CHAPTER I

PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Heavy metal ions and dissolved organic compounds in water are known to

adversely affect human health, aquatic life and the overall ecosystem. Many

hazardous pollutants need to be removed from water; however, such technologies

are not accessible for economically disadvantaged people around the world.

In the Philippines, 91% of the country’s estimated 100.7 million populations

have access to at least basic water services; but access is highly inequitable

across the country, with regional basic water services access ranging from 62% to

100%. According to a study of Water.org Philippines, nine million out of 101 million

Filipinos rely on unimproved, unsafe and unsustainable water sources and 19

million lack access to improved sanitation. The country's National Sewerage and

Septage Management Program (NSSMP) says around 55 people die every day in

the country of nearly 100 million due to unsafe household water and sanitation.

As of 2010, 16% of Filipino households lacked access to clean and potable

water, the National Statistical Coordination Board reported. Half of Filipino

households, as of 2011, did not try to make their consumable water safe, according

to the latest National Nutrition Survey (NNS).

Moreover, it was reported in 2014 that the 20-kilometer Calumpang River

that runs through two cities and six towns in Batangas province showed fecal

coliform contamination, prompting a major rehabilitation by scientists and local

government units (LGUs). Based on a 2012-2013 study conducted by the School

1
of Environmental Science and Management-University of the Philippines Los

Baños (Sesam-UPLB), the water quality tests showed high presence of fecal

coliform (2,000 to 130,000 most probable number or mpn per 100 milliliter) as of

2011. Coliform presence, according to the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources (DENR) standard, should stay below 400 mpn/mL.

Another indicator that the river is polluted is the high level of phosphate at

2.1432 milligrams per liter (DENR standard is less than 0.4 mg/L) as of 2013. The

river’s dissolved oxygen level, or the amount of oxygen available to marine

organisms, is at 0.53-4.71 mg/L, falling below the 5.0 mg/L DENR standard, the

study showed (M. Cinco, Inquirer.net, 2014).

City Environment and Natural Resources Office (ENRO) conducted a week-

long research activity in Badjao community at Barangay Malitam, Batangas City

which is one of the barangays that are surrounded by Calumpang River. This

research was their first step in implementing the “Ala Eh! Bangon Badjao”, a

Community-based Natural Resources Management Program in the Badjao

community. The study identified the top ten problems the Badjao locals are

suffering. Top 5 of the difficulties is poor water source. According to the report, an

eight-month child died just a month before the interview was conducted due to

amoeba-infected water. Badjaos need to heat their water regularly for the safety

of their family members. They cried for help because according to them, they might

have survived the wars in Mindanao but they will also die from sickness due to

poor sanitation and lack of access to safe water. In addition, the community only

2
have one well. However, this groundwater source is polluted and unsafe for

household consumption since the place is surrounded by the Calumpang River.

The researchers visited the community and found out that they can no

longer get water from their well due to the contaminants. The 20-ft dug well has an

estimated volume of 127.91 cubic feet. The whole villagers used to depend on the

dug well but since the well is not accessible of clean water as of the moment, it

worsens the problem of the village regarding the very limited source of clean water.

According to the Badjao tribe leader, the number of families in their community

doubled from 100 to more than 200 households; but only one household managed

to acquire supply of water from Batangas Water District which provided them a thin

water pipe. This family shared the water access to the whole community but it is

not sufficient to all of them for household usage.

For these compelling reasons, the researchers came up to a study entitled

“Design and Development of Dug Well Water Treatment System for Badjao Village

at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City”. This primarily aims to help the Badjao community

in Malitam and provide them a groundwater treatment system using activated

carbon from pineapple peels. This groundwater treatment system will be

developed to treat their dug well water which they can use for everyday household

use such as bathing, brushing teeth, washing clothes and dishes, gardening,

flushing toilets and other indoor and outdoor uses. Basic household water

requirements have been estimated at around 50 liters per person daily (Peter

Gleick, 2009). This dug well water treatment system will improve sanitation in the

community which will lessen risk of acquiring infections and diseases.

