVE
• Ball Valves are also designed to be operated fully

open or fully closed with any liquid containing particles
03 Ball Valve
that could scratch the ball.
• Many people use them successfully for throttling clear
water.
• Ball valves have low pressure drops, open and close
quickly, are simple, and are trouble free.
• With the development of Teflon seals, ball valves
have grown in popularity.
• Opening or closing a ball valve too quickly can cause
fluid hammer..
Butterfly
04 • Butterfly valves, like ball valves, operate with a 1/4
Valve
turn.
• They are generally used for handling large flows of
gases or liquids, including slurries, but should not be
used for throttling for extended periods of time.
• Because of compact design Butterfly Valves are more
popular in Industry.
• Normally used above 3”Nps because ion small valves
pressure drop is more.
05 Plug Valve
• Like the gate valve, a plug valve has an unobstructed
flow, yet requires only a 90 degree turn to open it. It
also requires very little headroom.
• Stem corrosion is minimal because there are no screw
threads.
• However, plug valves are available in much larger
sizes than ball valves and are highly suitable for use
in wastewater plants.
86
SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO VALVE
Check Valve /
06 Non Return I
Valve
t is basically a directional Control Valve which
allows the flow only in one direction.
It is available in Lift type and swing type and

now a days wafer type check valve is also
becoming popular because of its low weight
and compact design
07 Needle Valve
•
• Needle valve is a type of globe valve only
with the wedge having needle shape.
• It is used for precise control of flow.
• Rest of all features are same as globe
valve.
Diaphragm
08
Valve
•
• Diaphragm valves are used whenever
either the fluid is highly corrosive or high
degree of purity is required in process e.g.
pharmaceutical and food processing
industry.
87
SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO VALVE
Flush Bottom
09
Valve
• Usually a globe type, designed to minimize

pocketing, primarily for conveniently liquid
from the low of a tank.
10 Safety Valve
• An automatic pressure relieving device

actuated by the static pressure upstream
of th valve, and characterized by rapid full
opening or pop action. It is used for steam,
gas, or vapor service.
Breather
11
Valve
• To Break vacuum at the time of draining/

pumpout condition.
• To release air at the tim of filling tank.
88
SR. TYPE OF
PHOTO APPLICATION
NO VALVE
• Is similar like Gate Valve with thin blade

used in very high viscous fluids like
Slide Gate Grease etc.
12
Knife Vale •
Three Way
13
Valve
• Multiport valve available in Ball Vale and

In Plug Valve.
Four Way
14
Valve
• Multiport valve available in Ball Vale and

In Plug Valve.
89
BASICS OF SPECIAL PARTS
90
SPECIAL PARTS
Special parts are used in piping for various purposes :
• Strainers : used for removal of solid particles from line to protect equipments.
• Steam Traps : used to remove condensate from steam line
• Bellows : used to take care of misalignment and thermal expansion of Piping.
• Sight Glasses : used to see flow inside the pipe.
• Flame Arrestor : Used to protect equipments from fire.
• Rupture Disk : used to take care of excessive internal pressure
• Hoses : Used in various application like Air, Steam, Chemical handling
TYPE OF
SR.
SPECIAL PHOTO APPLICATION
NO
PARTS
• Strainers remove suspended grit from steam and

Wye Type
01
Strainer condensate that would otherwise damage your
downstream equipments with no additional
pressure drop.
• Y-type Strainers with stainless steel screens
have 0.8 mm diameter perforations as standard.
• Y strainer works for steam, air, water, oil and gas
lines. it features a blow-off bottom cover for easy
cleaning without removing the screen and self-
aligning cylindrical screens.
• The Basket Strainer prevents costly shutdowns

and protects your piping system and equipment.
Ideal for steam, air, water, oil and gas lines, our
basket strainer removes the dirt from the system
that can damage moving equipment. Strainer
also helps maximize the life of pumps and other
Basket equipment.
02 Type
Strainer • Ruggedly constructed, it features a closed
bottom and cast iron drain plug. Stainless steel
basket for long life. Available in sizes from 2"
thru 20", body castings and strainer screens are
available in a variety of materials, perforations
and mesh linings for virtually every application.
91
TYPE OF
SR.
NO
PARTS
Tee Type
03
Strainer
• Tee strainers is a custom fabricated compound

strainer designed to remove foreign particles from
pipeline.
• Tee strainers are used where a compact accessible
strainers is needed for protection of pumps, valves
and similar equipment.
• Temporary strainers are available in various

styles (Baskets, Cones, Cone type baskets,
Temporary
04
Strainer Plate) which are designed to provide
inexpensive protection for pumps, meters, valves
and other mechanical equipments..
• Duplex Strainers are designed for applications

where flow cannot be shut down to service the
strainer screen.
• Change over is accomplished by use of butterfly
valves. This arrangement provides a bubble-tight
Duplex
05 shut off between basket chambers, essential for
Strainer
use in negative head pump suction systems.
• They are very economical because they are
fabricated to your specific requirements and with
any type of valves.
92
TYPE OF
SR.
NO
PARTS
• The thermodynamic trap is an extremely

robust steam trap with a simple mode of
Thermodyna operation.
06 mic Steam • The trap operates by means of the
Trap dynamic effect of flash steam as it passes
through the trap, as depicted in Figure.
• The only moving part is the disc above the
flat face inside the control chamber or cap.
On start-up, incoming pressure raises the
disc, and cool condensate plus air is
immediately discharged from the inner
ring, under the disc, and out through three
peripheral outlets
• The inverted bucket steam trap as its

name implies, the mechanism consists of
an inverted bucket which is attached by a
lever to a valve.
• An essential part of the trap is the small air
vent hole in the top of the bucket.
• bucket hangs down, pulling the valve off
its seat. Condensate flows under the
Inverted bottom of the bucket filling the body and
07 Bucket Type
Steam Trap
flowing away through the outlet.
• the arrival of steam causes the bucket to
become buoyant, it then rises and shuts
the outlet. In
• the trap remains shut until the steam in the
bucket has condensed or bubbled through
the vent hole to the top of the trap body. It
will then sink, pulling the main valve off its
seat. Accumulated condensate is released
and the cycle is repeated
• The ball float type trap operates by

sensing the difference in density between
steam and condensate.
• In the case of the trap condensate
reaching the trap will cause the ball float to
rise, lifting the valve off its seat and
releasing condensate.
Ball Float • As can be seen, the valve is always
08 Type Steam flooded and neither steam nor air will pass
Trap through it, so early traps of this kind were
vented using a manually operated cock at
the top of the body.
• Modern traps use a thermostatic air vent,
This allows the initial air to pass whilst the
trap is also handling condensate.
93
TYPE OF
SR.
NO
PARTS
• A FLAME ARRESTOR is a device which

allows gas to pass through it but stops a
flame in order to prevent a larger fire or
explosion.
• There is an enormous variety of
situations in which flame arrestors are
applied.
Flame
09
Arrestor
• Anyone involved in selecting flame
arrestors needs to understand how these
products work and their performance
limitations. For that purpose, this paper
provides an introduction to the
technology and terminology of flame
arrestors and the types of products
available
• An expansion joint is a device used to

allow movement in a piping system while
containing pressure and the medium
running through it.
•
Expansion
10 Joints –
Frequently, thermal growth, equipment
Bellows movement, vibration or pressure
pulsation can cause movement in a
piping system. When flexibility for this
movement cannot be designed into the
piping system itself, an expansion joint is
the ideal solution
11 Hoses
• Used in various application like Air,

Steam, Chemical handling etc…
94
TYPE OF
SR.
NO
PARTS
• One type of Safety Device used to take

12 Rupture Disk
care of Internal pressure.
Sight Flow
13
Indicators
• Used in Piping to see internal fluid Flow.
Spectacle • Used in Piping for Positive Isolation

Blinds and
14
Spacer and
Blank.
95
INSTRUMENTS
96
01. PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
The bourdon tube pressure instrument is one of the oldest pressure sensing instruments in use today. The
bourdon tube consists of a thin-walled tube that is flattened diametrically on opposite sides to produce a
cross-sectional area elliptical in shape, having two long flat sides and two short round sides. The tube is bent
lengthwise into an arc of a circle of 270 to 300 degrees. Pressure applied to the inside of the tube causes
distention of the flat sections and tends to restore its original round cross-section. This change in cross-
section causes the tube to straighten slightly.
Since the tube is permanently fastened at one end, the tip of the tube traces a curve that is the result of the
change in angular position with respect to the center. Within limits, the movement of the tip of the tube can
then be used to position a pointer or to develop an equivalent electrical signal (which is discussed later in the
text) to indicate the valve of the applied internal pressure
A) DIAPHRAGM TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE
Diaphragm Type Pressure Gauges
The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge is a hygienic pressure

measurement device for the direct indication of pressure. The
gauges are available in a wide range of pressures to suit most
process applications. All are dual calibrated in bar and p.s.i. and are available with a comprehensive range of
pipeline connections. Pressure ranges and end connections other than shown can be supplied to order.
The gauge case is stainless (grade 304) fitted with acrylic plastic front window for safety requirements. Each
case is fitted with a safety venting device which relieves any pressure inside the case. Where damping of the
gauge mechanics is required (perhaps because of undue pipeline vibration) the case may be filled with
glycerine, otherwise it will be supplied unfilled. A damping fluid may be added in situ at any time during the
gauge life. All product contact surface are stainless steel (grade 316) and the pressure system is filled with a
medium which satisfies the Materials and Articles in Contact with Food Regulations 1978.
Gauge accuracy complies with the requirements of BSEN837·1.
97
B) SYPHONE TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE
Used in very high temperature services, Viscous fluids and to take care of pulsation.
02. LEVEL GAUGE
A) MAGNETIC TYPE
• The level indicators find application wherever liquid is stored in tanks and vessels where it is important
to locally, or remotely, see the level of the contents
• The level indicators are principally constructed of 316 stainless steel wetted parts, although for some
corrosive liquids Control Components offer to construct them of ABS, Polypropylene, PVC, PVDF and
even fibreglass reinforced plastic
• The most common liquid applications are diesel, hydrocarbons, water, various acids and alkalis,
refrigerants and sundry chemicals
• Magnetic Level Indicators require no power to operate and effectively are totally maintenance free
• They are easily read from 10's of metres distant.
98
B) GLASS TUBE TYPE
FLOAT TYPE
99
C) TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS
100
D) FLOW INSTRUMENTS
Gas
Differential-
Attribute Variable-area Coriolis mass- Turbine Oval Gear
Pressure
flow
Clean gases yes yes yes yes yes —
Clean Liquids yes yes — yes yes yes
yes, >10
Viscous yes (special yes (special
yes — no centistokes
Liquids calibration) calibration)
(cst)
Corrosive
yes yes — no yes yes
Liquids
0.05- 1.5%
2-4% full 2-3% full- 0.25-1% of 0.1-0.5% of
Accuracy, ± 0.15% of full
scale scale reading reading
reading scale
0.05- 0.5%
Repeatability, 0.25% full 1% full- 0.1% of 0.1% of
0.10% of full
± scale scale reading reading
reading scale
Max pressure, 900 and 500
200 and up 100 5,000 and up 4,000 and up
psi up and up
250 and 150
Max temp., °F 250 and up 122 300 and up 175 and up
up and up
Pressure drop medium low low medium medium medium
A) ROTAMETER
Rotameters are simple industrial flow meters that measure the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube.
Rotameters are popular because they have linear scales, a relatively large measurement range, low pressure
drop, and are simple to install and maintain. Rotameters are a subset of meters called variable area flow
meters that measure the flow rate by allowing the fluid to travel through a tapered tube where the cross
sectional area of the tube gradually becomes greater as the fluid travels through the tube. The flow rate
inside the rotameter is measured using a float that is lifted by the fluid flow based on the buoyancy and
velocity of the fluid opposing gravity pulling the float down. For gasses the float responds to the velocity
alone, buoyancy is negligible.
The float moves up and down inside the rotameter’s tapered tube
proportionally to the flow rate of the fluid. It reaches a constant
position once the fluid and gravitational forces have equalized.
Changes in the flow rate cause rotameter’s float to change
position inside the tube. Since the float position is based on
gravity it is important that all rotameters be mounted vertically and
oriented with the widest end of the taper at the top. It is also
important to remember that if there is no flow the float will sink to
the bottom of the rotameter due to it’s own weight.
101
B) ULTRA SONIC FLOW METER
Ultrasonic flow meters are flow meters that use sound to determine flow rate. A few ultrasonic flow meter
varieties include Doppler Effect flow meters and time-of-flight flow meters. An ultrasonic flow meter is a
volumetric flow meter which requires particulates or bubbles in the flow. Ultrasonic flow meters are available in
both single and dual-sensor versions. The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift (Doppler
Effect) of an ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by discontinuities, in the form of suspended particles or
bubbles, in motion. Ultrasonic sound is transmitted into a pipe with flowing liquids, and the discontinuities
reflect the ultrasonic wave with a slightly different frequency that is directly proportional to the rate of flow of
the liquid. This process allows the meter to get an accurate measure of the liquid’s flow rate.
Ultrasonic flow meters are ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquids that are conductive or water-
based. Ultrasonic flow meters are also ideal in situations where low pressure drop, chemical compatibility, and
low maintenance are required. However, ultrasonic flow meters will generally not work with distilled water or
drinking water. Important considerations to keep in mind while choosing an ultrasonic flow meter include the
size of the pipe, the minimum/maximum flow rate required, and the minimum/maximum process temperature
and pressure needed. Also, determining whether a handheld or continuous process monitor is needed is also
important. The addition of an analog output is another possible consideration.
102
C) WATER FLOW METERS
D) TURBINE FLOW METERS
The dual rotor turbine flow meter is the pinnacle of turbine flow measurement technology. This revolutionary
patented design has allowed the use of a single turbine meter where two or more meters were once required
due to a wide flow range. This results in a less complicated flow system at a reduced cost. Standard single
rotor turbine meters have a stated 100:1 repeatable flow range. This turndown is only correct if the flow meter
is used on a single fluid at a constant temperature, resulting in a stable viscosity. Real-world applications
rarely lend themselves to stable temperature, single viscosity applications. If a single rotor turbine meter is
used across a varying viscosity single fluid, the turndown range is approximately 20:1.
103
E) PITOT TUBE
The basic instrument consists of two coaxial tubes: the interior tube is open to the flow (i.e.
perpendicular), while the exterior tube is open at ninety degrees to the flow (i.e. parallel). A
manometer can be used to measure the difference between these two pressures and using
Bernoulli's equation the flow rate of the fluid can be calculated.
The exterior tube, with an opening parallel to the flow, will register the Static Pressure. The interior
tube, with an opening perpendicular to the flow, will register the Stagnation Pressure. Stagnation
pressure is made up of Static Pressure plus Dynamic Pressure (caused by the force of the fluid
flowing into the tube interior). By measuring the pressure difference between the Static Pressure
(exterior tube) and the Stagnation pressure (interior tube) allows the velocity of the fluid flow to be
determined.
F) ORIFICE
Orifice Plate - An orifice plate helps measures flow through the differences in pressure from the upstream
side to the downstream side of a partially obstructed pipe. The plate offers a precisely measured obstruction
that narrows the pipe and forces the flowing substance to constrict. A DP cell allows the comparison of the
pressure on the upstream (unobstructed) side and the downstream (constricted) side.
The greater the flow, the greater the difference in pressure as the substance maintains its constricted state for
a longer distance, passing the downstream element. Different kinds of orifice plates include concentric,
eccentric, and segmental, each of which has different shapes and placements for measuring different
processes. Orifice plates are in common use in many installations
104
G) VENTURY METER
The venturi tube is the most accurate flow-sensing element when properly calibrated. The venturi tube has a
converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat, and a diverging recovery cone. It has no projections into the fluid,
no sharp corners, and no sudden changes in contour.
The inlet section decreases the area of the fluid stream, causing the velocity to increase and the pressure to
decrease. The low pressure is measured in the center of the cylindrical throat since the pressure will be at its
lowest value, and neither the pressure nor the velocity is changing. The recovery cone allows for the recovery
of pressure such that total pressure loss is only 10% to 25%. The high pressure is measured upstream of the
entrance cone. The major disadvantages of this type of flow detection are the high initial costs for installation
and difficulty in installation and inspection.
H) MASS FLOW METER
Mass flowmeters are one of the most popular gas-measurement technologies in use today. Most thermal
mass flowmeters for gases are based on the following design principles, a gas stream moves into the
flowmeter chamber and is immediately split into two distinct flow paths. Most of the gas will go through a
bypass tube, but a fraction of it goes through a special capillary sensor tube, which contains two temperature
coils.
Heat flux is introduced at two sections of the capillary tube by means of these two wound coils. When gas
flows through the device, it carries heat from the coils upstream to the coils downstream. The resulting
temperature differerential creates a proportional resistance change in the sensor windings.
Special circuits, known as Wheatstone bridges, are used to monitor the instantaneous resistance of each of
the sensor windings. The resistance change, created by the temperature differential, is amplified and
calibrated to give a digital readout of the flow.
105
HEAT TRACING
Heat Tracing is used to prevent heat loss from the process fluid that is being transported thru Pipes, when
there is a chances of solidification, separation of components, formation of corrosive substances, water
condensation. This prevention of heat losses is accomplished by employing electrical tracing or steam tracing.
Insulation is provided above the tracer for minimizing heat losses.
A) STEAM TRACING
Steam Tracing is most commonly used almost in all the

plants to minimize viscosity of the fluids which is
required for ease of fluid transportation through pipes.
Steam tracer is a copper of CS or SS tubes or small
pipes clamped with the Main Pipe and insulated
properly to minimize heat losses. Steam is passed thru
tracer and that heat is absorbed by the fluid which is in
main pipe. This is more economical than jacket.
Steam Tracer may be One or More depending as per

the pipe size and as per the process requirement.
Number of 1/2" (15 mm) Steam Tracers