3
 Water filtration is very important and should be given proper attention to

give solution to such water impurities. Activated carbon filtration is an adsorptive

process in which the contaminant is attracted to and held onto the surface of the

carbon particles. Activated carbon is prepared by the activation of carbonaceous

substances (Sherbondy and Mickler, 2004). Past studies have determined some

of the organics present in pineapple waste biomass by means of fermentation

(Ueno et al., 2003), alkali treatment (Tang et al., 2014) and other related chemical

processes. They concluded that pineapple plant can be a good source of activated

carbon.

In the Philippines, pineapple is one of the most produced and consumed

fruit. As per Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), during the period April-June

2018, pineapple production was recorded at 697.45 thousand metric tons.

Since the Philippines is a main producer of pineapple, this can be correlated

to a large pineapple biomass that is also produced and disposed into landfills.

Because pineapple biomass is a good carbonaceous source, it can be treated to

produce activated carbon to be used for water filtration (Mahamad et al. 2015).

4
Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to design and develop a dug well water

treatment system for Badjao Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City.

Specifically, the study aims to:

1. Design and develop a dug well water treatment system considering the

following:

1.1 system components,

1.2 material specifications;

2. Evaluate the properties of influent groundwater in terms of:

2.1 turbidity,

2.2 color;

2.3 oil and grease content,

2.4 total suspended solids,

2.5 total dissolved solids,

2.6 pH value,

2.7 chemical oxygen demand (COD);

3. Prepare the pineapple peels for carbonization and activation considering

the following factors:

3.1 moisture content,

3.2 particle size,

3.3 carbonization temperature;

5
4. Determine the properties of the of pineapple peels activated carbon in terms

of:

4.1 physical characteristics:

4.1.1 bulk density,

4.1.2 moisture content,

4.2 chemical adsorptive behavior through iodine test,

5. Conduct preliminary testing of the fabricated dug well water treatment

system to establish the following parameters:

5.1 operating pressure,

5.2 number of activated carbon filters,

5.3 number of additional filters:

5.3.1 sediment filters,

5.3.2 pleated filters,

5.3.3 ceramic filters,

6. Conduct final performance test of the fabricated machine in terms of:

6.1 treatment rate,

6.2 filter efficiency;

7. Evaluate the properties of effluent groundwater in terms of:

7.1 turbidity,

7.2 color,

7.3 oil and grease content,

7.4 total suspended solids,

7.5 total dissolved solids,

6
 7.6 pH value, and

7.7 chemical oxygen demand (COD);

8. Develop an operation manual for the fabricated dug well water treatment

system for Badjao Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City.

Significance of the Study

Water is obviously essential for hydration and for food production—but

sanitation is an equally important, and complementary, use of water. Increasing

population in the world suffers lack of access to clean water thus giving the

researcher an idea of designing and developing a dug well groundwater treatment

system using activated carbon from pineapple peels. This study may be beneficial

to the following sectors:

To Badjao Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City, the study will provide

them groundwater treatment system that will answer their cries in lack of access

to clean water. They can use the groundwater treatment system on their

contaminated dug well where they can obtain clean water for their daily household

consumption.

To Batangas City Government, this research will help them lessen the

problem the city is facing regarding the pollution in water. Also, the number of

household without access to clean water for proper sanitation will decrease.

To the society, this study will provide them a treated and filtered water by

using the fabricated machine. This can help them prevent getting diseases from

the unpurified water available for household usage.

7
 To the national government, this study will benefit them by proposing an

alternative water filter machine that could be a solution to a problem that the

country is facing – lack of access to clean consumable water. Aside from that,

problem on waste disposal management can also be given consideration because

the main variable of this study is basically a waste – pineapple peel.

To the business owners, this study will be providing them new research and

knowledge that could help them achieve innovative ideas to improve their existing

business or to start up a new one especially water-related businesses.

To the fruit vendors, this study can help them learn how to maximize the

use of their products. The waste from their fruits can also be utilized for another

cause thus having a win-win situation.