Frost protection, the Keeping process media Keeping process media
Product Line Size (inch) temperature in the process fluid, temperatures below fluid, temperatures below
o o o o o o
lines are below 75 F (25 C) 150 F (65 C) 300 F (150 C)
1 1 1 1
1 1/2 1 1 2
2 1 1 2
3 1 1 3
4 1 2 3
6 2 2 3
8 2 2 3
12 2 3 6
16 2 3 8
20 2 3 10
106
107
B) ELECTRIC TRACING
Electric Tracing is similar like Steam Tracing only thing is instead of steam tracer heating cable is attached to
the Pipe which is carrying Process Fluid. It is described by attaching a cable that is transmitting constant
wattage to the process fluid pipe. The system is monitored by a microprocessor based control units which
permits on-off heat tracing control with numerous capabilities. It is also provides the heating and temperature
of cables. The heat cable and the pipe both are insulated. Electric heat tracing is less work labor than steam
tracing but there are very few risks associated with it.
The number of tracers depends on the size of pipe and the product temperature in the process line. The
surrounding temperature and the insulation efficiency also have influence.
108
C) JACKETED PIPING
Jacket is used on Piping to maintain temperature of the fluid which is flowing through process Pipes. Jacket
Pie is normally one size higher than the core process Pipes. Incase of tow different materials like SS and CS
thermal expansion is different and its very difficult to make line flexible to take care of thermal expansion.
Special precaution should be taken like expansion bellows in jacket in such cases.
109
D) INSULATIONS
1. Insulated piping systems shall have straight pipe, bends, tees and pipefitting completely insulated.
2. All valves and flanged joints shall be completely insulated only in steam, condensate service, hot oil
lines and in lines which are trace heated or jacketed to maintain temperatures.
3. For bucket and float type traps the inlet piping and trap shall be insulated.
4. Insulation on inlet piping to thermostatic and thermodynamic steam traps shall terminate at
approximately 500 mm before the trap.
5. Steam trap outlet piping other than closed condensate recovery system shall not be insulated except
for personnel protection reasons.
6. Instrumentation to be insulated, such as level gages, level controllers, level switches, dp cells, shall
have their fluid containing sections and the associated piping completely insulated, including pipes,
valves and fittings.
7. Insulation shall be designed to provide an absolute minimum clearance of 25 mm between the outside
surface of any insulation finishing material and adjacent surfaces.
8. Where insulated horizontal piping is supported on steel shoes, the height of the shoe shall be such
that the underside of the insulation finishing material is clear of the supporting structures upon which
the shoe rests by 25mm minimum.
9. Insulation shall not be applied to the following unless otherwise specified.
• Piping which becomes hot intermittently, such as relief valves, vents, steam-out and snuffing
steam systems, flare and blowdown systems.
• Supports for piping, excluding pipe hangers to the extent covered by insulation.
• Steam Traps.
• Valves, including control valves and flanges in process piping systems. However, personnel
protection insulation for these items shall be applied, as required.
• Pipe Union fittings.
• Thermowell bosses and pressure tappings.
• Expansion joints, hinged joints and hose assemblies.
• Sight flow indicators.
10 Valves and flanges in services below 3000C are usually not insulated unless other requirements are
overruling.
11 Flanges for hydrogen service shall never be insulated.
12 Flanges in services of 3000C and above which are not insulated, e.g. hydrogen services and
equipment nozzles shall be provided with a weather protection cover.
13 Steam traps and the downstream lines of them shall not be insulated, except when heat of the drain is
to be recovered.
110
MATERIALS
General
All insulation, fixing, sealing & weatherproofing materials shall be new undamaged and of good
quality and appearance. They shall be of a normally available commercial grade.
Insulation material shall be chemically inert of low chloride content, non-sulphurous, non-
hygroscopic, impervious to hot water and steam, rot, fungus and vermin proof. It shall be non-
injurious to health and shall not exert a corrosive effect on the surfaces to be insulated and on the
finishing materials even if soaked in water at ambient temperatures for extended periods. It shall
be unaffected by acidic & saline atmospheric conditions.
Insulation and finishing materials shall not contain ASBESTOS in any form.
All insulation materials and accessories shall conform to local health and safety regulations.
Contractor shall determine applicability of regulatory requirements prior to use.
Insulation support lugs or other support attachments shall not be field welded without written
authorisation.
Insulation material for equipment shall comply with ASTM C547 Type II and III for preformed pipe
section. Mineral fibre blanket shall conform to ASTM C 592 Type II.
Insulation or jacketing material used shall not be backed with any flammable material.
Insulation Materials
Rock wool / Mineral wool (Warning: This specification shall not be used above 5500C)
• The material shall be lightly resin bonded; processed into long fibres from molten state and
suitable for the intended operational temperature range from 550C to 5500C. Fibres shall be of
high tensile strength, tough, non-hygroscopic & of diameter varying between 3 & 5 microns.
There shall be no settling of fibres over an extended period of use or under vibration.
• Glasswool / Slagwool shall not be used.
• Only machine made & machine stitched mattresses having uniform density & thickness shall be
used.
• Performed Snap-On rigid pipe sections conforming to ASTM C 547 Type II and Type III shall be
used for size upto 350 NB. The density for design purpose shall be taken as 192 kg/m3 (vendor to
confirm).
• Properties & specifications
APPLICATION
The application methods given in this standard are general in nature. The contractor is responsible for
applying an insulation system that will give or satisfactory operational performance & the requirements
given herein shall be regarded as the acceptable minimum. The contractor shall carryout the work in
accordance with the best practice of insulation application, with minimum of waste & debris and the
final job shall have a neat & workmanlike appearance.
For fibrous material (Mineral wool)
Surface preparation
Prior to installing insulation/heat transfer putty, the contractor must remove all oil and dirt from the
surfaces to be insulated. Any occurrence of rust must be removed through wire brushing.
111
Single Layer Insulation
• Single layer Insulation shall be used up to 75mm thickness. For insulation, thickness over 75 mm,
the insulation shall be applied in multiple layers.
• Lightly resin bonded mineral wool mattresses shall be machine made, machine stitched at shop
(to a suitable size) and shall have galvanised wire netting on one side.
• The stitched mattresses shall be wrapped over the surface to be insulated and ends knitted with
GI wire or wire hooks. The successive mattresses shall be applied over the surface such that the
joints are staggered and also the gap between the joints is kept as small as possible.
• The mounted mattresses shall be held in position by metal bands.
• Finally the insulation shall be covered by metal weatherproofing of galvanized steel sheets. The
type and thickness of galvanized steel sheets shall be as per 5.1.
• Metal weatherproofing shall be provided over the insulation with an overlap of 50mm (minimum)
at all lap joints.
• All the overlap joints shall be sealed and secured with self tapping screws.
• Metal weatherproofing applied to irregular surfaces shall be shaped to fit the contour of insulation.
Double or Multilayer Insulation
• The first layer shall be applied in the same manner as for single layer insulation.
• After the installation of first layer, the second layer of stitched mattresses with joints staggered
shall be placed and ends knitted together. Care has to be taken that there are minimum gaps.
The second layer shall be held in position on the previous layer by metal bands. This has to be
continued (application of successive layers) till required thickness is achieved.
• Over the final layer of insulation weather protection of galvanized steel sheet shall be provided.
Pipes Bends, Elbows, Fittings, Flanges
Elbows, Bends and fittings:
The insulation to be built up on elbows and all other fittings shall be the same as for adjoining pipe.
Machine stitched mattresses from resin bonded mineral wool in suitable sizes shall be fitted properly
around the pipe fittings. These then will be held in position by tie wire and steel bands, one at the
centre and one at each end. Finally weather protection of galvanized steel sheets shall be provided
as described in 5.1.
Flanges
At flanges in pipelines, the normal run insulation shall be terminated such that the gap between the
flanges and insulation is equal to length of bolt plus 20mm. So that the flange can be disconnected
without damaging the insulation.
The gap shall be packed with loose mineral wool and then the flange shall be insulated with resin
bonded machine stitched mattresses of same thickness as the adjoining pipe and held in position by
tie wire and metal bands. Finally, weather protection of galvanized steel sheets shall be provided. The
insulation of flange shall form a box structure (removable type).
112
HEAT CONSERVATION INSULATION THICKNESS
INSULATION MATERIAL : RESIN BONDED MINERAL WOOL
OPERATING TEMPERATURE (0 C)
60 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Pipe Ð INSULATION THICKNESS (mm)
Size, in
½” NB 25 25 30 50 60 80 90 100 110 120 120
¾” NB 25 25 30 50 60 80 90 100 110 120 120
1” NB 25 25 30 50 60 90 90 100 110 120 140
1¼” NB 25 25 30 50 60 90 100 110 120 140 140
1½” NB 25 25 40 50 70 90 100 110 120 140 140
2” NB 25 25 40 50 70 90 100 120 140 140 160
2½” NB 25 25 40 60 80 100 120 140 140 160 160
3” NB 25 25 40 60 80 100 120 140 140 160 160
4” NB 25 25 40 60 80 110 120 140 160 160 180
5” NB 25 30 40 60 90 110 140 140 160 180 200
6” NB 25 30 40 60 90 110 140 140 160 180 200
8” NB 25 30 50 70 100 120 140 160 180 180 200
10” NB 25 30 50 70 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
12” NB 25 30 50 80 100 140 160 160 180 200 220
14” NB 25 30 50 80 100 140 160 180 180 200 220
16” NB 25 30 50 80 100 140 160 180 200 200 220
18” NB 25 30 50 80 100 140 160 180 200 220 240
20” NB 25 30 50 80 100 140 160 180 200 220 240
24” NB 25 30 50 80 100 140 160 180 200 220 240
Flat 25 30 50 80 100 140 160 180 200 220 240
surface
PERSONNEL PROTECTION INSULATION THICKNESS
INSULATION MATERIAL: RESIN BONDED MINERAL WOOL
OPERATING TEMPERATURE (0 C)
80 94 159 to 205 to 261 to 317 to 372 to 428 to 483

to to 149 204 260 316 371 427 482 to
93 530
Pipe Ð INSULATION THICKNESS (mm)
Size, in
1” NB 25 25 25 25 25 40 40 50 50
1½” NB 25 25 25 25 40 40 50 50 65
2” NB 25 25 25 25 40 40 50 50 65
3” NB 25 25 25 25 40 40 50 65 65
4” NB 25 25 25 25 40 40 50 65 65
6” NB 25 25 25 25 40 50 50 65 80
8” NB 25 25 25 25 40 50 50 65 80
10” NB 25 25 25 40 40 50 65 80 95
12” NB 25 25 25 40 40 50 65 80 95
14” NB 25 25 25 40 40 50 65 80 95
16” NB 25 25 25 40 40 50 65 80 95
18” NB 25 25 25 40 40 50 65 80 95
20” NB 25 25 25 40 40 50 65 80 95
22” NB 25 25 25 40 50 50 80 95 95
24” NB 40 40 40 40 50 65 80 95 100
Flat 40 40 40 40 50 65 80 95 100
surface
113
PROCESS EQUIPMENT PIPING
114
In various process plant equipments are used for various purposes like Separation, Storage, Mixing, Heat
exchange etc…and most of the orientations are vertical cylindrical vessels and horizontal cylindrical vessels
hence supporting arrangement is similar for almost all equipments like lug support, leg support or skirt
supports for vertical vessels and saddle supports for horizontal vessels. Supports selections is different for
different vessels e,g. tall vertical vessels skirt supports are preffered. Some of the vessel details are as
follows.
1. Pumps
A) Centrifugal pumps : differ from rotary pumps in that they rely on kinetic energy rather than mechanical
means to move liquid. Liquid enters the pump at the center of a rotating impeller and gains energy as it
moves to the outer diameter of the impeller. Liquid is forced out of the pump by the energy it obtains from the
rotating impeller. Centrifugal pumps can transfer large volumes of liquid but efficiency and flow decrease
rapidly as pressure and/or viscosity increases.
A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the velocity of a fluid.
Centrifugal pumps are commonly used to move liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump
impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward into a
diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are used
for large discharge through smaller heads
Some of the models of centrifugal Pumps
i) Horizontal Centrifugal Pump

horizontal centrifugal pumps which are simple in operation and this is why find applications in industries like
chemical, petrochemicals, refineries, fertilizers, and many more. Following are the essential features of the
horizontal centrifugal pumps:
Capacity: horizontal centrifugal pumps covers a range of capacities extending to 700 M.cu/hr. at 1450 rpm,
and 300M.cu/hr_ at 2900 rpm. Head range up to 145 mtrs. Its design pressures are 25 bars and process
temperatures extend from -40°C to +300°C, depending on the material of construction & are also
manufactured as per the client’s requirement.
Materials: All parts that come into contact with the liquid can be made up of cast iron, ductile iron, rubber
lined, cast steel, bronze, Ni-Resist, Ni-Cast iron, Stainless steel, Hastally-C, Hastally-B and other Alloy grades
as per operating conditions.
Design features: centrifugal process pumps are of single stage, horizontal end suction type, with semi open
impellers. The semi open impellers are used where liquids, containing solids, or have a tendency to
polymerize or crystallize. A special feature is easy of maintenance due to the foot mounted volute casing
which permits removal of the rotating assembly without disturbance of pipe connections. The casing assembly
hydrostatic test is for minimum of 1.5 times the shut-off pressure. Various additional non-destructive testing
procedures are also carried out as standard practice on all pump parts.
115
PIPING AROUND PUMP
Data Gathering
• Plot plan, Piping and Instrumentation

diagram, Pump Vendor drawing,
References and practices
Standards (supports, dimension),
Specification
Layout execution work flow, Pump

arrangement
• Pump spacing, Pump foundation height &

size, Pump maintenance / inspection
space
Line flow around pump, piping

arrangement
a. Suction Piping including Straight run,

Reducer, Drain, Strainer, Valve, support
b. Discharge Piping including Reducer, Discharge valve, Check valve, Drain, Support
c. Auxiliary piping
Pump cooling piping, Vent and Drain piping, Mechanical seal piping
116
ii) Vertical Centrifugal Pump
These series pumps have the features, such as compact structure, stable
running, no leakage, convenient service and flow range of 1.5-1500m3/h,
and a head range of 8-150m.
Per the different fluid media and temperatures, pumps can be used in hot-
water, chemicals, oil etc, These pumps can be widely used in households,
construction, water supply and drainage, irrigation works.
It can pump chemicals and normal water. most common vertical centrifugal
pump has simple structure and wild specifications with good efficiency and
is most cheap in the relevant series.
Capacity: 1 to 1500m3/h, head: 10 to 300m
iii) Horizontal Split casing type Centrifugal Pump.
The feature of these pump series are Compact Design, High Efficiency &
Steady Performance, High Floe and Medium Pressure etc…
These pumps can be used in Water application like cooling tower where
very high flow rate is required, Water circulation in Air Conditioning
System, Water supply for Industry and Buildings, Irrigation and Drainage
pumping station, Power Station etc.
Some of the Technical Features : Flow 65 to 11,600cbm/hr, Head : 7 to
200M, Medium Temperature – 20 to 105Deg.C, Op. Pressure : Max. 25
bar.
iv) Multi Stage Centrifugal Pump

A centrifugal pump containing two or more impellers is called a
multistage centrifugal pump. The impellers may be mounted on
the same shaft or on different shafts. A multistage centrifugal
pump has the following two important functions:
• To produce a high head, and

• To discharge a large quantity of liquid.
If a high head is to be developed then the impellers are mounted

on same shaft (series) while for large quantity of discharge of
liquid, the impellers are mounted on different shafts (parallel).
v) Multi Stage Pipe Line Centrifugal Pump
Multi Stage Pipe Line centrifugal pump is used in liquid like water and used in Pipe line for
circulation and for boosting for high pressure running system, and is a excellent hydraulic
model with light weight and with high efficiency energy saving pipe line pump.
Technical data: Flow: 1. 4 - 186m3/h, Head: 25 - 186m, Medium temperature: -15 ~ 120oC
Operation pressure: ≤25bar, Diameter: 25 - 150mm
117
B) Positive Displacement Pumps
i) Internal Gear Pump
Internal gear pumps are exceptionally versatile. While they are often used on thin
liquids such as solvents and fuel oil, they excel at efficiently pumping thick liquids such
as asphalt, chocolate, and adhesives. The useful viscosity range of an internal gear
pump is from 1cPs to over 1,000,000cP.
In addition to their wide viscosity range, the pump has a wide temperature range as
well, handling liquids up to 750°F / 400°C. This is due to the single point of end
clearance (the distance between the ends of the rotor gear teeth and the head of the
pump). This clearance is adjustable to accommodate high temperature, maximize
efficiency for handling high viscosity liquids, and to accommodate for wear.
The internal gear pump is non-pulsing, self-priming, and can run dry for short periods.
They're also bi-rotational, meaning that the same pump can be used to load and
unload vessels. Because internal gear pumps have only two moving parts, they are
reliable, simple to operate, and easy to maintain.
How Internal Gear Pumps Work
• Liquid enters the suction port between the

rotor (large exterior gear) and idler (small
interior gear) teeth. The arrows indicate the
direction of the pump and liquid.
• Liquid travels through the pump between
the teeth of the "gear-within-a-gear" principle. The crescent shape divides the liquid and acts as a seal
between the suction and discharge ports.
• The pump head is now nearly flooded, just prior to forcing the liquid out of the discharge port.
Intermeshing gears of the idler and rotor form locked pockets for the liquid which assures volume
control.
• Rotor and idler teeth mesh completely to form a seal equidistant from the discharge and suction ports.
This seal forces the liquid out of the discharge port.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Only two moving parts
• Only one stuffing box • Usually requires moderate speeds
• Non-pulsating discharge • Medium pressure limitations
• Excellent for high-viscosity liquids • One bearing runs in the product pumped
• Constant and even discharge regardless of • Overhung load on shaft bearing
pressure conditions
• Operates well in either direction
• Can be made to operate with one direction of
flow with either rotation
• Low NPSH required
• Single adjustable end clearance
• Easy to maintain
• Flexible design offers application
customization
Applications: Common internal gear pump applications include, but are not limited to:
• All varieties of fuel oil and lube oil

• Resins and Polymers
• Alcohols and solvents
• Asphalt, Bitumen, and Tar
• Polyurethane foam (Isocyanate and polyol)
• Food products such as corn syrup, chocolate, and peanut butter
• Paint, inks, and pigments
• Soaps and surfactants
• Glycol
118
Materials Of Construction / Configuration Options
• Externals (head, casing, bracket) - Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, stainless steel, Alloy 20, and higher
alloys.
• Internals (rotor, idler) - Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, stainless steel, Alloy 20, and higher alloys.
• Bushing - Carbon graphite, bronze, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, ceramic, colomony, and other
specials materials as needed.
• Shaft Seal - Lip seals, component mechanical seals, industry-standard cartridge mechanical seals, gas
barrier seals, magnetically-driven pumps.
• Packing - Impregnated packing, if seal not required.
ii) External Gear Pump
External gear pumps are a popular pumping principle and are often used as lubrication pumps in machine
tools, in fluid power transfer units, and as oil pumps in engines.
External gear pumps can come in single or double (two sets of gears) pump
configurations with spur (shown), helical, and herringbone gears. Helical
and herringbone gears typically offer a smoother flow than spur gears,
although all gear types are relatively smooth. Large-capacity external gear
pumps typically use helical or herringbone gears. Small external gear
pumps usually operate at 1750 or 3450 rpm and larger models operate at
speeds up to 640 rpm. External gear pumps have close tolerances and
shaft support on both sides of the gears. This allows them to run to
pressures beyond 3,000 PSI / 200 BAR, making them well suited for use in
hydraulics. With four bearings in the liquid and tight tolerances, they are
not well suited to handling abrasive or extreme high temperature
applications.
Tighter internal clearances provide for a more reliable measure of liquid passing through a pump and for
greater flow control. Because of this, external gear pumps are popular for precise transfer and metering
applications involving polymers, fuels, and chemical additives.
How External Gear Pumps Work
External gear pumps are similar in pumping

action to internal gear pumps in that two gears
come into and out of mesh to produce flow.
However, the external gear pump uses two
identical gears rotating against each other --
one gear is driven by a motor and it in turn
drives the other gear. Each gear is supported
by a shaft with bearings on both sides of the
gear.
• As the gears come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows
into the cavity and is trapped by the gear teeth as they rotate.
• Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the teeth and the casing -- it does
not pass between the gears.
• Finally, the meshing of the gears forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure. Because the gears
are supported on both sides, external gear pumps are quiet-running and are routinely used for high-
pressure applications such as hydraulic applications. With no overhung bearing loads, the rotor shaft can't
deflect and cause premature wear.
High speed Four bushings in liquid area
High pressure No solids allowed
No overhung bearing loads Fixed End Clearances
Relatively quiet operation
Design accommodates wide variety of
materials
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Applications
Common external gear pump applications include, but are not limited to:
• Various fuel oils and lube oils
• Chemical additive and polymer metering
• Chemical mixing and blending (double pump)
• Industrial and mobile hydraulic applications (log splitters, lifts, etc.)
• Acids and caustic (stainless steel or composite construction)
• Low volume transfer or application
As the following list indicates, rotary pumps can be constructed in a wide

variety of materials. By precisely matching the materials of construction
with the liquid, superior life cycle performance will result.
External gear pumps in particular can be engineered to handle even the

most aggressive corrosive liquids. While external gear pumps are
commonly found in cast iron, newer materials are allowing these pumps
to handle liquids such as sulfuric acid, sodium hypochlorite, ferric
chloride, sodium hydroxide, and hundreds of other corrosive liquids.
A composite external gear pump
• Externals (head, casing, bracket) - Iron, ductile iron, steel, performs well in corrosive liquid
applications.
stainless steel, high alloys, composites (PPS, ETFE)
• Internals (shafts) - Steel, stainless steel, high alloys, alumina ceramic
• Internals (gears) - Steel, stainless steel, PTFE, composite (PPS)
• Bushing - Carbon, bronze, silicon carbide, needle bearings
• Shaft Seal - Packing, lip seal, component mechanical seal, magnetically-driven pump
iii) Lobe Pump
Lobe pumps are used in a variety of industries including, pulp and paper,
chemical, food, beverage, pharmaceutical, and biotechnology. They are
popular in these diverse industries because they offer superb sanitary
qualities, high efficiency, reliability, corrosion resistance, and good clean-in-
place and sterilize-in-place (CIP/SIP) characteristics.
These pumps offer a variety of lobe options including single, bi-wing, tri-lobe
(shown), and multi-lobe. Rotary lobe pumps are non-contacting and have
large pumping chambers, allowing them to handle solids such as cherries or
olives without damage. They are also used to handle slurries, pastes, and a
wide variety of other liquids. If wetted, they offer self-priming performance.
A gentle pumping action minimizes product degradation. They also offer reversible flows and can operate dry
for long periods of time. Flow is relatively independent of changes in process pressure, so output is constant
and continuous.
Rotary lobe pumps range from industrial designs to sanitary designs. The
sanitary designs break down further depending on the service and specific
sanitary requirements. These requirements include 3-A, EHEDG, and
USDA. The manufacturer can tell you which certifications, if any, their
rotary lobe pump meets.
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How Lobe Pumps Work
Lobe pumps are similar to external gear pumps in operation in that fluid flows around the interior of the
casing. Unlike external gear pumps, however, the lobes do not make contact. Lobe contact is prevented by
external timing gears located in the gearbox. Pump shaft support bearings are located in the gearbox, and
since the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is limited by bearing location and shaft deflection.
As the lobes come out of mesh, they

create expanding volume on the inlet
side of the pump. Liquid flows into
the cavity and is trapped by the
lobes as they rotate.
• Liquid travels around the

interior of the casing in the
pockets between the lobes and the casing -- it does not pass between the lobes.
• Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.
Lobe pumps are frequently used in food applications because they handle solids without damaging the
product. Particle size pumped can be much larger in lobe pumps than in other PD types. Since the lobes do
not make contact, and clearances are not as close as in other PD pumps, this design handles low viscosity
liquids with diminished performance. Loading characteristics are not as good as other designs, and suction
ability is low. High-viscosity liquids require reduced speeds to achieve satisfactory performance. Reductions
of 25% of rated speed and lower are common with high-viscosity liquids.
• Pass medium solids • Requires timing gears

• No metal-to-metal contact • Requires two seals
• Superior CIP/SIP capabilities • Reduced lift with thin liquids
• Long term dry run (with lubrication to
seals)
• Non-pulsating discharge
Applications
Common rotary lobe pump applications include, but are not limited to:
• Polymers
• Paper coatings
• Soaps and surfactants
• Paints and dyes
• Rubber and adhesives
• Pharmaceuticals
• Food applications (a sample of these is referenced below)
• Externals (head, casing) - Typically 316 or 316L stainless steel head and casing
• Externals (gearbox) - Cast iron, stainless steel
• Internals (rotors, shaft) - Typically 316 or 316L stainless steel, non-galling stainless steel
• Shaft Seal - O-rings, component single or double mechanical seals.
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iv) Vane Pump
While vane pumps can handle moderate viscosity liquids, they excel at handling low
viscosity liquids such as LP gas (propane), ammonia, solvents, alcohol, fuel oils,
gasoline, and refrigerants. Vane pumps have no internal metal-to-metal contact and
self-compensate for wear, enabling them to maintain peak performance on these non-
lubricating liquids. Though efficiency drops quickly, they can be used up to 500 cPs
Vane pumps are available in a number of vane configurations including sliding vane
(left), flexible vane, swinging vane, rolling vane, and external vane. Vane pumps are
noted for their dry priming, ease of maintenance, and good suction characteristics
over the life of the pump. Moreover, vanes can usually handle fluid temperatures
from -32°C/-25°F to 260°C/500°F and differential pressures to 15 BAR / 200 PSI.
Each type of vane pump offers unique advantages. For example, external vane
pumps can handle large solids. Flexible vane pumps, on the other hand, can only
handle small solids but create good vacuum. Sliding vane pumps can run dry for
short periods of time and handle small amounts of vapor.
How Vane Pumps Work
Despite the different configurations, most vane pumps operate under the same general principle described
below.
• A slotted rotor is eccentrically

supported in a cycloidal cam.
The rotor is located close to
the wall of the cam so a
crescent-shaped cavity is
formed. The rotor is sealed
into the cam by two side
plates. Vanes or blades fit
within the slots of the
impeller. As the rotor rotates and fluid enters the pump, centrifugal force, hydraulic pressure, and/or
pushrods push the vanes to the walls of the housing. The tight seal among the vanes, rotor, cam, and
side plate is the key to the good suction characteristics common to the vane pumping principle.
• The housing and cam force fluid into the pumping chamber through holes in the cam. Fluid enters the
pockets created by the vanes, rotor, cam, and side plate.
• As the rotor continues around, the vanes sweep the fluid to the opposite side of the crescent where it
is squeezed through discharge holes of the cam as the vane approaches the point of the crescent
Fluid then exits the discharge port.
• Handles thin liquids at relatively higher • Can have two stuffing boxes
pressures • Complex housing and many parts
• Compensates for wear through vane • Not suitable for high pressures
extension • Not suitable for high viscosity
• Sometimes preferred for solvents, LPG • Not good with abrasives
• Can run dry for short periods
• Can have one seal or stuffing box
• Develops good vacuum
Applications
• Aerosol and Propellants

• Aviation Service - Fuel Transfer, Deicing
• Auto Industry - Fuels, Lubes, Refrigeration Coolants
• Bulk Transfer of LPG and NH3
• LPG Cylinder Filling
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• Externals (head, casing) - Cast iron, ductile iron, steel, and stainless steel.
• Vane, Pushrods - Carbon graphite, PEEK.
• End Plates - Carbon graphite
• Shaft Seal - Component mechanical seals, industry-standard cartridge mechanical seals, and
magnetically-driven pumps.
• Packing - Available from some vendors, but not usually recommended for thin liquid service.
v) Reciprocating-type pumps
Reciprocating-type pumps use a piston and cylinder arrangement with suction and discharge valves
integrated into the pump. Pumps in this category range
from having "simplex" one cylinder, to in some cases
"quad" four cylinders or more. Most reciprocating-type
pumps are "duplex" (two) or "triplex" (three) cylinder.
Furthermore, they are either "single acting" independent
suction and discharge strokes or "double acting" suction
and discharge in both directions. The pumps can be
powered by air, steam or through a belt drive from an
engine or motor. This type of pump was used extensively
in the early days of steam propulsion (19th century) as
boiler feed water pumps. Though still used today,
reciprocating pumps are typically used for pumping highly
viscous fluids including concrete and heavy oils.
vi) Compressed Air Powered Diaphragm Pumps
Another modern application of positive displacement pumps are compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm

pumps. Run on compressed air these pumps are intrinsically safe by design, although all manufacturers offer
ATEX certified models to comply with industry regulation. Commonly seen in all areas of industry from
shipping to process, SandPiper, Wilden Pumps or ARO are generally the larger of the brands. They are
relatively inexpensive and can be used for almost any duty from pumping water out of bunds, to pumping
hydrochloric acid from secure storage (dependant on how the pump is manufactured - elastomers / body
construction). Suction is normally limited to roughly 6m although heads can be almost unlimited
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C) VACUUM PUMPS
i) Liquid Ring Vacuum Pump
Double stage liquid ring vacuum pumps. Capacity

to 3500 m3/h, max vacuum 33 mbar.
Application
• Central Vacuum Systems

• De-aeration
• Impregnation
• Boiling Processes
• Vacuum Condensing
• Distillation
• Drying Systems
• Sterilization
• Filtration
• Solvent Recovery
Single stage liquid ring vacuum pumps. Capacity to

3500 m3/h, max vacuum 150 mbar.
Application
• Central Vacuum Systems

• De-aeration
• Impregnation
• Boiling Processes
• Vacuum Condensing
• Distillation
• Drying Systems
• Sterilization
• Filtration
• Solvent Recovery
Close-coupled single stage liquid ring vacuum

pumps. Capacity to 270 m3/h, max vacuum 33 mbar.
Features
• High efficiency throughout operational range (33

- 900 mbar.)
• Handles gas, vapour and entrained liquids
• Quiet running
• Robust construction
• Anticavitation device (Optional)
• Reinforced motor shaft and bearings
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ii) Rotary Vane Type Vacuum Pump
Ultimate vacuum to 1 micron (0.001 mbar) and feature

interchangeable cartridge, flexible drive coupling, anti-
suck back, built in oil pump, adjustable gas ballast and
high chromium steel bearing for better open to air
lubrication.
The vacuum pumps have an epoxy-sealed aluminum

parts and are powder coated for a durable, protective
finish.
Additional enhancements include porting and exhausting

to achieve higher flow rate at lower pressure and select
high quality materials for longer life and improved
resistance to corrosion.
Features:
• Continuously rated heavy duty motor

• Interchangeable cartridge
• Full O ring sealing modular construction
• Flexible coupling drive
• High density, impregnated construction
• Resin sealed aluminum components
• Self vent shut down
• Adjustable gas ballast
• Low noise and vibration
• Non-critical oil level
• Fan cooled motor
• Optional integrated manifold/analyser and
• Some models available in single and 3 phase
D) Steam Ejectors Vacuum System
Steam ejectors are a low cost, low maintenance, extremely reliable and simple method of producing vacuum,
generally used where steam is already available as a by-product of the process. They have no moving parts
and are manufactured in a range of materials to suit the process.
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2. STORAGE TANKS
There are various storage tanks used for storage of Raw Material and for storage of Final Products etc. They
are mainly Fix Roof Tanks, Floating Roof Tanks, Horizontal Bullets and Sphere and the details are as follows.
A) Fix Roof Tank
Fix roof tanks are used for liquids where tendency of evaporation is very less. The
tank design Code is API 650. and main parts are Bottom Plate, Shell and Top roof
which is conical in shape and used steel section for supporting roof called rafters.
Nozzles data will be as per process requirement. Normally nozzles are Inlet for
Tank Feeling, Ou let which normally connected to Pump, Drain and Vent which are
required at the time of maintenance, Manholes for ease of maintenance, Nozzles
Level indicator and some spare nozzles. Cone Roof or Fix roof tank is atmospheric
tank used for very low pressure.
B) Floating Roof Tank

Floating roof tank is used for high volatile
fluids where evaporation rate is very high.
Roof will float above liquid like ship float
above the water and the surface of the
roof is touched above the liquid surface
which will minimize vaporization of the
fluid. There is no any special code for
roof design but shell design is as per API
650.
C) Dome Roof Tank
Dome Roof Tank is one type of Fix roof tanks

instead of conical roof, Dome roof (Dish Type)
roof is used which is stronger that conical roof
and hence will hold slightly higher pressure
than conical roof tank and used for petroleum
industry for storage of very high amount of
liquid.
D) Spherical Tanks
Spherical Tanks are used for holding very high pressure liquid or gases.
Pressure holding capacity is very high because of equal pressure distribution
on surface. Construction cost of sphere is very high. Also weld joints are more
in Spherical Tank which increases efficiency of the equipments. These are
some reasons some countries / companies avoid using spherical tanks and
horizontal tanks are preferred instead of spherical tanks.
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3. VERTICAL VESSELS
Vessels are used in the plant for various purposes for collecting liquid during process, for mixing, for reaction
etc… details will be available from process department. These vertical can be mounted using LUG supports or
can be Mounted using Leg Supports or Tall vertical vessels can be mounted using SKIRT Supports. Normally
nozzles for these vessels will be as per the process requirements and mainly categorized in to Process
Nozzles and Utility Nozzles. Mainly process nozzles are Inlet, Out Let, Vent Drain, Manholes and spares.
Utility Nozzles are Inlet (for liquid nozzle should be located bottom side of the jacket or limpet and for steam
inlet should be top side of the jacket or limpet.) and outlet. For heating jacket and/or limpet coil is used in
Industry.
Horizontal Tanks / Horizontal Bullet

Horizontal Tank design is as per ASME Sec VIII div.I. Horizontal tanks installation is very easy and can be
installed above ground or if there is space problem then can installed under ground also. These type of tanks
minimize evaporation loss. Installation of Instruments is very easy. Maintenance can be possible by giving
platform and ladder or staircase. Mounting of the tank is on saddle. To take care of thermal expansion one
saddle should be fix and another should be sliding. Foundation height can be decided as per the operating
requirement and piping requirement.
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Some of the vertical vessels used for various purpose with agitators for reference only.
4. Horizontal Dryer
Horizontal Dryer is a rotary horizontal

equipment used in industry for
formation of powder. Various types of
dryers are available in the market.
Chemical Engineer as per the process
requirement will select type of
Dryer/Equipment is required.
5. Centrifuge
There are various types of centrifuge available in the market for various applications and are mainly used for
separation of solids and liquids.
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6. Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger is a very important equipment used in various process plant for different purposes like
Heating, Cooling, Boiling, Phase change etc….. Design Code of Heat exchanger : TEMA RCB
General Guide Lines:

• Provide shell with pressure relieving device to protect against excessive shell side pressure in the event
or internal pressure.
• Put corrosive fluids inside the tubes as these are easily cleaned & cheaper to replace than the shell.
• Put the hotter fluid in the tubes to reduce heat loss to the surrounding.
• If steam is used to heat the fluid in an exchanger, passing the steam through the shell has advantages.
• For example: Condensate is far easier to handle from shell side. Insulation on shell is normally required to
protect person, to reduce the rate of condensate formation & to reduce heat losses.
• Pass cooling liquid through the tubes if the exchanger is not insulated for economic operation.
• If the heat transfer is between two liquids, a counter current flow pattern will usually give greater overall
heat transfer than a parallel flow pattern.
• Arrange nozzles to suit best piping & plant layout.
Locating Heat Exchanger