To the Petroleum Engineering Department, the fabricated prototype can be

used as demonstrating machine for future studies It will also be a mechanism for

the completion of the department’s goal of providing quality education.

To the students taking up related courses, this study will be providing them

additional learnings and awareness in organic properties of fruits and other plants

that could be utilized for better purpose. Also, alternative water filtration system will

be made known to them.

To the future researchers who would want to do another study related to the

topic, results and findings of this experiment will be of help for them and serve as

their basis for future research.

8
Scope and Delimitation of the Study

A study entitled “Design and Development of Dug Well Water Treatment

System for Badjao Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City” will be conducted by

the researchers for S.Y. 2018-2019. The study’s main focus will be on designing

and developing dug well water treatment system for their main beneficiary - Badjao

Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City.

The main raw material in the experiment will be pineapple peel which will

be used to produce activated carbon for water filtration. The pineapple peel waste

will be obtained from Silang Proper Public Market located at P. Montoya St. 4118

Silang, Cavite. The pineapple peel will be the material to go through the process

of carbonization and activation thus producing pineapple peel activated carbon.

Any other fruit or fruit peel will not be tested. On the other hand, the researchers

will use groundwater from a dug well, to be collected from Badjao Village at Brgy.

Malitam, Batangas City. Series of experiments will be tested on the said samples.

Any other potential tester will not be used throughout the study.

The proposed machine will be fabricated by Premium One Water

Equipment Enterprise at Don Caedo, Kumintang Ibaba, Batangas City.

Fabricator’s competency may be a factor to affect the performance of the machine

but it will no longer be discussed by the researchers. The fabrication of the machine

will be based on the design requirements given by the researchers.

The groundwater from the dug well, both influent and effluent, will be

examined by Lipa Quality Control Center (LQCC) located at 5th Floor, Sta Maria

Building, P. Torres Street corner CM Recto Avenue, Lipa City, Batangas. Findings

9
of the study will only be based on the results given by the stated laboratory. The

properties to be tested will only limit to turbidity, color, oil and grease content, total

suspended solids, total dissolved solids, pH value and chemical oxygen demand.

Any other factors that may affect the findings of the experiment may be mentioned

but will no longer be discussed.

Lastly, evaluation of the fabricated machine will be done. As mentioned

earlier, factors that may affect the performance of the machine will no longer be

tackled further. The evaluation will focus solely on observations during the

operation.

To summarize, the researchers will limit the discussion on achieving the

objectives of the study. Any other concerns or claims which are not included in the

objectives will not be given consideration. Topics not related to the study will not

be covered and discussed in the paper.

Conceptual Framework

This study focuses on the Design and Development of Dug Well Water

Treatment System for Badjao Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City. The

conceptual framework of this study uses a Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate

(CDIO) Model. This framework shows from conceptualization of design to the

operation of the machine. The framework exposes the input and the output of the

study, as well as the processes and procedures that are involved in each

operation. Figure 1 shows the research paradigm of the study.

The conceive stage illustrates the knowledge required as for

conceptualization of the research. In this study, background on the properties of

10
pineapple peel, efficiency of activated carbon, factors being evaluated in sample

groundwater are needed to be familiarized. Also, processes such as carbonization

and activation, as well as water filtration standards on clean groundwater usage

should be analyzed.

In the design stage, the system components and the material specification

will be considered in designing the machine. The proposed design will be

simulated through Solid Works software.

In the implementation stage, the researchers need to select a fabrication

shop capable of manufacturing the Dug Well Water Treatment System according

to the planned design. Materials and equipment to be used should be locally

available. The preliminary testing of the water filter will be done to establish the

parameters considering operating pressure, activated carbon filters, sediment

filter, pleated filter and ceramic filter. On the other hand, the final performance

testing will include treatment rate and filter efficiency.

In the operation stage, an operation procedure and maintenance manual

will be developed and provided for the fabricated Dug Well Water Treatment

System for Badjao Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City.