• Position exchanger so that piping is as direct & simple as possible.
• Elevate heat exchanger to allow piping to the exchangers bottom nozzles to be arranged above grade or
floor level.
• Exchangers are sometimes of necessity mounted on structures, process column & other equipment.
Special arrangement for maintenance & tube handling will be required.
Operating & Maintenance Requirement

• Access to operating valve & instruments.
• Operating space for davit, monorails or crane etc.
• Space is needed for tube bundle removal for cleaning & around the exchangers bolted ends & the bolted
channels to shell enclosure.
• Access for tube bundle removal is often given on manufacturers drawings & is usually about 1.5 times the
bundle length. 15 to 20 ft clearance should be allocated from the outer side or exchanger in order to
mobile lifting equipment access & tube handling.
129
Some of the Heat Exchangers

A) Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
Double-pipe heat exchanger is made of concentric inner and outer

pipe. Cold and hot liquid respectively flows in the gap of inner pipe and
sleeve pipe and changes heat at the same time. lnner pipe is used U
tube to connect. Sleeve pipe is used direct pipe to connect at both
ends. Structure of double pipe heat exchanger is simple and heat
transmission is large. It's easy to clean and convenient to disassemble
and assemble. Flow rate is appropriate and it is possible to have a
backwash. Flow rate of exchanging heat is high. It's conformed to
demand of medicine industry. cooling (heat exchanging) demand of
food industry etc…
B) Fixed Shell & Tube Type Heat Exchanger
The shell-and-tube exchanger is a combination of shell and tube and is considered to operate in counter-
current flow, since the shell fluid flows across the outside of the tubes. To increase resident time of the fluid
and for greater heating/cooling effect, more no. of passes has to be added in the exchangers.
An exchanger in which the shell-side fluid flows in one shell pass and the tube fluid in two or more passes. A
single channel is employed with a partition to permit the entry and exit of the tube fluid from the same channel.
At the opposite end of the exchanger a bonnet is provided to permit the tube fluid to cross from the first to the
second pass. As with all fixed-tube sheet exchangers, the outsides of the tubes are inaccessible for inspection
or mechanical cleaning. The insides of the tubes can be cleaned in place by removing only the channel cover
and using a rotary cleaner or wire brush.
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C) ‘U’ Tube Heat Exchanger
‘U’ Tube Heat Exchangers, these heavy duty exchangers have built-in protection against damage caused by
the inherent forces which occur during heating and cooling as the vessel thermally expands and contracts. As
the one end of the bundle is free to float, the unit is safe even under extreme thermal cycling. This makes
them ideal for use with steam as the heating medium.
D) Floating Head Type Heat Exchanger
The Floating Head Heat Exchanger is with one floating tube sheet which is movable in a longitudinal direction
in response to tube expansion and contraction relative to the heat exchanger shell. Tube erosion may be
addressed by providing a sacrificial portion of tube length extending beyond the tube sheets so as to make
repair and replacement of the eroded portion of tubes significantly cheaper, easier and with minimal process
interruption. The flow in exchanger is longitudinal with respect to the shell-side fluid, and this is the reason
tube vibration problems are generally eliminated.
131
E) Kettle Type Heat Exchanger
Kettle Type Heat Exchanger is similar to U tube

Heat exchanger used to handle high amount of
liquid and mainly used in Distillation Column
setup for boiling Bottom Product to generate Vapors required for processing inside Distillation Column. This is
the reason in Industry this type of exchanger is termed as a REBOILER. Normally Steam is used to heat the
product. This Tube Bundle can be taken out for cleaning.
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F) Plate Type Heat Exchangers

Plate Heat Exchangers consist of a number of very thin corrugated stainless steel heat transfer plates
clamped together in a frame. Every second channel is open to the same fluid. Between each pair of plates
there is a rubber gasket, which prevents the fluids from mixing and from leaking to the surroundings. Heat is
thus transferred from the warm fluid to the colder fluid via the thin stainless steel plate. The corrugations
support the plates against differential pressure and create a turbulent flow in the channels. In turn, the
turbulent flow provides high heat transfer efficiency, making
the plate heat exchanger very compact compared with the
traditional shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
In most cases the plate type heat exchanger is the most
efficient heat exchanger. Generally it offers the best solution
to heating and cooling applications since it can better handle
the widest pressure and temperature limits.
Advantages of a plate heat exchanger are that they utilize

the thinnest material for the heat transfer surface that in turn
gives optimum heat transfer, since the heat only has to
penetrate thin material. Also, there is a high turbulence in the
medium that in turn gives a higher convection, which results in
efficient heat transfer between the media. Since the plate heat exchanger consists of a framework of plates,
more plates can easily be added to increase capacity, and the plates can easily be spread apart for cleaning.
Disadvantages of plate heat exchangers are their initial expense, they don't work well under high pressure
rates and they are not well suited for processing pulpy products or product with particulates. Trying to keep
the plate heat exchanger clean before running a new product can prove very difficult, if not impossible.
G) Finned Tube Type Heat Exchanger
Finned Tube Type Heat exchanger is most commonly used in OIL Industry in Over head line of Distillation
column to bring vapor temperature to normal room temperature and the purpose is to change vapor phase to
liquid phase. Cooling medium used in this is Air and non condensable vapors will be sent to another
condenser or to the atmosphere or to flare. These type of air coolers are normally mounted on Pipe Rack.
Finns are used above the tubes to increase surface area so that heating/ cooling effect will be better.
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7. Distillation Column : Distillation Column is a tall vertical vessel used for separation of fluids.
Column Operation Basics.

The feed is heated before it enters the column, as feed enters the column quantities of vapor are given off by
flashing due to the release of pressure in the feed. As the vapor raise up the column they come to intimate
contact with down flowing liquid. During the contact some of the heavier component of vapor are condensed &
some or the lighter components of down flowing liquid are vaporized. This process is termed as refluxing.
• Trays are various designs. Their purpose is to collect a certain amount if liquid but allows vapor to pass up
through them so that vapor & liquid come in contact.
• Packing are for increasing residence time.
• Product from the column are piped to collect tanks are termed drum or accumulator.
• Normally all materials enters & leave the column through pipes therefore column are located closed to
pipe rack.
• If the vapor from the top of the column is condensable it is piped to a condenser to form a liquid.
Condenser may be mounted at grade or sometime on the side of the column.
• A steam heated heat exchanger termed a Reboiler used to heat material drawn from a select level in the
column.
• Material from bottom is termed Bottoms. Vapor from top is termed Overheads.
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8. FILTERS
Plate and frame, recessed chamber, or membrane configurations, produces solid filter cakes for unlimited
number of dewatering applications. Frame design includes rotating pin joint connectors for even distribution of
hydraulic forces and plate shifter with fully automatic, positive parallel tracking, and accurate plate alignment.
Additional offerings include pump systems, pipe manifolds, drip trays, and safety equipment
9. BLOWERS
A) Cetrifugal Blower
Features & Benefits

• Super quiet, non-overloading 'TEK' impeller
• High efficient airfoil (BCA) design
• Epoxy coated steel housing
• Flanged and drilled outlet, ABS inlet cone
• Single or three phase TEFC motors
• Clockwise rotation; rotates to any position
• Compact design, rugged construction
• Capacities to 4,500 cfm
B) Roots Blower
These blowers require low energy and helps in improving

the efficiency of the industrial application used for. The
roots blowers are reasonably priced and are known for
high performance.
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10. INDUSTRIAL STEAM BOILERS
Application : Boilers have many applications and is

very important utility equipment used in industry for
generation of steam.
There are many types of boilers are available in the

market as per the requirement of industry.
Some of they are oil fired and some of they are gas fired
boilers. Purpose is same and is generation of steam
which is required for heating during process.
11. Steam Turbine

Turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a
fluid flow. The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft with blades
attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they rotate and impart energy
to the rotor.
A) STEAM TURBINE
Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power plants, such as plants using coal or
fuel oil or nuclear power. They were once used to directly drive mechanical devices such as ship's propellors
(eg the Turbinia), but most such applications now use reduction gears or an intermediate electrical step,
where the turbine is used to generate electricity, which then powers an electric motor connected to the
mechanical load. Some of the advantages are : Uses existing boiler system, Efficient option for power
generation, Maximizes year round use of boiler system , Lower operating cost, Requires minimal
maintenance.
• The speed of the turbine is held closely to

3600 rpm in order to create 60 cycle
alternating current.
• The steam passes through inlet gas nozzles to
convert the enthalpy to high velocity.
• In this drawing, steam passes through four
turbine blades on the rotor, and then can be
extracted from the large valve on center of the
housing. The rate of steam extraction is
controlled by the throttle valve.
• After the extraction valve, steam passes
through ten more turbine blades.
• The outlet of a turbine is often at very low pressure, especially in a condensing turbine, and the outlet is
very large to avoid creating pressure drop. The condenser would be attached directly below the outlet.
• The shaft of the turbine passes out the right end of the turbine housing, and would be connected to a
generator.
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B) GAS TURBINE
A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a flow of
combustion gas. It has an upstream compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion
chamber in-between. (Gas turbine may also refer to just the turbine element.)
Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where air is mixed with fuel and ignited. Combustion
increases the temperature, velocity and volume of the gas flow. This is directed through a (nozzle) over the
turbine's blades, spinning the turbine
and powering the compressor.
Advantages of gas turbine engines

• Very high power-to-weight ratio,
compared to reciprocating
engines;
• Smaller than most reciprocating
engines of the same power rating.
• Moves in one direction only, with
far less vibration than a
reciprocating engine.
• Fewer moving parts than
reciprocating engines.
• Low operating pressures.
• High operation speeds.
• Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.
Disadvantages of gas turbine engines
• Cost is much greater than for a similar-sized reciprocating engine since the materials must be stronger
and more heat resistant. Machining operations are also more complex;
• Usually less efficient than reciprocating engines, especially at idle.
• Delayed response to changes in power settings.
12. Compressors
There are many types of compressors used in various applications in industry. Following chars shows type of
compressors available. Most commonly used compressors in industry are Reciprocating Compressor and
Centrifugal Compressor details are given in next page for understanding basics.
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COMPRESSORS :
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid
through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are
relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.
Positive Displacement (Reciprocating) and Centrifugal Compressors are mainly used in process facilities and
pipeline stations. They can be handle large volume of gas in relatively small equipment and may have variety
of drives like Electric Motor, Steam or Gas Turbine.
Centrifugal Compressor can be single stage or multi stage. High speed impellers increase the kinetic energy
of the gas. Converting this energy in to higher pressure in a divergent outlet passage called diffuser. Large
volumes of gases are compressed to moderate pressure in centrifugal Compressor.
Positive displacement or Reciprocating Compressor can also be single stage or multistage. They are usually
of reciprocating piston type and are the only compressor that can compress gas to extremely high pressure.
Centrifugal and reciprocating compressors are available in many sizes and are usually driven by steam or gas
turbines or by electric motor. If compressors are driven by steam turbines then surface condenser is required
below steam turbine to minimise temperature of condensate (normally 80deg.C and below so that condensate
pumps can handle condensate easily.
Centrifugal and reciprocating compressors and their drives required a variety of Auxiliary Equipments are..
• Lube Oil Consoles : Compressor bearing need lubrication and is provide by using Lube OIL Console.
This Lube Oil Console can be mounted directly on to the compressor or can be mounted on structure
separately; interconnected piping is required in such case.
• Seal Oil Consoles : The hydraulic seals located at the outer end of the compressor shaft, receive oil from
the Seal Oil Console.
• Surface Condenser : Surface condenser reduce gas or vapor to a liquid by removing heat.
• Condensate Pump : The condensate Pump which is usually vertical and removes condensate form the
condensate pot of surface condenser.
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• Air Blower : Motor driven air blowers deliver fresh air to cool internally electric motor. This Air is
delivered to the motor through duct, its exhaust may send directly in to the compressor house or to the
outside. All the electric motor does not require these systems.
• Inlet Air Filter : Gas turbine required large amount of clean filtered air for operations. The filter can be
extremely large.
• Waste Heat System : Waste heat systems take hot exhaust gas from gas turbines and put high outlet
temperatures, ranging 426 to 650 deg. C which may be used as a heating medium.
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• Compressor Suction Drum : Compressor required dry gas and should be free from foreign particles and
this is the reason inlet gas should pass through suction drum or knock out drum which removes moisture
and particles from the gas by passing through a demister pad.
• Pulsation Dampener : The negative effect of vibrations on the life of reciprocating compressor and
connected piping can be minimised by the use of pulsation dampener.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR: Centrifugal compressors, sometimes referred to as radial compressors, are

a special class of radial-flow work-absorbing turbo machinery that include pumps, fans, blowers and
compressors.
The earliest forms of these dynamic-turbo machines were pumps, fans and blowers. What differentiates these
early turbo machines from compressors is that the working fluid can be considered incompressible, thus
permitting accurate analysis through Bernoulli's equation. In contrast, modern centrifugal compressors are
higher in speed and analysis must deal with compressible flow.
In an idealized sense, the dynamic compressor achieves a pressure rise by adding kinetic-energy/velocity to a
continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This kinetic energy is then converted to an increase in
static pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser.
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ADVANTAGES : Centrifugal compressors are used throughout industry because they have fewer rubbing
parts, are relatively energy efficient, and give higher airflow than a similarly sized reciprocating compressor
(i.e. positive-displacement). Their primary drawback is that they cannot achieve the high compression ratio of
reciprocating compressors without multiple stages. Centrifugal fan/blowers are more suited to continuous-duty
applications such as ventilation fans, air movers, cooling units, and other uses that require high volume with
little or no pressure increase. In contrast, multi-stage reciprocating compressors often achieve discharge
pressures of 8,000 to 10,000 psi (55 to 69 MPa). One example of an application of centrifugal compressors is
their use in re-injecting natural gas back into oil fields to increase oil production.
A partial list of centrifugal compressor applications includes:
• In pipeline transport of natural gas to move the gas from the production site to the consumer.
• In oil refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and chemical plants.
• In air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases.
• In refrigeration and air conditioner equipment refrigerant cycles: see Vapor-compression refrigeration.
• In industry and manufacturing to supply compressed air for all types of pneumatic tools.
• In gas turbines and auxiliary power units.
• In pressurized aircraft to provide atmospheric pressure at high altitudes.
• In automotive engine and diesel engine turbochargers and superchargers.
• In oil field re-injection of high pressure natural gas to improve oil recovery.
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ii) Reciprocating Compressor
A reciprocating compressor or piston

compressor is a positive-displacement
compressor that uses pistons driven by a
crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure.
The intake gas enters the suction manifold,

then flows into the compression cylinder where
it gets compressed by a piston driven in a
reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is
then discharged. We can categorize
reciprocating compressors into many types and
for many applications. Primarily, it is used in a
great
many industries, including oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants and
refrigeration plants.
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Layout philosophy
• The compressor should be laid out to minimize the pressure loss of the system on the suction side
• The compressor should be laid out to facilitate maintenance work.
• As electrical and instrumentation cables are used for the compressor, this compressor should be laid out
close to the control room and substation.
Basic layout
• A number of electric and instrumentation cables are used for the compressor. Also, the distance between
this compressor and the control room/substation should be as close as possible, in consideration of the
operation of the compressor in case of an emergency.
• In particular, care should be taken to prevent the compressor and other items of equipment, building, etc.
from coming closer, and each foundation from combining, in order to avoid the transmission and effect of
the vibration from the compressor.
• Basically, sleeper piping should be adopted and the area for this piping should be secured, to provide
measures for piping vibration-proofing.
Sleeper
• A compressor suction line and a discharge line are liable to suffer vibration. Therefore, these lines are
arranged on the sleeper to facilitate the fixing of these lines.
• The layout of sleepers should be studied to prevent vibration from directly transmitting the surrounding
building, structure and equipment. The sleeper should be as close to the compressor as possible,
considering the vibration of piping between the sleeper and compressor (a long line is liable to suffer
vibration).
Installation height
The items to be studied in determining the installation height are as follows:
• The distance between the drain piping and operating floor level for the compressor snubber should be
150mm or larger.
The compressor should be installed at such a height that a pocket portion should not be produced in the
process piping between the sleeper and
General items
• As piping handles gaseous liquid, a free drain line should be adopted to prevent the accumulation of gas
condensate in the line. If a drain pocket should be produced in the piping system, measures should be
provided to allow drain to be completely drawn off.
• The route of each line should be shortest. However, compressor outlet piping and steam piping connected
to the turbine driver should be flexible enough not to cause a problem due to thermal expansion (effect on
equipment nozzle).
• The valves, instruments, etc. of the piping connected to the compressor should be installed to facilitate the
operation of the switch-off operation of the compressor.
• Piping supports should preferably be provided on the ground to facilitate vibration measures. Therefore,
lines should be arranged on the sleeper as far as possible.
• If trench piping is adopted around the compressor, studies should be done on whether or not gas
(especially propane gas which is heavier than air) accumulates within the trench and involves risk.
• The piping route should be planned not to hinder the compressor operation and maintenance.
Detailed piping arrangement
After piping engineers understand the line flow, satisfy process requirements and know which line requires
measures against vibration and thermal stress, in advance, they should arrange lines in detail and plan piping
supports.
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Nozzle orientation
As in the case of other rotary machinery, the installation point of each nozzle is automatically fixed from type
and constructional viewpoints. Therefore, the manufacturer fixes the nozzle orientation, unless otherwise
instructed.
Suction piping
• Piping arrangement on the sleeper facilitates the installation of supports from the ground, which becomes
advantageous for vibration-proofing measures. Also, the installation point of valves, instruments, etc. is
not high, and these items can be operated from the access way for inspection, thereby allowing the
economic design of the structure. This arrangement method is generally more used. In this method, the
gas liquid handled does not condense with steam trace heating.
• Valve layout: A suction valve is operated in connection with the operation of the startup and shutdown of
the compressor. It is therefore preferable to lay out the valve as close to the compressor as possible.
• Strainer: Fine mesh screens are generally used for the suction-line strainers in the process compressor
during the initial startup operation. Also, it is preferable to install the strainer as close to the compressor
nozzle as possible.
Discharge piping
The discharge-piping route should be planned after studying the following items, bearing in mind the
concurrent action of piping vibration due to liquid pulsation and piping stress due to piping thermal expansion
arising from compressed heat.
• Piping arrangement aiming mainly at vibration-proofing. Unless there is no problem in the access, it is
preferable to install ground piping (support) in view of vibration-proofing measure.
• Valve layout: The basic valve layout of the discharge line should be as in the case of the foregoing
“Layout of Suction Valves”.
Support Plan
In order to satisfy these two contradictory conditions, support measures must be provided by fully considering
these conditions. Piping supports must basically be planned, designed and selected according to the following
pertinent standards. The following covers the considerations, etc. of layout and installation of support types
(typical) for vibrating lines around the compressor.
Support type
• The types of supports can be identified by the difference in the hardware to be fixed to the top surface of
the foundation. The major objective of the sleeper around the compressor is to arrange lines in a group,
as in the case of normal sleepers.
• Vibration-proofing supports are used as supports used exclusively for vibration proofing of piping, which
vibrates along with thermal expansion.
Support installation clearance
The proper supporting clearance of supports is determined based on the vibration analysis results of the
piping system.
Considerations in support installation
• U-bolts should not be used as far as possible. Instead, U-bands or straps should be used. (As U-bolts are
in linear contact with the pipe in the axial direction, satisfactory constraint cannot be expected. Therefore,
U-bolts should not used for large vibration load lines.).
• Vibration-proofing supports of bolting construction should be of double-nut types.
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PIPE SUPPORTS
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OBJECTIVES OF SUPPORTS
The layout and the design of the piping and its supporting elements shall be directed towards preventing the
following.
• Piping stresses in excess of those permitted in the code.