11
 CONCEIVE DESIGN IMPLEMENT OPERATE
Knowledge Design Requirements: Fabrication:  Developed Dug
Requirements: Well Water
 System  Fabrication Shop
 Properties of Treatment
Components  Material and
Pineapple Peel System for
 Material Equipment for
Badjao Village at
 Efficiency of Specification Construction
Brgy. Malitam,
Activated Carbon  Dimension  System design
Batangas City
 Factors being Measurements
Preliminary Testing:  Operation and
evaluated in sample  Design lay out using
Maintenance
water Solid Works  Operating Pressure
Manual and
 Water Filter Software  Number of Activated
Provision
Prototype using Carbon Filters
Activated Carbon  Number of
from previous Additional Filters:
studies 1. Sediment filter
Technical 2. Pleated filter
Requirements: 3. Ceramic filter

 Carbonization and Performance Testing:

Activation Process
 Water Filtration  Treatment Rate
System
 Filter Efficiency

12
Figure 1. Research Paradigm of the Study
Definition of Terms

The following are some essential terms used/applied in the study:

Activated Carbon. It is the collective name for a group of porous carbons. In the

study, active carbon from pineapple peel aims to be produced and used as filtering

agent.

Activation. It is the process of making a substance chemically or catalytically

active.

Adsorbent. This refers to a substance that adsorbs another. In the study, the

pineapple peel activated carbon will be tested its efficiency and effectivity in terms

of adsorption.

Adsorption. It is the organic molecules contained in a liquid or gas that are

attracted and bound to the surface of the pores of the activated carbon. In this

study, adsorption was one of the helping agents for filtering the groundwater by

using the activated carbon

Carbonization. It is a process that removes oxygen due to the high temperature

inside the vessel during decomposition.

Ceramic Filter. It is a type of filter that rely on the small pore size of ceramic

material to filter dirt, debris, and bacteria out of water.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). It is a measurement of the oxygen required

to oxidize soluble and particulate organic matter in water. In this study, Chemical

Oxygen Demand was one of the parameters for the influent and effluent water.

Color. One of the water quality that will be tested in the study for assessment.

13
Dependent variable. It is a variable (often denoted by y) whose value depends on

that of another.

Efficiency. This refers to the accomplishment of or ability to accomplish a job with

a minimum expenditure of time and effort. In the study, efficiency of groundwater

treatment system will be tested.

Effluent. This refers to the treated wastewater. It is the final output flow of a

groundwater treatment system.

Groundwater. It is the water that flows or seeps downward and saturates soil or

rock, supplying springs and wells.

Independent variable. It is a variable (often denoted by x) whose variation does

not depend on that of another.

Influent. The untreated groundwater or raw sewage coming into a groundwater

treatment system.

Oil and Grease. It is the mixture of chemical species that varies from source to

source. In this study, it is defined as the combination of gasoline, oil, road salts

and chemicals contained in water.

pH value. It is a numeric scale used to identify the level of acidity of a solution. In

this study, this was a scale that measured the acidity or alkalinity of the

groundwater.

Pineapple peel. It refers to the outer covering of pineapple fruit. In the study, this

will serve as the independent variable. This will be tested and observed.

14
Pleated Filter. It is a filter that remove and reduce several types of impurities from

the water supply. In this study, this served as the filter for removing solid particles

of the groundwater.

Sediment Filter. It is a filter that acts as sieve to remove and reduce particles from

the water supply. In this study, this served as the filter for removing sediments of

the groundwater.

Total dissolved solids. It is the combined content of all inorganic and organic

substances contained in a liquid. In this study, it is the total of any minerals, salts,

metals, cations or anions dissolved in water.

Total suspended solids. It is the solid materials, including organic and inorganic

that are suspended in water. In this study, it is the water quality parameter used to

assess the quality of groundwater after the process.

Turbidity. It is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers of

individual particles. In the study, turbidity will be tested to assess the quality of

groundwater after the experiment.

Water filtration. It is a general term that refers to any system or process that is

used to filter out particles and pollutants from water. In the study, this will be the

process to be given focus on and the basis of results and findings.

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the literatures gathered from recent books, journals

and theses in relation to the study. This will give a summary and discussion about

the principles, procedures and processes related to the topic.

Conceptual Literature

This contains the literary section from different sources which gives additional

and necessary information related to the study.

I. Pineapple Peel

Pineapple peel is the outer covering of the pineapple fruit. Pineapple

is one of the most produced and consumed fruit. The pineapple (Ananas

comosus) is one of the most important fruits in the world and is the leading

edible member of the family Bromeliaceae. This fruit juice is the third most

preferred worldwide after orange and apple juices (Cabrera et al., 2000). As

per Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), during the period April-June 2018,

pineapple production was recorded at 697.45 thousand metric tons. It was

3.3 percent higher than the 2017 level of 675.20 thousand metric tons. Half

of the total national production of pineapple was from Northern Mindanao

at the level of 353.05 thousand metric tons. The other top producing regions

were SOCCSKSARGEN with 25.8 percent share and CALABARZON with

9.7 percent. Commercially, it is mainly produced as canned fruits and

consumed worldwide (Tran, 2006).

16
1. Properties of Pineapple Peels

1.1 Carbon Content of Pineapple Peels

Pineapple wastes generally comprise of organic substances

and hence the disposal problem could be attenuated by anaerobic

digestion and composting. Some of these wastes could have

industrial applications for gas generations (Mbuligwe and

Kassenga, 2004). Bio-methanation of fruit wastes is the best

suited waste treatment as it both adds energy in the form of

methane and also results in a highly stabilized effluent with almost

neutral pH and odorless property (Bardiya et al., 1996). They

utilized pineapple waste for the production of methane using semi-

continuous anaerobic digestion which could produce up to 1682

ml/day of biogas with methane content of 51% in maximum. Rani

and Nand (2004) reported that different conditions of pineapple

peels gave biogas yields ranging from 0.41-0.67 m3/kg volatile

solids with methane content of 41-65%. Solid pineapple waste has

been used to produce volatile fatty acids and methane (Babel et

al., 2004). They reported that at higher alkalinity, up to 53 g volatile

fatty acids were produced from one kg of pineapple waste. Acetic,

propionic, butyric, i-butyric and valeric acids were produced along

with methane. Reports on utilizing pineapple waste as the carbon

substrate to produce hydrogen gas from municipal sewage sludge

is found (Wang et al., 2006). The waste contained 10 carbon and

17
 nitrogen source for cell growth and hydrogen production. In other

report, pineapple fruit wastes have been suggested as a source

of carbon for bacterial production of cellulose by Acetobacter

xylinum (Kurosumi et al., 2009). Pineapple waste, as one of the

substrates in mixed fruit wastes, has been utilized for biogas

generation (Lane, 1984; Prema et al., 1992). When using 15%

pineapple peel in the mixed fruit peel waste, bio-hydrogen gas

was generated at 0.73m3/kg of volatile solid destroyed

(Vijayaraghavan et al., 2007). The sugars contained in pineapple

cannery effluent have been utilized for the production of single cell

protein using continuous cultivation (Nigam, 1999). The dilution

rate had significant effect on biomass as well as protein content.

1.2 Composition of Pineapple Peels

Table 1 shows the composition of the pineapple peel in terms

of physical and chemical.

Table 1. Physical and chemical composition of pineapple peels

Parameters Fresh Peels Dry Peels

Cellulose 11.2 12
Hemi cellulose 7.0 6.5
Lignin 11.52 11.0
Pectin 6.70 7.10
Protein 3.13 3.30
Ash 3.88 4.18
Moisture 71.1 27.43
pH 4.7 4.7

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2. Adsorbing Efficiency of Pineapple Peels

Pineapple peels have been used as an effective bio adsorbent to

remove toxic metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, zinc and

nickel (Senthilkumaar et al.,2000). They have reported that the addition

of phosphate groups in the fruit residues increased the adsorbent

capacities at lower pH. Reports on the removal of heavy metals like

chromium, copper, lead, nickel and zinc from contaminated sewage

sludge using citric acid obtained from fermented pineapple wastes

(Dacera and Babel, 2008). The applicability of such contaminated

sewage sludge after removal of heavy metals as land fill has shown to

have high potentials (Dacera et al., 2009). Pineapple waste water has

also been used as cheap substitute of nutrients for Acinetobacter

haemolyticus, which was used to reduce the contamination of chromium

VI (Zakaria et al., 2007).