• Leakage at joints
• Excessive thrust and moments on connected equipment
• (such as pumps and turbines)
• Excessive stresses in the supporting (or restraining) elements.
• Resonance with imposed fluid induced vibrations.
• Excessive interference with thermal expansion and
• contraction in a piping system, which is otherwise adequately flexible.
• Unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports.
• Excessive piping sag in systems requiring drainage slope.
• Excessive distortion or sag of piping (e.g. Thermo plastics) subject to creep under conditions of
repeated thermal cycling.
• Excessive heat flow, exposing supporting elements to temperature extremes outside their
designlimits.
PIPE SUPPORTS
SUPPORT FLOW CHART
INITIAL PIPE ROUTING
TO BE DONE BY
LAYOUT ENGINEER
PRLIMINARY SUPPORT
MARK UP BY SUPPORT STRESS
ENGINEER ENGINEER
LAYOUT
ENGINEER
AFC
ISOMETRICS
TYPES OF SUPPORT
l Supports (or restraints ) are usually classified according to both, direction and function.The major
direction of restraints are those conforming to the three local axes of the pipe .
è Vertical : Gravity
è Axial : Parallel to the pipe run (Longitudinal axis)
è Lateral : Perpendicular to both the vertical and the axial axes.
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DESIGN CRITERIA
The major criteria governing support hardware selection are support function, magnitude of expected load
,and space limitations. The following points should also be kept in mind:
1)The design temperature of the piping system used for selection of pipe clamps , u bolts, straps and other
steel in direct contact with pipe .The strength of these items decline with increase in temperature .
2) Piping operation at high temperature or subject to condensation on the outer surface will usually be
insulated. The pipe support hardware must be designed to accommodate the insulation.
3) The piping attachment and supporting structure in contact with each other must be of compatible material in
order to reduce galvanic action.
4) The inspection of the hardware of supports to be done at start-up and also periodic inspection is required.
PIPE SUPPORTS
REST SUPPORT:
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REST + GUIDE SUPPORT
REST + AXIAL (LIMIT) STOP
148
Some of the most Commonly Pipe Supports used in Industry
149
PLOT PLAN
150
PLOT PLAN
PLOT PLAN DESIGN
Plot plans are considered key documents to projects and

are normally initiated in the pre-contract, conceptual and
development stages of a proposal. After the contract is
awarded for engineering, plot plans are developed at a
rather rapid pace with very limited information. This early
stage plot plan usually is very limited in detail, containing
only enough dimensional data to define the outer limits of
the available property selected for plant development.
Located within the boundaries of the available property,
rough equipment sizes and shapes are pictorially
positioned. along with anticipated pipe rack
configurations, structure shape and rough sizes. The plot
plan at this level of detail is then used for constructability
evaluation and is normally submitted to the client for
approval.
Once approved by the client, almost every group including Engineering, Scheduling, Construction,
Operations, Cost Control, Estimating and Material Control use the plot plan as a pictorial reference for their
work. At this point, the plot plan becomes a universal document used by all groups to interface with one
another and the client.
Development of the plot plan in the very early stages is usually accomplished through the use of preliminary
project design data, approximate equipment sizes and a process flow diagram to establish rough sketches.
These sketches are used to determine structure configuration and relative equipment positioning.
The plot plan is then "proven" by using a process flow diagram, marked up to depict the more expensive
piping, such as alloy or large diameter piping. This "high dollar" piping is usually marked in a point-to-point
fashion in a specific color on a print of the plot plan. The balance of the process piping is then point-to-point
connected in another color to prove the cost effectiveness of the selected equipment arrangement.
The plot plan is a dynamic document, evolving through the life of a job. Some of the more common names
and descriptions used during this evolution process are as follows:
• Proposal Plot Plan - used to establish the basis of bid work.

• Approval Plot Plan - offered to the client for his concurrence of available space, perimeter roads,
adjacent inhabited areas and interface points with the remainder of the complex.
• Overall Plot Plan - a small scale depiction of utility, storage, and loading facilities as associated with the
process plant.
• Sectional Plot Plans - the overall plot plan broken into manageable size drawings.
• Planning Plot Plan - an agreed-upon arrangement which usually starts the work of most groups that rely
on equipment positioning.
• Production Plot Plan - an update of the planning plot plan after enough study work has been completed
to establish firm location of equipment. This plot plan is the basis for beginning detailed design work.
Construction Plot Plan - releases the constructor to begin activities related to equipment location, such as
roads, pile driving, underground piping, foundations, etc. It is the single document containing all
equipment, structure and road locations.
• Final or "As Built" Plot Plan - a plot plan normally provided by the responsible engineering company
that reflects the completed project as constructed. This plot plan is maintained by the client for future
expansion work requirements or other business needs.
In addition to depicting relative and specific positioning of equipment, plot plans help in the establishment of
support facilities and are used to determine the most cost-effective construction sequence and methods. Plot
plans are also used to assure proper operator and maintenance access while maintaining engineering
economy. Plot plans are used for operational needs such as training and emergency access, as well as
facilitating insurance ratings.
Designers that develop plot plans are usually persons that can do development type work using original
thought and utilizing minimal process, utility and equipment information. The plot plan designer must also
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know the functions of engineering, construction, operations and maintenance in order to envision and
anticipate mechanical problems and emergencies that may occur in the future.
Major Roles of a Plot Plan
Plot plans are essential for obtaining permits and determining environmental and personnel safety. They are
the key documents used in assessing fire protection.
During the engineering and construction phases of a job, many owners use the plot plan as a basis for
evaluating the level of completeness of agreed upon work. The document thus becomes a measuring device
for progress payments.
Prevailing winds and tower and structure heights must be considered in developing a plot plan. Although wind
direction is never constant, prevailing wind is used as a basis to evaluate safety within the client's complex, as
well as the safety of neighbors such as spill, release or fire occur. Tower and structure height and their
positioning are major considerations, especially when units are located near airports or in flight paths.
Climatic considerations also play a major role in plot plan development. Extreme sun exposure in desert areas
or near the equator may require shelters to protect operators and maintenance personnel from high
temperatures. Conversely, special considerations must be given to plants located where extreme cold, ice or
snow may be prevalent. Under the most extreme conditions, many equipment items requiring frequent visits
by personnel are enclosed by heated shelters. These shelters are sometimes connected by tunnels suitable
for human passage. In many cases, plant utilities are run within the confines of these tunnels to guard against
freeze-up and to conserve energy for producing utilities streams.
Piping design:- The plot plan is used to produced equipment arrangement studies that facilitate the
interconnection of above and below ground process and utility piping systems and to estimate piping material
quantities.
Civil engineering:- The plot plan is used to develop grading and drainage plans, holding ponds, diked areas,
foundation and structural designs, and all bulk material estimates.
Electrical engineering:- The plot plan is used to produced area classification drawing , to locate switchgear
and incoming substation and motor control centre, to route cables, and to estimate bulk materials.
Instrument engineering:- The plot plan is used to locate analyzer house and cable trays, assist in the
location of the main control house, and estimate bulk materials.
Systems engineering: - The plot plan is used to facilitate hydraulic design line, line sizing, and utility block
flow requirements.
Scheduling:- The plot plan is used to schedule the orderly completion of engineering activities.
Construction:- The plot plan is used to schedule the erection sequence of all plant equipments, which
includes rigging studies for large lifts, constructability reviews, marshaling, and lay down areas throughout the
entire construction phase.
Estimating: - The plot plan is used to estimate the overall cost of the plant.
Client use :- The plot plan is for safety of operator, and maintenance reviews and to develop an as built
record of the plant arrangement
Economy of Plot Plans
Plot plan economy is directly linked to the ability to develop process modules. Process modules can then be
related to actual plot plan configurations and in some cases integration of equipment items can eliminate the
need for interconnecting piping.
The level of talent required to develop plot plans and the interaction of the plot designer with process and
equipment personnel often result in new and innovative equipment integrations and configurations.
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The project site is selected by considering the various factors that plant should be technologically and
economically viable. The many industrial policies of the government is also need to be considered for
selection of site. Important requirement such as power, water, effluent disposal, manpower etc. have also to
be taken into consideration. After selection of site next activity is to development of PLOT as per the
requirement of relevant industries like-
i) Refinery
ii) Chemical / Agro Chemical / Petrochemical / Organic - Inorganic Chemical.
iii) Fertilizer
iv) Pharmaceutical
v) Power plant etc.
The development of plot plan is a much involve job. While locating the various units / facilities within the plot,
consideration shall be given for the operation, maintenance, safety aspect related to the plant and that of the
neighbored, fire hazards, location of power and water supply, expansion facilities, man-material movements,
etc. in a balanced manner.
Before the activity of development of the plot plan starts, there are lot of data related plan starts, related to all
disciplines of engineering, to be collected and analysed and / or made use of. Data to be collected before
starting can be classified as follows
1.0 BASIC DATA :
1.1 CIVIL: Civil data contain survey map and Contour map (for plot levels). The contour map will also
shown the bench marks indicating the mean sea level (MSL) to indicating the mean sea level of the plot.
1.1.1 SOIL SURVEY: conducted to check soil bearing capacity.
1.2 ELECTRICAL: Contain details about voltage supply required to the various plants.
1.3 NON PLANT FACILITIES : covers all supporting facilities for any chemical plant like
a) Administrative Block
b) Canteen
c) Workshop
d) R & D, QC Laboratory and Pilot plan
e) Gate House/ Time/ Security Office
f) Security Towers
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g) Vehicle Parking
h) Medical center
i) Ware house
j) Fire Station
k) Weight Bridge
1.4 METROLOGICAL DATA :
a) Minimum, maximum and normal temperature during the year.
b) Rainfall
c) Intensity and direction of the wind
d) Seismic zone
e) Flood level.
1.4 PROCESS DATA:
These are some typical points and may change as per various types of plants.
a) Size/capacity of the process unit.
b) the type of plant, indoors or outdoor
c) Sequence of process flow to locate the process unit in the proper manner.
d) Hazardous nature of the plant to keep proper distance.
e) The overall operating philosophy of the plant such as : Fully Automatic
Partially Automatic
Manual
Batch/Continuous
f) Raw material receipt and product dispatch.
g) Storage philosophy. Above ground and/ or underground.
h) Effluent plant capacity and discharge points.
i) Number of flares.
1.5 UTILITY DATA

a) Supply points of raw water.
b) Quality of water.
c) Water consumption
d) Different types of utilities such as Steam, Air, nitrogen, DM water, Soft water,
cooling water, Chilled water, Brine etc.
1.6 STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS:
The following authorities set norms required for f the Green belt, Floor area occupation, Floor space
roads, Free area to be maintained along the plot boundary, Height and tread of the steps, Floor to
Floor distance, requirement of distance to be maintained between the units, requirements within the
petroleum storage and gas storage, fire fighting requirement height of chimney, etc.
a) State Industrial Development Corporation (SIDC)
b) Central / state Environmental Pollution Control Boards (PCBS)
c) Factory Inspectorate
d) State Electricity Board (SEB)
e) Chief Controller of Explosive (CCOE)
f) Static and Mobile pressure Vessel Rules (SMPV)
g) Tariff Advisory Committee (TAC)
h) Aviation Laws
i) Chief Inspector of Boilers (CIB)
j) Oil Industry Safety Directorate (OISD)
k) Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
l) Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF)
1.7 PLANT FACILITIES:

a) Main Plant Building
b) Utility Building
c) Effluent Treatment Plant
d) Flare
e) Cooling Tower
f) Boiler House
g) Sub station / Electrical Station,
h) Tanker parking
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i) Tank Farm
j) Fire water Tank & Drinking Water Tank.
1.8 DEVELOPMENT OF PLOT PLAN :

While developing plot plant to need following data.
a) Block dimensions of all plant and non-plant facilities.
b) Wind Direction
c) North direction
d) Rack and sleepers width.
e) Flare location 90 mtr away from any bldg in downward of wind direction.
f) Road width 8mtr, 6mtr and all inner roads 4mtr. and 1mtr should require both side of road
(foot path) and then provide storm water drain.
g) Both side road required on main plant.
h) Storm water drainage for roads.
i) Consider future expansion 50%.
j) 1 F.S.I. (Floor Space Index) means 50% construction area.
k) Green belt 1/3 of plot area.
l) Tank farm location down side of wind direction.
m) Cooling tower location downward of wind direction.
n) ETP location downward of wind direction.
o) Non explosive chemical storage Explosive chemical storage as per classification
p) Petroleum product as per classification.
q) Water requirement 24 hrs. minimum: 1. Domestic 100 lit. per person per day
2. Water requirement for Boiler
3. Water requirement cooling tower
4. Washing – 10-15 litres per day per sq.ft of floor
5. Gardening – 5 litres per day per sq. ft of garden area
6. Inter unit distance based on the type and nature of
process.
7. Location of substation approximately center of plot.
8. Safety distance for the storage based on the relevant

statutory regulations
1.9 STEP TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE DEVELOPING THE PLOT PLAN
a) Study map and develop grade levels. (RL – Reference Level)

b) Mark grid lines in X-Y direction at 10 mtr each.
c) Establish the area along the plot boundary as per the statutory norms
d) Work out the area requirement for the green belt, parking etc. as per the norms
e) The process units shall be located in the sequential order of process flow so those material
handling minimums also try to reduce rack length.
f) Arrange units considering wind direction as per the requirement.
g) Group storage tanks as per process classification.
h) Centralised control room shall be located in safe area close to process plant.
i) Two adjacent process units shall be located based on annual shut down philosophy so that
hot work shall not affect the operation.
j) Locate electrical station at center of the plot for minimum cabling.
k) Process unit shall be located on higher ground away from the unwanted traffic.
l) Process units shall be served by peripheral roads for easy approach.
m) Utility block shall be kept at safe area close to process plants.
n) Receiving stations shall be placed near the supply points.
o) Ware houses shall be located close to the material gate to avoid truck traffic within the
process area.
p) Locate fire tanks near to main gate.
q) Locate ETP away from process and utility area and down ward direction of wind..
r) Locate Workshop, contractor’s shed, storage yard, etc. by peripheral roads.
s) Normally provide two gates one for man entry and other for material handling.
t) Provide Weigh Bridge at material handling gate.
u) Locate Admn. Building, Laboratories near man entry gate.
v) Inter unit distances as per statutory authorities guide lines.
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2.0 Layout of Liquid Storage:

Petroleum Act: - Passed in Parliament C.C.O.E.
Definition of Petroleum: - Any liquid hydrocarbon or mixture of hydrocarbon or any flammable mixture
contain hydrocarbon comes under the petroleum Act.
Classification of Petroleum: - Petroleum Product is classified on the basis of their flash pt.
Flash point: - The minimum temp at which liquid eyelids vapors and gives momentary flash when ignited.
Class A- < 23°c
Class B- 23°c to 65°c
Class C- 65°c to 93°c
Exemption from storage tank license.
Class A- not more than 30 Litres
Class B- not more than 2500 litres, not more than 1000 later. At a place
Class C- not more than 45 kl = 4500 litre.
All enclosure should have the drain. The slope of the Drain will be not less than 1% from tank toward
enclosure. Normally closed Gate valve should be provided outside of enclosure.
Storage Tank should be 90 meter away from boiler, furnace still, except Day tank in Boiler
LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS FOR EXPLOSIVE TANK FARM:

a) Petroleum storage tanks shall be located in dyked enclosure with roads all round the enclosure.
b) Dyked enclosure should be able to contents the complete contents of the largest tank in the tank farm
in case of an emergency. Enclosure capacity shall be calculated after deducting the volume of the
tanks up to the height of enclosure. A free board of 200 mm shall be considered in fixing the height of
the dyked.
c) The height of tank enclosure dyked shall be at least 1 M and shall not be more than 2 M above
average ground level inside. However, for excluded petroleum it can 600 mm.
d) Petroleum Class A and Class B petroleum can be stored in the same dyked enclosure when Class C
is stored together, all safety stipulations applicable to Class A and B shall apply.
e) Excluded petroleum shall not be stored in the dyke.
f) Tanks shall be arranged in two rows so that each tank is approachable from the surround road.
g) The tank height shall not exceed one and a half times the diameter of tank or 20 M whichever is less.
h) Minimum distance between the tank shell and the tank shell and the inside of the dyke wall shall not
be less than one half the height of the tank. Height is considered from bottom to the top curb angle.
i) It is better that the corner of the bund should be rounded and not at right angles as it is difficult
extinguish fire in a 90 angle corner because of the air compression effect.
j) There should be a minimum of two access points on opposite sides of the bund to allow safe access /
escape in all wind directions.
k) Distance to be observed around facilities in an installation shall be as per the relevant chart furnished
in the petroleum Rules.
LAYOUT OF GAS STORAGE:

a) Storage Vessels are not allowed below ground level. They are to be installed above ground level.
b) Vessels shall be located in open.
c) Vessels are not to be installed above one another.
d) If vessels in the installation are more than one the longitudinal axis of vessels should be parallel to
each other.
e) Top surfaces of vessels are required to be made in one plane.
f) Vessels installed with their dished ends facing each other shall have screen walls in between them.
g) The distance to be observed between two vessels in one installation and distance from building or
group of building or line of adjoining property are given in Table 1 & Table 2.
h) The area where vessels, pumping equipment, loading and unloading facilities and direct fired
vaporized are provided shall be enclosed by an Industrial A type Fence at least 2 M high along the
perimeter of safety Zone
i) The minimum distance to be observed around installation shall be as per the guidelines in SMPV
which are reproduced in Table 1 and 2.
156
PIPING GUIDELINES
157
PIPING ARRANGEMENT GUIDE LINES
1. Simple arrangement and short lines minimize pressure drop and lower pumping cost.
2. Design pipe in such a way that the arrangement is flexible, reduces stresses due to mechanical or
thermal movement.
3. Inside building piping is usually arranged parallel to building steelwork to simplify supporting and
improve appearance.
4. Outside building piping can be arranged : i) On Pipe Rack
ii) On Sleepers
iii) In Trenches
iv) Vertically against steel work
PIPING ARRANGEMENT:
1. Use standard available items wherever possible.