3. Utilization of Pineapple Peels

3.1 Activated Carbon

Since activated carbon is prepared by the activation of

carbonaceous substances (Sherbondy and Mickler, 2002), related

studies that have determined some of the organics present in

pineapple peels biomass by means of fermentation (Ueno et al.,

2003), alkali treatment (Tang et al., 2014) and other related

chemical processes.

19
 There have been numerous studies that determined the

organic contents of pineapple biomass. It contains many organic

compounds such as organic acids, phenolics and sugars

(Upadhyay, 2010). In addition, pineapple wastes are also used as

an energy and carbon source where it can be used for bio-

methanation (Babel et al., 2004) or can be treated to be used as

activated carbon (Mahamad et al., 2015).

Prevalent organic acids in pineapple mass are lactic acid

(Ueno et al., 2003) and citric acid (Immandi et al., 2008). The two

studies made use of fermentation to obtain the organic acids.

However, in obtaining ferulic acid, one study made use of banana

peel extraction (Tilay et al. 2008) where the other made use of

alkali treatment (Tang et al., 2014) which showed that pineapple

peels were a good source for ferulic acid compared to some

agricultural biomass.

In two different studies of Maszina et al. (2000) and Bartolome

et al. (1995), they were able to prove that sucrose was the

abundant sugar in pineapple biomass whereas a deeper study

done by Siti Roha et al. (2013) shows that these data are

dependent on different factors such as maturity stage, pineapple

variety and soil condition. Needless to say, it becomes a given fact

that sugars, namely, fructose, glucose and sucrose, are prevalent

in pineapple biomass. Itelima et al. (2013) proved that pineapple

20
 peels had a high ethanol yield compared to another biomass. In

addition, as activated carbon, Mahamad et al. (2015) proved that

pineapple leaves were most effective for dye removal.

3.2 Anti-Dyeing Agent

Pineapple peel has been used as anti-dyeing agent on the

past studies. Dyes used in textile industries have been a threat to

environmental problem since these are visible in small quantities

due to their brilliance when mixed and thrown with large volumes

of waste water from different steps in the dyeing and finishing

processes (Robinson et al., 2001; Babu et al., 2008). Some works

on utilizing pineapple waste to remove the dyes have been

reported. Pineapple stem is used as low-cost adsorbent to remove

basic dye (methylene blue) from aqueous solution by adsorption

(Hameed et al., 2009). In another report, pineapple leaf powder

has been used as an unconventional bio-adsorbent of methylene

blue from aqueous solution (Weng et al., 2009).

II. Activated Carbon

Activated carbons are versatile adsorbents. Their adsorptive properties are

due to high surface area, a microporous structure, and a high degree of surface

reactivity. They are used, therefore, to purify, decolorize, deodorize,

dechlorinate, separate, and concentrate in order to permit recovery and to filter,

remove or modify the harmful constituents from gases and liquid solutions.

Consequently, the activated carbon adsorption is of interest to economic

21
sectors and concern areas as diverse as food, pharmaceutical, chemical,

petroleum, nuclear, automobile and vacuum industries as well as for the

treatment of drinking water, industrial and urban waste water and industrial flue

gases.

1. Water Treatment using Activated Carbon

Activated carbon filtration (AC) is effective in reducing certain organic

chemicals and chlorine in water. It can also reduce the quantity of lead

in water although most lead-reducing systems use another filter medium

in addition to carbon. Water is passed through granular or block carbon

material to reduce toxic compounds as well as harmless taste- and odor-

producing chemicals.

People are increasingly concerned about contaminants in

their drinking water that cannot be removed by water softeners or

physical filtration. Solvents, pesticides, industrial wastes, and leaking

underground storage tanks are some sources of this contamination.

Undesirable compounds such as methylene chloride,

trichloroethylene, benzene, chlorobenzenes, carbon tetrachloride,

and vinyl chloride pose health risks in drinking water. Lead from

water pipes and joints may show up in water at the tap. The reaction

of chlorine with organic matter during the chlorination of drinking

water can produce other compounds such as trihalomethanes as by-

products, which may increase the risk of certain cancers. Radon, a

radioactive decay product of natural uranium, can be found in

22
groundwater as well as in the air of buildings and has been related

to lung cancer. Those considering the addition of an activated carbon

filter to reduce toxic chemicals should first determine whether their

water contains problem compounds. Public water systems are

routinely monitored for contamination, and results of these tests must

be made available on request. These water supplies must conform

to the requirements established in each state under the federal Safe

Drinking Water Act.

If the level of any contaminant exceeds the maximum,

treatment must be undertaken or new sources of potable (drinkable)

water provided. Private water systems must be tested at the owner's

initiative to determine whether treatment is needed. Decisions to do

costly testing should be made based on knowledge of contamination

incidents that can affect the private water supply (D. M. de Guzman,

et al., 2018).

There are two basic types of water filters: particulate filters

and adsorptive/reactive filters. Particulate filters exclude particles by

size, and adsorptive/reactive filters contain a material (medium) that

either adsorbs or reacts with a contaminant in water. The principles

of activated carbon filtration are the same as those of any other

adsorption material. The contaminant is attracted to and held

(adsorbed) on the surface of the carbon particles. The characteristics

of the carbon material (particle and pore size, surface area, surface

23
 chemistry, density, and hardness) influence the efficiency of

adsorption.

2. Activated Carbon in Adsorption Process

Activated carbon was prepared from coirpith by a chemical activation

method and characterized. The adsorption of toxic heavy metals, Hg (II),

Pb (II), Cd (II), Ni (II), and Cu (II) was studied using synthetic solutions

and was reported elsewhere. In the present work the adsorption of toxic

heavy metals from industrial wastewaters onto coirpith carbon was

studied. The percent adsorption increased with increase in pH from 2 to

6 and remained constant up to 10. As coirpith is discarded as waste from

coir processing industries, the resulting carbon is expected to be an

economical product for the removal of toxic heavy metals from industrial

wastewaters.

3. Production of Activated Carbon

Activated carbon can be produced through physical activation and

chemical activation. Physical activation has two kinds of processes

which can also be combined in some cases. One is carbonization which

uses the process of pyrolysis in very high temperatures. The other one

is oxidation where the raw material or carbonized material is exposed to

oxygen or steam at high temperature. The chemical activation on the

other hand is done with impregnating the raw material to a certain acid

or a strong base or salt and then carbonizing it at lower temperatures.

(Anales et. al, 2014)

24
 3.1 Physical Activation

In the two-stage physical activation, the preparation of

activated carbon is produced through pyrolysis followed the

activation process. The solid residue is subjected to the process

of carbonization and the produced biochar is treated in a gas

stream at a temperature of 800-1200K. The gases used for

activation step are carbon dioxide and steam.

A simple one step method for activation of carbon is the steam

pyrolysis. This method is the preparation of activated carbon is

produced by carbonization of solid residue with presence of steam

(D. M. de Guzman, et al., 2018).

3.2 Chemical Activation

In chemical activation, activated carbon is done with

impregnating the raw material to a certain acid or a strong base or

salt and then carbonizing it at lower temperatures (D. M. de

Guzman, et al., 2018).