2. Do not use miters unless directed to do so.
3. Do not run piping under foundations.
4. Piping may have to go through concrete floors or walls. Establish these points of penetration as early
as possible and inform the group concerned to avoid cutting existing reinforcing bars.
5. Preferably lay piping such as lines to outside storage, loading, and receiving facilities at grade on pipe
sleepers. If there is no possibility of future roads or site development.
6. Avoid pocket in steam line, it very difficult to collect condensate. Steam line may be run below grade
in trenches provide with covers or in sleeves.
7. Include removable flanged spool to aid maintenance, especially at pump, turbines and other
equipment that will have to be removed frequently.
8. Take gas and vapor branch lines from top of header where it is necessary to reduce the chance of
drawing off condensate.
9. Avoid pockets in lines; arrange piping so that lines drain back into equipment or into lines that can be
drained.
10. Vent all high point and drain all low points of lines. Carefully place drain and vent valves that can be
easily drained.
ARRANGE FOR SUPPORT
1. Group lines pipe way’s & Support piping from overhead
REMOVING EQUIPMENT AND CLEARING LINES.
Provide union and flanged joint in lines as necessary and in addition use crosses instead of Tee’s and Tee
instead of elbow to permit removing material that may solidify.
CLEARANCES AND ACCESS
1. Route piping to obtain adequate clearances for maintaining and removing equipment.
2. Locate within reach, or make it accessible, all equipment subject to periodic operation/ Inspection with
special reference to check valves, pressure relief valves, traps, strainers and instruments.
3. Take care to not obstruct access way’s, door ways’ escape routes, truck way’s, walkway’s and lifting
bay’s etc.
4. Position equipment with adequate clearance for operation and maintenance. In some circumstances
these clearance may be inadequate. For example with shell and tube heat exchanges space must be
provided to permit withdrawal of tubes.
5. Insure very hot lines are not running adjacent to the line carrying temperature sensitive fluid, or
elsewhere, where heat might be undesirable.
6. Establish sufficient headroom for HVAC duct work, essential electrical runs and at least two elevations
for pipe run North-South.
7. Elevations of lines are usually changed when changing horizontal direction.
8. Stagger flanges with 300mm minimum clearance from supporting steel.
9. Keep field weld and other joints at least 75mm from supporting steel.
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MINIMUM HRIZONTAL CLEARANCES
1. Operating space around equipment : 750 mm

2. Centerline of railroad to nearest obstruction : i) straight Track 2500mm
ii) Curved Track
3. Manhole to Railing / any obstruction : 1000mm
MINIMUM VERTICAL CLEARANCES
1. Overall way, platform or operating area : 2.0 m

2. Bottom of pipe : 2.2m
3. over stairway : 2.2m
4. Over high point of road way’s : i) Minor road way’s 4.5 meter
: ii) Major roadway’s 6 meter
: iii) Over Railroad /Crane 7mtr
MINIMUM HORIZONTAL DIMENSIONS
1. Width of walkway at floors level : 1000mm

2. Width of elevated walkway or stairway : 750mm
3. Width of mail Escape Route : 1500mm
4. Width of Secondary Escape Route : 1000mm
5. Space in front of manhole : 1000mm
6. Width of rung of fix ladder : 400mm
7. Width of way of forklift : 2500mm
MINIMUM VERTICAL DEMENSIONS

1. Manhole centerline from floor/platform : 1000mm
VALVE OPERATING HEIGHT

VALVE HANDWHEELCENTRELINE VALVE HANDWHEEL CENTERLINE
DESCRIPTION (HANDWHEEL/STEM CENTYERLINR (HANDWHEEL/STEM CENTYERLINR
PARALLEL TO “X”OR “Y” AXIS IN PARALLEL TO “Z” AXIS.IN
HORIZONTAL POSITION) HORIZONTAL POSITION.
Min operating height

0.610mtr 0.610mtr
Preferred operating height 1.070mtr To 1.4mtr. 1.14mtr To 1.3mtr
Maximum Operating Height 1.7mtr. 1.7mtr.
VALVES
Valves are used in piping for following purposes:
1. Process control during operation.

2. Controlling services & utilities.
3. Isolating equipment or instruments for maintenance.
4. Discharging gas, vapor, and liquid.
5. Draining pipes & equipment on shut down.
6. Emergency shutdown in the event of plant mishap or fire.
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VALVE SIZES
Nearly all valves will be equal to line size, expect in control valve. Control valve is normally one size smaller
than line (for more information refer HOOK-UP of control valve.)
VALVE LOCATION
1. Preferably place valves in line from Header (on pipe line) in horizontal rather than vertical runs so that
lines can drain when the valves are closed. (In cold climate water held in lines may freeze & rupture,
the piping to such lines should be traced.)
2. To avoid spooling unnecessary length of pipe, mount valves directly on to flanged equipments.
3. A relief valve that discharge into a Header should be placed higher than the header
in order to drain into it.
4. Locate heavy valve suitable support points; flange should be not closer than 300 mm to the nearest
support so that installation is not hampered.
5. For appearance, if practicable keep centerlines of valves at the same height above floor & in line on
plan.
OPERATING ACCESS TO VALVE
1. Consider frequency of operations when locating manually operating valve.

2. Locate frequently operated valve at accessible height to an operator from grade or platform. Maximum
operating height of valve is 1.7mtr, above this height & up to 6 meter use chain operator,
Over 6 meter consider a platform or remote operation.
3. For frequently used valves can be reached by ladder but consider alternative.
4. Do not locate valve on pipe racks unless unavoidable.
5. Group valve which could be out of reach so that all can be operated by providing platform.
6. If chain is used on a horizontally mounted valve take the bottom of the loop to within 1000 mm above
the floor level & provide a hook nearby to hold the chain.
7. Do not use chain operator on screwed valves, or on any valves 1.5” & smaller.
8. With lines holding dangerous materials it is better to place valve at suitable low level above grade.
ACCESS TO VALVES IN HAZARDOUS AREA
1. Locate the main isolation valve within reach in emergency, make sure that person will be able to
reach valve easily by walking / vehicles.
2. Locate manually operated valves at the plant perimeter or outside the hazardous area.
3. Ensure that automatic operators & their control lines are protected from the effect of fire.
4. Make use of brick or concrete wall as possible as fire shields for valve stations.
5. Consider automatic valves in fire fighting system.
6. Provide access for mobile lifting equipment to handle heavy valves.
7. If possible, arrange valves in such way that support will not be on removable spool.
MAKE MAINTENANCE SAFE
1. Make use of Blind valve, Spectacle plates or double block & bleed valves where positive shutoff
required either for maintenance or process needs.
ORIENTATION OF VALVES
1. Do not point valve stems into walkway, truck way, ladder space etc.
2. Unless necessary, do not arrange valves with their stems pointing downwards or at any angle below
horizontal. Sediment may collect in the gland packing & score the stem.
3. A projecting stem may be hazard to person.
4. If an inverted position is necessary, consider employing a drip shield.
CLOSING DOWN LINES:
1. Consider valve closing time in shutting down or throttling large lines for long distance lines.
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IF THERE IS NO P&ID
1. Provide valves at headers, pumps, equipment etc. ensure that the system is pressure tight for
hydrostatic testing & to allow equipment to be removed for maintenance without shutting down the
system.
2. Provide isolating valve in all small lines branching from header.
3. Provide isolating valve at all Instrument, for removal of Instrument under operating condition.
4. Provide valve drains on all tanks, vessels etc. & other equipment which may contain or collect liquids.
5. Protect sensitive equipment by using fast closing check valve to stop back flow before it can gather
momentum.
6. Consider butt welding or ring joint flanged valves for line connecting hazardous fluid.
7. Consider seal welding screwed valve if used in hydrocarbon service.
8. Consider providing a concrete pit 4ft x 4 ft for a valve which is located below grade.
9. Consider use of temporary closure for positive shut off.
10. Provide bypass if necessary for equipment which may be taken out of services.
11. Provide bypass around control station if continuous flow is required. Bypass should be at least as
large as the control valve.
12. Consider providing large gate valve with valved bypass to equalize pressure on either side of the disc
to reduced effort needed to open the valve.
UTILITY STATIONS
• A utility station usually combines three service lines

carrying steam, compressed air & water.
• Steam line is normally ¾” minimum & the other two
services are usually carried in 1” lines.
• These services are for cleaning local equipments & floors.
• The steam line is fitted with globe valve & air & water lines
with gate valve.
• Utility stations should be locate at some convenient steel
column for supporting & all areas it is to serve & should be
reachable within 50 ft.
CONTROL STATION
A control station is an arrangement of piping in which a control valve is used to reduce & regulate the
pressure or rate of flow of steam, gas, liquid.
DESIGN POINTS
1. For best control, place control station close to the equipment it serves & locate it at grade or operating
platforms.
2. Provide pressure gauge connection downstream of the station valve.
3. Preferably do not sandwich valve, place at least one of the isolating valve in vertical line so that the
spool can taken out allowing the control valve to be removed.
4. Provide valve drain near to & upstream of the control valve. To save space, drain can be placed on
reducer.
5. The drain valve allows pressure between the isolating valve & control valve to be released. One drain
is used if the control valve fails open & both drain if the control valve fails to close.
6. Locate stations in rack piping at grade, next to column for easy supporting.
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PIPE RACK PIPING
162
PIPE RACK
1. A pipe rack is a structure for carrying pipes & is usually fabricated from steel & concrete.
2. The vertical members of the rack are termed stanchions & horizontal member termed Spandrel.
3. Pipe racks may be single tier (deck) or double tier. It may go up to 3 to 4 Tier as per the space
constraint.
4. Only for two & three pipes, Pipe rack can be made from ‘T’ shaped member.
5. Pipe racks are expensive but are necessary for arranging the process & utility lines around the plant.
6. Pump, Utility stations, Manifolds, Firefighting & First aid stations can be located under pipe rack.
7. Lighting & other fixtures can be fitted to Stanchions (vertical member)
8. Air cooled heat exchangers can be supported above the pipe rack.
9. The smallest size of pipe run on the pipe rack without additional support is usually 2”. It may be more
economic to change proposed small lines to 2”
KEY POINTS:
1. In double pipe rack keep process lines at first tier & utility line at second tier.
2. Do not run piping over stanchions (vertical column) as this will prevent adding another deck.
3. Place large liquid filled pipes near stanchions to reduce stress on horizontal number.
4. Heavy liquid filled pipes (12” & above) are more economically run at grade piping should be supported
on sleepers at 300 mm above grade level.
5. Hot & cold pipes are usually insulated & mounted on shoes.
6. The height of relief header is fixed by its point of origin & slope required to drain the line to a
header/Tank etc.
7. Electrical & instrument trays are best placed on top tier, it can also be attached to out rigger or
brackets outside rack. Vertical trays can be attached to stanchions.
8. When change in direction of a horizontal line is made it is best, also to make a change of elevations.
This avoids blocking space for future lines & also easy to change line sequence.
9. If space permit pipes should be racked on a single deck.
10. Pipe racks are usually not over 25 ft or 7.5 meter in width.
11. Minimum clearance under pipe rack is determined by available mobile lifting equipment under rack.
12. When setting elevations of pipe rack try to avoid pockets in the pipes.
13. Group hot lines requiring expansion loop at one side of the pipe rack.
14. Locate utility stations, control stations & fire hose point adjacent to stanchions for supporting.
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164
TANK FARM PIPING
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04) TANKS: A storage tank is a container, usually for holding liquids, sometimes for compressed gases (gas
tank). Since most liquids can spill, evaporate, or seep through even the smallest opening, special
consideration must make for their safety and secure handling. This usually involves building a bunding, or
containment dike, around the tank, so that any leakage may be safely contained.
Some storage tanks need a floating roof in addition to or in lieu of the fixed roof and structure. This floating
roof rises and falls with the liquid level inside the tank, thereby decreasing the vapor space above the liquid
level. Floating roofs are considered a safety requirement as well as a pollution prevention measure for many
industries including petroleum refining.
Tanks for a particular fluid are chosen according to the flash-point of that substance. Generally in refineries
and especially for liquid fuels, there are fixed roof tanks, and floating roof tanks.
1. Fixed roof tanks are meant for liquids with very high flash points, (e.g. fuel oil, water, bitumen etc.) Cone
roofs, dome roofs and umbrella roofs are usual. These are insulated to prevent the clogging of certain
materials, wherein the heat is provided by steam coils within the tanks. Dome roof tanks are meant for
tanks having slightly higher storage pressure than that of atmosphere (e.g. slop oil).
2. Floating roof tanks are broadly divided into external floating roof tanks (usually called as floating roof
tanks: FR Tanks) and internal floating roof types (IFR Tanks).
IFR tanks are used for liquids with low flash-points (e.g. ATF, MS. gasoline, ethanol). These tanks are nothing
but cone roof tanks with a floating roof inside which travels up and down along with the liquid level. This
floating roof traps the vapor from low flash-point fuels. Floating roofs are supported with legs on which they
rest. FR tanks do not have a fixed roof (it is open in the top) and has a floating roof only. Medium flash point
liquids such as naphtha, kerosene, diesel, crude oil etc. are stored in these tanks.
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Other classification which can be made for storage tanks are based upon their location in a refinery:
• COT- crude oil tankages

• PIT- product and intermediate storage tankages
• DISPATCH- dispatch area tankages
• UTILITIES- tanks made in the power plant area, for storage water
etc.
• OSBL tanks- the first 3 types come under out side battery limit
tankages
• ISBL tanks- these are usually mini tanks which are found in the
production units of a refinery (as neutralisation tanks, water tanks
etc.)
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Spherical Tanks
As flash-points of fuels go very low the tanks are usually spherical (known as spheres), for storage of LPG,
hydrogen, hexane, nitrogen, oxygen etc.
Typical Arrangement of Spherical Tank Piping.
• Determination of Piping Route

• Process piping should not cross any other pipes if possible.
• Formation of vent pockets
• Piping from and to the tanks should run through the shortest
routes.
• A minimum distance of 500mm shall be secured between the
dike and pipe support.
• Tank block valves shall be provided with platforms which can
also be used as a walkway
• Valves shall be arranged by aligning the flange surfaces

• Space between two crossing pipes shall be at least 300 mm.
• Valve accessories should be considered in determining spaces
between closely arranged valves
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DISTILLATION COLUMN PIPING
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01. DISTILLATION COLUMN
INFORMATION NEEDED TO ARRANGE THE COLUMN PIPING:
1. Plot plan showing space available for column location.

2. Details of equipments which are connected to the column.
3. P&ID, NPSH of bottoms pumps & instrumentation.
4. Column data sheets.
5. Line list.
6. Details if trays & other internal parts.
7. Restriction of heights of ladder.
8. Operational requirement if any.
COLUMN OPERATION
The feed is heated before it enters the column, as feed enters the column quantities of vapor are given off by
flashing due to the release of pressure in the feed.
As the vapor raise up the column they come to intimate contact with down flowing liquid. During the contact
some of the heavier component of vapor are condensed & some or the lighter components of down flowing
liquid are vaporized. This process is termed as refluxing.
1. Trays are of various designs. Their purpose is to collect a certain amount of liquid but allows vapor to
pass up through them so that vapor & liquid come in contact.
2. Packings are for increasing residence time.
3. Product from the column is piped to collect in tank and is termed as drum or accumulator.
4. Normally all materials enters & leave the column through pipes therefore column are located closed to
pipe rack.
5. If the vapor from the top of the column is condensable it is piped to a condenser to form a liquid.
Condenser may be mounted at grade or sometime on the side of the column.
6. A steam heated heat exchanger termed as Reboiler used to heat material drawn from a select level
in the column.
7. Material from bottom is termed Bottoms. Vapor from top is termed Overheads.
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COLUMN OPERATIONS & REQUIREMENTS
1. Manholes are necessary to allow installation & removal of tray parts.

2. Platforms & ladders are required for personal access to valves on nozzles, to manholes & to column
instruments.
3. Davit is needed to raise & lower column parts.
4. Manholes should be located away from piping, if required manhole can be placed off the column
centerline.
5. Elevations of nozzles are taken from the column datasheet.
6. Platforms are required under manholes, valves at nozzles, level gauge controllers if any & pressure
relief valve.
7. Columns may be grouped & sometimes interconnecting platforms between columns are used.
8. Individual platforms for a column are usually shaped as a circular segment.
9. Platform is required at the top of the column for operating a davit, a vent on shutdown & for free
access to the safety relief valve. This top platform may be rectangular or square.
10. Ladder length is usually restricted to 6 meter between landings. If operating platforms are further apart
from than maximum permissible ladder height a small intermediate platform is provided.
11. Ladders & cages should be confirmed to the company standard & safety the requirement of the US
dept of labor (OSHA) part 1910-D
DAVIT:
Davit should be located at the top of the column. So that it can lower & raise the column parts.
ARRANGING THE COLUMN PIPING:
To achieve simplicity & good arrangement some trial & error working is necessary.
1. Allocated space for vertical lines from lower nozzles. Avoiding running these lines through platforms if
possible.
2. Lines from top of column tend to be larger than others, allocate space for them first.
Keeping the lines parallel to wall of the column makes supporting easier.
3. Providing access for mobile lifting equipments.
4. Provide clearance to grade under the suction line.
5. Avoid pockets in bottom lines.
BOTTOM PUMP & ELEVATION OF COLUMN
The elevation of column is set by the: i) NPSH required by the bottom pump.
ii) The access requirement under section line.
iii) Requirement for thermosyphone Reboiler.
VALVES ON COLUMN
1. Valve & blinds which serve the tower should be positioned directly on nozzle for economy.
2. Platform should be located to give access to large valves.
3. Small valves may be located at the end of platform.
4. Control valve should be accessible from operating platform.
5. Pressure relief valve should be placed at the highest point in the line & should be accessible from top
platform.
6. Valve should not be located within the skirt of the column.
INSTRUMENTS AND CONNECTIONS
1. Temperature connections should be located to communicate with liquids of the tray.

2. Pressure connection should be located below the tray.
3. Access for instrument can also be provided by ladder.
4. All gauges must be visible while operating valve.
5. For locating instruments at one end of a circular platform may go for a narrower platform.
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Distillation is defined as a process in which a liquid or vapor mixture of two or more substances is separated
into its component fractions of desired purity, by the application and removal of heat.
Types of Distillation Column
There are many types of distillation columns, each designed to perform specific types of separations, and
each design differs in terms of complexity and mainly they are Batch Column and Continuous Columns.
Batch Column : In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the column is
charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out. When the desired task is achieved, a
next batch of feed is introduced.
Continuous Column : In contrast, continuous columns process a continuous feed stream. No interruptions
occur unless there is a problem with the column or surrounding process units. They are capable of handling
high throughputs and are the most common of the two types. We shall concentrate only on this class of
columns
Some of the classifications of the Continuous columns are as follows
i) As per the nature of the feed that they are processing.
• Binary column - feed contains only two components
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• Multi-component column - feed contains more than two components
ii) As per the number of product streams
• multi-product column - column has more than two product streams
iii) As per the extra feed exists when it is used to help with the separation
• Extractive distillation - where the extra feed appears in the bottom product stream
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• Azeotropic distillation - where the extra feed appears at the top product stream
iv) As per the type of Internals
• Tray column – Trays are used in column to bring liquid and vapor in to intimate contact.
Some of the important Tray types
a) Sieve Tray: Used for recovery and concentration of acid gases or other soluble gaseous contaminants.
b) Bubble Cap Tray: Bubble cap trays are commonly used to provide mass or heat transfer between liquid
and vapor streams. Its advantages include minimum liquid leakage, wide range of operating rates, reasonable
cost, and usefulness at very low liquid rates.
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c) Valve Cap Tray : Valve cap trays provides the best turndown and efficiency and Valves positioned parallel
to the liquid flow allow the liquid to flow unopposed across the tray, also lateral vapor release assures uniform
contact in all active areas.
• Packed column - where instead of trays, 'packings' are used to enhance contact between vapor and
liquid, it increases resident time also.
Main Components of Distillation Column :
Distillation columns are made up of various components, each of which is used either to transfer heat energy
or enhance material transfer.
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STRESS ANALYSIS
176
Introduction to Stress Analysis & Roll of a Stress Engineer
A Piping system experiences different constant as well as occasional forces due to different physical,
environmental, operational parameters e.g. Pipe commodity weights, earthquake, wind, operating philosophy
of equipments etc. These forces are mainly weight or displacement driven. A special engineering care has to
be taken to make the piping system safe under the severe conditions due to the factors mentioned above. The
study of piping system under critical conditions is called Pipe Stress Analysis.
ROLL OF STRESS ENGINEER IN THE PIPING INDUSTRY:
A Stress Engineer plays a very crucial role the Piping industry. Till few years back there was no separate
group in the piping Department for Stress Analysis. A piping layout / Design engineer used to perform the
activity of Stress Analysis with help of graphs, charts, nomograms etc. But the development of special
software, new international norms, requirement of quality and safety assurance; a need of Stress Engineer
who is specifically dedicated to stress analysis arose. This highlights the importance of Stress engineer in the
today’s Piping industry.
Roll of stress engineer is very important in the Piping engineering as he/she takes the Engineering
responsibility of the stress critical lines. Stress Engineer approves the layout or he/she changes the layout if it
does not satisfy the engineering requirement of International codes and standards. Further, Stress Engineer
decides the type of supports, distance between two supports which makes the line routing safe. Thus, in
today’s piping industry a Critical line cannot be erected on site without stress engineer’s approval.
A STRESS ENGINEER SHOULD –
• Posses knowledge of basic engineering subjects like Engineering drawing, Strength of Materials,
Metallurgy, machine design, piping layout etc.
• Have knowledge of all the relevant piping engineering codes and standards like ASME B31.1,ASME
B31.3, API standards, manufacturer’s standards etc.,
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• Able to read the piping drawings, mechanical drawings, P& I D, civil drawings etc.
• Have general piping layout knowledge to suggest the alternative solutions.
• Have basic knowledge of piping materials and specifications.
WHAT IS STRESS ANALYSIS?
A piping system experiences loads, forces and subsequently the stresses due to various factors like
temperature, pressure, earthquake, wind, psv thrust, vibrations etc.
THE STUDY OF PIPING SYSTEM UNDER CRITICAL CONDITIONS IS PIPE STRESS ANALYSIS.
CAUSES OF STRESS?
Weight-
The piping system consists of several commodities like valve, insulations, fluid to be conveyed, self weight of
pipe etc. which contributes for “WEIGHT “of the system.
Pressure- Internal or external pressure of the fluid inside the pipe causes the stresses in the system.
Temperature-
The material expands & contracts with the increase and decrease in the temperature respectively. If this
expansion of contraction is restricted then it cause for the stress generation. Temperature is major factor for
stress generation.
Occasional factors-
Generally the piping system is exposed to few environmental factors like wind, earthquake which occurs
occasionally but has considerable impact on piping system and creates stresses which can be of high
magnitude.
Dynamic factor-
There are few factors which are generated during the plant operations like Slug flow, PSV force etc. which
exert sudden forces on the piping system and creates stresses of high magnitude and short duration. These
factors are crucial because of its dynamic nature.
WHY DO WE PERFORM STRESS ANALYSIS?
• In order to keep stresses in the pipe within code allowable- Each plant is built according to
some or other international/domestic codes or standard depending on its service, product etc. By the
means of the Stress analysis we ensure that the given piping system is complying with the
international/domestic codes and/or standards.
• In order to keep nozzle loading within allowable- Generally any piping system starts and ends at
equipment. This piping system, due to its own inertia, temperature exerts the forces as well as
moments on the connected nozzle equipment. Being the weak element, the nozzles can fail due to
this loading and hence by means of stress analysis it is ensured that the loads exerted on the
equipment nozzles are within the permissible values.
• To calculate loads on supports / structure- One of the important output from the stress analysis is
the loads exerted by the piping system on the structure supporting it. This information is very
important as civil engineer designs the structure depending on this information. A proper input to civil
can optimize the civil design and minimize the cost of the plant.
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• To determine pipe displacements- As we know that pipe expands or contracts as temperature

increases or decreases respectively. The stress analysis gives us the displacement of the pipe at any
point particularly at the change in direction which helps to ensure that the adjacent pipes are not
hitting each other. Also we can ensure that the support connected to pipe e.g. pipe shoe does not
displace and come off the supporting member (I-beam).
• To optimize the routing- This the most important use of the Stress analysis. With a proper stress
analysis one can optimize the pipe routing and reduce the pipe length, reduce the number of bends,
eliminate the unwanted support etc. and can save the cost of the plant to a great extent.
WHAT IF WE IGNORE STRESS ANALYSIS?
The stress analysis of the critical piping system is extremely important to ensure the safety of the Plant. If we
ignore the stress analysis the system can fail. Here failure nee not be the actual failure or breaking of the
system but it can be a functional failure, process failure, aesthetic failure, over stressing of line, unexpected
behavior of line etc. Following are few of the modes of failure-
• Snaking of lines at high temperature due to improper supporting- Such a kind of behavior is
observed for small bore lines (2” – 4” lines) with very high temperature if lines are properly guided & if
not sufficient loops have been provided. Following is the picture of such a snaked line.
• Supports not working on site- Sometimes if the line is not properly supported then the support do
not work actually as intended e.g. lifting off the lines from the supports or counter weights etc. The
picture below shows the displacement of the counter weight from its desired position.
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• Failure of Bellow- Bellows can fail if those are not designed properly.
• Huge pipe displacements- This failure occurs at high temperature lines where lines can displace a lot
and some times fall out of support. Following picture is the example of the line falling off the support.
• Breaking of the supports- Improper stress analysis or support design can lead to breaking of
the supports as shown in the following picture.
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• Flange leakage- This is one of the serious failure which can lead to serious hazard if the fluid leaked
is toxic or inflammable.
• Nozzle Failures- The nozzle can experience very high loads or stresses if not designed properly. See
the next picture showing stresses on Equipment nozzle.
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• Excessive loads on Equipments- Excessive loads may act on equipment foundations, nozzles if the
connected piping is not properly stress analyzed.
All above example shows the importance of Pipe Stress analysis in the Piping Engineering.
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INTRODUCTION TO STRESS ANALYSIS
WHAT IS STRESS?
Consider the following example where a thin steel wire of 2 sq.mm diameter is hung at the top and a weight is
attached at the other end. Consider the first case where the magnitude of weight is zero. Wire will remain in its
original position and will not deform or will not experience any tension as weight is zero. Thus we can say wire
is ‘Stress free’.
In the second case let’s add 10 kg weight. Now wire will be stretched a bit and will experience a tension or we
can say that wire is under stress. The magnitude of this stress can be calculated as ration of applied force to
the resisting cross sectional area. In this case stress = 10/2=5 kg/sq/cm.
DEFINITION: The resistance developed in the material per unit area against the applied force is the stress in
the material. It can be simply specified as force per unit area of the material. If the force is acting on the
section such as tensile or compressive forces then the stress developed are tensile or compressive stresses
and if the force is acting tangential to the section such as shear force the stress developed is shear stress.
Tensile/comp Stress, S = Tensile/ comp Force

Cross Sectional area
Shear Stress, t = Tangential Force
Shear area
The cause of the force can be different. It can be weight, pressure, temperature, restraints, wind, earthquake
etc.
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WHAT IS STRAIN?
DEFINITION: A component subjected to load undergoes deformation. The deformation is quantified by strain
defined as change in length per unit length of material. Mathematically this will be e = dL/L
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Upto a certain limit of loading known as proportional limit the stress developed in the material is in direct
proportion to the strain. This law is called Hooke's Law and the constant of proportionality, E, is called
modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus), which is a definite property of the material,
Mathematically,
E = S /e
YIELD STRENGTH:
The stress at Yield Point is known as Yield Strength of the material, which is the maximum stress the material
can withstand without undergoing permanent deformation. Though the material does not break immediately
beyond this stress the functionality of the member gets affected and hence the stress on the member is not
allowed to exceed the Yield Strength under normal operating conditions.
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH :

The maximum stress in the Stress-Strain curve of the material is the Ultimate Tensile Strength of the material.
This is the point beyond which the material becomes unstable under load and breaks after uncontrolled
yielding. This point signifies the beginning of the reduction in cross section area (Necking).
PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL RELATED TO STRESS ANALYSIS

• Strength – Strength of the Material is the ability if the material to resist its deformation and
subsequently the ultimate failure under the action of force.
• Stiffness – It is the ability of the material to deform (or bend) under the action of force.
• Elasticity- It is the property of the material by virtue of which it regains its original shape after the
removal of load.
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
C F
B
A D
Stress
O Strain
O-A PROPORTIONAL LIMIT i.e. HOOK’S LAW HOLDS GOOD

A-B ELASTIC LIMIT , B – ELASTIC POINT
B-C-D PLASTIC STAGE i.e. STRAIN INCREASES AT FASTER RATE THAN STRAIN
C - UPPER YIELD POINT
D - LOWER YIELD POINT
E ULTIMATE STRESS POINT ( BETWEEN D & E MATERIAL REGAINS SOME STRENGTH &
HIGHER VALUE OF STRESS IS REQUIRED FOR HIGHER STRAIN )
F BREAKING STRESS
POISON’S RATIO
It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic limit
LATERAL SRAIN α LINEAR STRAIN
LATERAL STRAIN = CONSTANT (POISON’S RATIO)

LINEAR STRAIN
184
P d P
P d-δd P
L+δL
General value for C.S., S.S. is 0.3
BASIC STRESS CONCEPTS
LONGITUDINAL STRESS
Under the internal pressure this stress is developed normal to the cross section of the pipe. For thin cylinders
Longitudinal stress, SL , can be expressed as
SL = P*Di (where P, Di & t are as defined above)

4t
Sl = (P*Ai) / Am
Sl = (P* π/4*Di2) / (π/4* (Do2- Di2))
Sl = (P* Di2) / 4*{((Do+Di)/2) * ((Do-Di)/2)}
Now, (Do+Di)/2 = Dm i.e. mean Diameter

And (Do-Di)/2 = tm i.e. pipe thickness
Sl = (P* Di2) / 4*Dm * tm
Assume Di2 / Dm = Do
Hence Sl = P*Do / 4*t
BENDING STRESS
Under loads acting in a plane normal to the axis of the pipe, bending stresses are developed in pipe. The
bending moment acting in the plane of the pipe is called in plane bending moment and the bending stresses
are called in-plane bending stresses (Sb). Similarly, the bending moment acting perpendicular to the plane of
the pipe is called out of plane bending moment and the bending stress,
developed is called out of plane bending stress, Sb. Mathematically
185
HOOP STRESS
Under the internal pressure loading this stress is developed tangential to the cross section.
For thin cylinders Hoop Stress, SH can be expressed as
SH = P*Di
2t
where,
P = Internal pressure
Di = Inside diameter of pipe
t = Thickness of the pipe
186
TORSION
Torsional stresses are developed when the pipe is subjected to Twisting Moment (torque). The torsional
stress, t , can be expressed as
t = MÆ/ 2J Do
where,
MÆ = Twisting Moment (Torque)
Do = Outside Diameter of pipe
J = Polar Moment of Inertia
TYPES OF STRESSES
PRIMARY STRESSES
1. FORCE DRIVEN
2. NOT SELF LIMITING
3. NON CYCLIC
Loads include the weight of medium transported, testing medium, snow, internal pressure, insulation weight,
permanent weights etc.
EXCESSIVE PRIMARY LOADS CAUSES PLASTIC DEFORMATION & RUPTURE
187
SECONDARY STRESSES
THERMAL/EXPANSION STRESSES
1) DISPLACEMENT DRIVEN
2) SELF LIMITING
3) CYCLIC ( EXCEPT SETTLEMENT )
4) ALLOWABLE LIMIT BASED ON FATIGUE FAILURE
These stresses are developed due to restrained thermal expansion of the pipe and due to thermal expansion
of connected equipment. Albeit, the stresses thus developed are similar to one or the other of the above
mentioned stresses, they are described separately because they are secondary in nature, unlike the above
mentioned stresses.
When the natural thermal expansion of the pipe due to the increase in its temperature is restrained by the
attached equipment and supports, thermal stresses are developed in pipe. At the same time it has to
accommodate the thermal growth of the equipment nozzles due to the thermal expansion of the equipment
also.
For a length L of pipe having thermal expansion coefficient a. subjected to a change in temperature DT, the
unrestrained expansion in length, DL, will be L a DT. If this is completely restrained, the strain on the piping
will be DL/L which is equal to a DT. The stress developed corresponding to this strain will be Young's
Modulus, E, of the material multiplied by the strain, which will be E a DT. This is the thermal stress developed.
Loads due to Restraints, temperature gradients, differential rate of expansions etc.
SINGLE APPLICATION OF LOAD WILL NEVER PRODUCE FAILURE
Consider the following example where a pipe is connected between two equipments in straight line and
nozzles facing each others. If we heat the pipe then it will try ro expand. Since the equipments are anchored
to the ground and hence very rigid pipe can not expand freely. Thus pipe will exert thermal forces on the
equipment nozzle. This will either result in the failure of nozzle if it is week or bending of pipe in abrupt shape.
This is called ‘Thermal Stress’.
OCCASIONAL STRESSES
1. Characteristics similar to Primary Stresses.

2. Unpredictable & Occasional
3. Loads act in multi-directions
4. Magnitude of loads Changes
5. Piping System does not get time to respond.
Loads due to wind, earthquake, Relief valve pop up, Water hammer etc.
HOW TO OVERCOME THESE STRESSES?
Sustained Stresses – By Proper Supporting
188
Thermal Stresses – By Proper Routing.
189
Occasional Stresses – By Proper Guiding.
CODE STRESS ALLOWABLES B 31.3
SUSTAINED STRESSES
Sl = (Fax / Am) + [(ii Mi)² + (io Mo)² ]1/2 / Z ] + [Pdo / 4t] <= W.Sh
Sh is minimum of
• 1/3 Sultimate at operating temp.

• 1/ 3 Sultimate at room temp.
• 2/3 Syield at operating temp
• 2/3 Syield at room temp
EXPANSION STRESSES
SA < f ( 1.25 Sc + 1.25 Sh ) – f . Sl
f ( 1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh ) + f ( Sh – Sl )
f is cyclic reduction factor
Liberal stresses = f ( Sh –Sl )
SA is the allowable stress range
OCCASIONAL STRESSES
Sl + Socc < = 1.33 Sh
190
CODE STRESS ALLOWABLES B 31.1 (Ed.1998)
SUSTAINED STRESSES
Sl = 0.75Ma / Z + [Pdo / 4t] <=.Sh

2 2 2 1/2
Ma= [Mx +My +Mz ]
Sh = is minimum of
• ¼ of UTS at operating Temperature
• ¼ of UTS at room temperature
• 5/8 of Yield Strength at operating temperature (90% of Yield for austenitic Steel)
• 5/8 of Yield Strength at room temperature (90% of Yield for austenitic Steel)
• 100% of the average stress for 0.01% creep rate per 1000hrs
EXPANSION STRESSES
SE= i*Mc/Z <= Sa = f(1.25Sc + 1.25Sh – Sl)
Where,
SE = Expansion Stress Range, PSI
Mc= Resultant of moments due to expansion = [Mx2+My2+Mz2]1/2
Sa = Allowable expansion stress, PSI
OCCASIONAL STRESSES
Socc = [0.75*i*Ma / Z]+ = [0.75*i*Mb / Z]+ [Pd/4*t] <=k*Sh
K = occasional factor
= 1.2 for loads occurring less than 1% of the time
= 1.15 for loads occurring less than 10% of the time
LOAD CASES
1) W+P……………….. sustained
2) W+P+T …………… operating
3) W+P+T+Occ ......... operating
4) L2-L1 …………….. Expansion
5) L3-L2 ……………. Pure Occasional
6) L1+L5 …………… Occasional
PARAMETERS CONSIDERED DURING STRESS ANALYIS

• Maximum Pressure
• Maximum differential temperatures.
• Upset Conditions like start up,steamout, PSV discharge
• Wind, Seismic, Snow etc.
• Slug flow, two phase flow etc.
• Operating Standby conditions
191
LIMITING VALUES OF TERMINAL FORCES AND MOMENTS
1. Centrifugal pumps - API 610 / ISO 5199

2. Positive displacement pumps - API 676
3. Centrifugal compressors - API 617
4. Reciprocating compressors - API 618
5. Steam turbines - NEMA SM 23
6. Air cooled heat exchangers - API 661
7. Shell & tube heat exchangers - Manf. Specific./ WRC107/WRC297
8. Fired heaters - Manf. Specific.
9. Flat bottom welded storage
tanks - API 650
10. For other static equipment such as Reactors, vessels and tanks interaction with the fabrication engineer
is required to establish that the local stress developed due to nozzle loadings are within the acceptable limits.
INPUT REQUIRED FOR STRESS ANALYSIS
• P&ID
• Line list
• Piping Specification
• Vendor drawing
• Piping G. A. or isometrics
• Support Standard
SEQUENCE OF ACTIVITIES?
• Prepare Design Basis / work instructions

• Identify Critical line list
• System formation with reference to P&ID
• Prepare Isometrics for stress
• Identify the possible support location
• Stress analysis with software / visual /graphs
• Check for Code compliance & nozzle loading
• Marking the type of supports
• Check the IFC isometrics
192
CRITICAL LINE LIST
A critical line is a line for which flexibility review is required for temperature, weight, supporting
arrangement, external loadings, line connection to strain sensitive equipment, vibrations etc.
193
CRITERIA FOR CRITICAL LINES :-
1. STRESS CRITICAL LINES :
Line size and temperature.

• jacketed lines.
• lines for which expansion bellows are predetermined by process group.
• lines coming under IBR.
• lines having very long straight run and are subjected
• to harsh solar temperature ( above 50 deg c).
• non critical lines connected to critical line having size 3/4 of that of the critical line.
2. EQUIPMENT CRITICAL LINES :
• lines connected to rotating equipments like centrifugal

• pumps, steam turbines, centrifugal compressors etc.
• fired heaters, reforming furnaces.
• reciprocating compressors
• air cooled exchanger.
• vessels constructed from graphite, glass etc. lines connected to vessels, tanks which
may undergo settlement during its life period.
3. SUPPORT CRITICAL LINES :

• lines subjected to two phase flow.
• Non-ferrous lines.
• big bore lines and lines greater having wall thickness such as lines with schedule 160.
METHODS OF FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS
• visual inspection
• code method
• approximate method
• using software
CODE METHOD: (ASME B31.3)
Dy/(L-U)² <= K1
Where D= outside dia of pipe mm
y= resultant of the total displacement strains to be absorbed by the piping systems mm
L= developed length of piping between anchors m
U= anchor distance, m
K1= 20800 SA/E
194
SAMPLE PROBLEM
For example, consider the following pipe routing
Pipe - 6" (150 mm NB) Sch. 40 carbon steel to ASTM A106 Gr.B
Design Temperature - 400 °F (2040C)
Step 1:
To establish the anchor to anchor distance U
Total length in X direction = 35’
Total length in Y direction = 30’
Total length in Z direction = 25’ + 20’

= 45’
Step 2
To determine value of L.
L= 25’+30’+20’+35 = 110’
Step 3
To calculate resultant total displacement Y
From Appendix C, ASME B 31.3
Linear Expansion between 70F and 400°F.
195
Step 4
OBJECTIVES OF SUPPORTS
The layout and the design of the piping and its supporting elements shall be directed towards preventing the
following.
• Piping stresses in excess of those permitted in the code.

• Leakage at joints
• Excessive thrust and moments on connected equipment
• (such as pumps and turbines)
• Excessive stresses in the supporting (or restraining) elements.
• Resonance with imposed fluid induced vibrations.
• Excessive interference with thermal expansion and
• contraction in a piping system, which is otherwise adequately flexible.
• Unintentional disengagement of piping from its supports.
• Excessive piping sag in systems requiring drainage slope.
• Excessive distortion or sag of piping (e.g. Thermo plastics) subject to creep under conditions of
repeated thermal cycling.
• Excessive heat flow, exposing supporting elements to temperature extremes outside their
designlimits.
196
PIPE SUPPORTS
SUPPORT FLOW CHART
INITIAL PIPE ROUTING
TO BE DONE BY
LAYOUT ENGINEER
PRLIMINARY SUPPORT
MARK UP BY SUPPORT STRESS
ENGINEER ENGINEER
LAYOUT
ENGINEER
AFC
TYPES OF SUPPORT
ISOMETRICS
l Supports (or restraints ) are usually classified according to both, direction and function.The major
direction of restraints are those conforming to the three local axes of the pipe .
è Vertical : Gravity
è Axial : Parallel to the pipe run (Longitudinal axis)
è Lateral : Perpendicular to both the vertical and the axial axes.
DESIGN CRITERIA
The major criteria governing support hardware selection are support function, magnitude of expected load
,and space limitations. The following points should also be kept in mind:
1)The design temperature of the piping system used for selection of pipe clamps , u bolts, straps and other
steel in direct contact with pipe .The strength of these items decline with increase in temperature .
2) Piping operation at high temperature or subject to condensation on the outer surface will usually be
insulated. The pipe support hardware must be designed to accommodate the insulation.
3)The piping attachment and supporting structure in contact with each other must be of compatible material in
order to reduce galvanic action.
4)The inspection of the hardware of supports to be done at start-up and also periodic inspection is required.
197
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
PIPE SUPPORT DESIGN CHECKLIST
Proper codes and design criteria should be used
• Determination and specification of design loads.

• Inclusion of frictional load in restraint design
• Consideration of thermal movements & rotation of pipes.
• Correct use of formulae.
• Indication of calculation and mark-up nos
• correct selection of all engineering hardware for load & its application.
• Preparation of sketches for non-standard items.
• Maintenance of proper edge distance for holes & base plates & structural steel.
• proper logging of support on isometrics in the support register.
• Mark-up of feasible supports on the isometrics.
SPRING HANGERS
198
Objectives of Spring Design
Choose a spring
• which provide the weight support load necessary to balance the piping system after the pipe has
moved from its cold position to hot/operating position
• Permits the total movement of the pipe from its cold to hot position &
• Does not cause excessive expansion stress range in the pipe as the spring load ranges from its cold
to hot load.
Terms Related with hanger design
CL = cold load ( unbalanced installation load of spring), lb

HL = hot load ( desired target load to support balanced weight at spring location)
K = spring constant of spring used, lb / in
Δ = travel or expected thermal movement of pipe at spring location, from installation to operating , where
upward movement is positive,in
Load variation = I CL - HL I
HL
Since the hot load and thermal movement are dictated by the piping system configuration , the variability of an
individual spring can be controlled only by varying the spring rate.
TYPES OF SPRING SUPPORT
Variable Spring Support
Variable spring supports are so called because they provide variable supporting forces as the pipe moves
vertically. This is due to elongation and contraction of the spring within the can assembly . The spring is
initially compressed prior to installation on the system; upward motion of pipe causes spring extension and
therefore reduces the spring force. Downward motion increases the spring compression , consequently
increasing the resisting force.
199
Constant Effort Spring Support
The geometric design of the constant support hanger assures perfectly constant support through the entire
deflection of the pipe load. This counterbalancing of the load and spring moments about the main pivot is
obtained by the use of carefully designed compression-type springs, lever and spring tension rods.
Variable Spring Constant Effort Spring

Load changes as pipe moves Constant load is applied
from cold to hot position. throughout the movement of
the pipe.
Variance is generally 1 to 25% Variance is generally above

25%
Recommended for pipe Recommended for pipe

movement up to 2” movement above 2”
Compact assembly and less Bulky assembly and expensive

expensive
200
CAESAR II MODELING PROCEDURE
201
Caesar II Modeling procedure
1) To Start Caesar Double click on located at desktop of Computer..
2) Click on new to create a Modell
3) Then click on to new it will ask for a file name and path to save the file
After entering the path it will show the current unit as shown below
202
4) To change the unit of conflg click on the tools go to the configure/setup
The configure/setup show the FRP properties, data base definitions, miscellaneous, computational control,
SIF’s and Stresses, Geometry directives, 3D Viewer settings
As per requirement we can change the setup. Now click on the EXIT w/SAVE
203
5) Now click on the Piping input as shown in the FIG it will open the CEASAR file for inputting the data
File is open for inputing the data as shown below. The left side is for inputing the data as per our requirement
and on the right side it consists of Black Space in wich at bottom the X Y Z AXIS. As we input the data on right
side it will shows the 3D view on the right side
204
On the left hand side. It will show the NODE Number
At bottom of left hand side the table have blank box as shown below we have to fill it up as per the given input
such as the Diameter, Wall thickness, Corrosion, Insul Thk,Temp1,Temp 2, Temp 3, Pressure 1,Pressure
2,Hydro Pressure AND Also select the Material, Fluid Density, Insulation Density
205
6) Mark the axis (x,y,z) as shown on CEASER plot on the iso and mark the node number as shown in fig……..
7) Proceed for input as shown from node 10 to 20.double click on rigid to on it.
206
Now for modeling the support double click on Restraint. It will ask for a node on which support and which type
of support we want
6) After filling the input go to the next node. To go to the next node click on the it will
create the node 20 to 30
Now enter the length from node 20 to 30.also click on rigid
The temperature and pressure changes
207
7) Again to create the next node from 30 to 40.click on rigid and change the temperature
8) The input in node 40 to 45 is the length and temperature
Click on the rigid
9) Now create the node 45 to 50 the input are the length in DY axis
10) Now create the node 50 to 60 the input are length and temperature
208
11) Now create the next node 60 to 70 by click on .after creating the node change the node 60 by
click on it and write to 50 so it will create the node 50 to 70
As node create the node 50 to 70 input the data length and temperature
12) Create the node 70 to 80 then write the length value. not click on the rigid it should be off
13) Create the node 80 to 90 enter the length of flange.
And click on the rigid and fill rigid weight that is the weight of the flange.
Click on the restraint and enter the ancor support on the node 90 as shown. Connecting node as 91
14) Create the node 91 to 100 and enter the length of flange and click on rigid and enter the rigid
weight of flange.
209
15) Create the node 100 to 110.and click on the Bend to create a elbow
16) Create the 110 to 120 and enter the value in DY axise
17) Create the node 120 to 130 and enter the length also click on the Bend
18) Create the node 130 to 140 and enter the length in DX direction. Click on the Bend
19) Create the node 140 to 150 and enter the length in (DY axis)
Create the node 150 to 160 enter the flange length click on the rigid and enter the rigid weight of flange
Click on the restraint and enter the anchor on the nod 160, connecting node 161
210
20) Create the node 161 to 170 enter the flange length click on the rigid fill rigid weight of flange
21) Create the node 170 to 180 enter the length
22) Create the node 180 to 190 enter the length and click on the rigid not fill the rigid weight
23) Create the node 190 to 200 enter the length also click on the rigid
24) Create the node 200 to 210 enter the length and click on the rigid
Click on the restraints give anchor support on node 210
211
25) Create the node 190 to 220 enter the length and click on the rigid
26) Create the node 220 to 230 enter the length click on the rigid and restraints enter the support on the node
230
27) Create the node 120 to 8120 click on the SIFs & Tees it will ask for the node number and type of joint as
shown below. Type node 120, Type 2-unreinforced
Click on the Restraints for support on node 8120 as resting ie. +Y as shown below connecting node 8121 and
Mu as 0.3
Change temperature and pressure for node 120 to 8120
212
28) Create the node 120 to 8130 enter the length and click on the restraints for support on the node 8130 i.e.
+Y as shown below
29) Create the node 45 to 47 enter the value as shown below and click on the rigid
Change the temperature as shown below
30) Create the node from 47 to 8121 click on the rigid
Change the temperature
213
31) Create the node from 45 to 48 click to the rigid
32) Create the node from 48 to 8131 as shown below click on the rigid
33) Now modelling is completed to run it click on (Batch run)
214
It will open the static output processor as shown below
CHECKING
1) To check the displacement of system on sustain. Select the (SUS) W+P1 Displacement and
then click on (view report)
It will show displacement on sustain at each nodeas shown below

215
Simillary u can see the displacment for operating and expansion codition
2) To check Stresses (Sustain and Expansion)
You can see the Stresses at all Nodes
Sustained Stress Report -
216
Expansion Stress Report
217
Now we can check the loads on the all Restraint Point As-
You will get Restrain Summary as
218
219
OTHER DOCUMENTS
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
Suvidya Institute of Technology

Wishes
You
Bright Future
In
PIPING
Together We will Bring New Dimensions

To
Engineering Industry
All The Best…..
232

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SITPL Piping Engineering

Post Graduate Diploma in

• Industry specific Training in various disciplines of Engineering.

• M/s. Petrofac Engineering India Ltd - Mumbai

Objectives of these Courses …

SPECIALISED COURSES OFFERED BY US WHO CAN ATTEND:

• Piping Engineering - Mechanical, Chemical & Production Engineers

• Advanced Pipe Stress Analysis - Mechanical/Chemical Engineering/ Piping Engineers.

• H.V.A.C - Mechanical & Production Engineers.

• Process Engineering - Chemical Engineers.

• Mechanical Design of Process Equipment - Mechanical / Production Engineers.

• Structural Engineering. - Civil / Structural Engineers.

• Electrical Engineering - Electrical Engineers.

• Instrumentation & Control - Instrumentation / Electronics Engineers.

• Water & Waste Water Engineering. - Engineers, B.Sc & M.sc

• Engineering Design & Drafting. - HSC

• Piping Design & Drafting - ITI - Mechanical Draughtsman.

TOGETHER WE WILL BRING NEW DIMENSIONS TO ENGINEERING

Chapter No. Page No.

01. Introduction to Piping and About Oil & Gas Sector 6

02. Basic Engineering & Documents used in Piping 18

03. Codes & Standards 34

04. Piping Elements 47

05. Basics of Valves 84

06. Special parts 90

08. Process Equipment Piping 114

09. Pipe Supports 145

10. Plot Plan Development 150

11. Piping Guidelines 157

12. Pipe Rack Piping 162

13. Tank Farm Piping 165

14. Distillation Column Piping 169

15. Stress Analysis 176

16. Caesar II Modeling Procedure 201

17. Other Documents 220

GAS OIL SEPARATION PLANT

Reasons for processing

Off shore Production platform

An increasing portion of oil and gas production is coming from offshore

Gas & Oil Field

Using this technique the field exploitation can be increased by up to 20%.

Oil / Gas Treatment Plant

Gas-to-Liquids (GTL) plant

LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) production plants

1st Phase of Project: Process Design Package (PDP)

2nd Phase of Project: Basic Engineering Package (BEP)

3rd Optional Phase: Pilot Plant Design

Typical Pilot Plant design goals include:

• New process development

Engineering steps to complete Pilot Plant design:

• Complete process flow diagrams

EPC stands for Engineering, Procurement and Construction.

• Scope and the specifications of the plant

.Owner and contractor liabilities

• Change in scope of work

Monitoring by owner and EPCC

• Define guarantees well

• Have payment terms very specific

• Coordinate vigilantly to reduce chances of errors at site

Departments of EPC (may change company to company)

In order of increasing detail, process design documents include:

• Block Flow Diagrams (BFD):

• Process Flow Diagrams (PFD's):