4. Elemental Composition of Activated Carbon

Activated carbons have a microcrystalline structure which differs

from that of graphite with respect to interlayer spacing, which is 0.335

nm in the case of graphite and ranges between 0.34 and 0.35 nm

activated carbons. The elemental composition of typical activated

carbons has been found to be 88% C, 0.5% H, 0.5% Nm 1.0% S and 6

to 7% O, with the balance representing inorganic ash constituents. The

25
oxygen content of an activated carbon can vary, however, depending on

the type of the source raw materials and the conditions of the activation

process (Bansal and Goyal, 2005)

5. Classification of Activated Carbon

5.1 Granular Activated Carbon

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) is irregular shaped particles

formed by milling and sieving. These products range from the

sizes 0.2mm to 5 mm. They have the advantages of being harder

and longer lasting than powdered activated carbons, clean to

handle, purify large volumes of gas or liquids of a consistent

quality, and can be reactivated and reused many times. GAC are

used in both liquid and gas phase applications and in both fixed

and moving systems. In liquid phase uses, granular activated

carbon is packed in columns and towers through which liquids

flows. GAC are used where there is a single product to be refined

or produced continuously in large quantities. In gas phase

applications GACs have the advantage of having sufficient flow

with an acceptable pressure drop through the carbon bed. In

addition, granular activated carbons are nearly always

regenerated and reused. The period between reactivation varies

significantly but is on average 18 months. Loss of material during

reactivation ranges from 5% to 15%.

26
5.2 Powdered Activated Carbon

Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) is generally having a

particle size distribution ranging from 5 to 150 Å, although coarser

and finer grades are available. Advantages of powdered activated

carbons are their lower processing costs and their flexibility in

operation. The dosage of powdered activated carbon can be

easily increased or decreased as process conditions vary.

Powdered activated carbons are mainly used for liquid-phase

adsorption. They are added to the liquid to be treated, mixed with

the liquid and, after adsorption, are removed by sedimentation and

filtration. Powdered activated carbons are generally used in batch

process as the amount added can be easily altered and powder

can be easily removed. The wet powder cake is not regenerated

because of the problems associated with recycling the carbon, but

incinerated or placed in landfills

5.3 Extruded Carbon

Extruded carbon is cylindrical pellets with diameter ranging from

1mm to 5mm. The extrusion process, together with the raw

material used, ensures that the end product is hard and suitable

for heavy duty applications. The extruded pellet form gives a low

system pressure drop, which is an important consideration in the

gas-phase uses. Markets lie in solvent recovery, gas purification

and automotive emission control, where the high-volume activity,

27
 low pressure drop and high stock resistance of extruded carbon

enable them to last the entire life of the vehicle (Haycarb, 2017).

6. Process Technology for Carbonization and Activation

The preparation involves two main steps: the carbonization of the

carbonaceous raw material at temperatures below 800°C and the

activation of the carbonized product. Thus, all carbonaceous materials

can be converted into activated carbon, although the properties of the

final product will be different, depending on the nature of the raw material

used, the nature of the activating agent, and the conditions of the

carbonization and activation processes. But only a good hard biomass

used activated charcoal such as coconut shell and palm shell.

During the carbonization process, most of the non-carbon elements

such as oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are eliminated as volatile

gaseous species by the pyrolytic decomposition of the starting material.

The residual elementary carbon atoms group themselves into stacks of

flat, aromatic sheets cross-linked in a random manner. Thee aromatic

sheets are irregularly arranged, which leaves free interstices. These

interstices give rise to pores which make activated carbon excellent

adsorbents.

During the carbonization, these pores are filled with the tarry matter

or the products of decomposition at least blocked partially by

disorganized carbon. This pore structure in carbonized char is further

developed and enhanced during the activation process. This converts

28
the carbonized raw material into a form that contains the greatest

possible number of randomly distributed pores of various sizes and

shapes giving rise to an extended and extremely high surface area of

the product. The activation of the char is usually carried out in an

atmosphere of air, CO2, or steam in the temperature range of 400°C to

900°C. This results in the oxidation of some of the regions within the

char in preference to others so that as combustion proceeds, a

preferential etching takes place. This results in the development of a

large internal surface which in some cases may be as high as 2500 m2/g

(Bansal and Goyal, 2005).

6.1 Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is a thermochemical treatment, which can be applied

to any organic (carbon-based) product. In this treatment, material

is exposed to high temperature, and in the absence of

oxygen goes through chemical and physical separation into

different molecules.

Pyrolysis is a form of treatment that chemically decomposes

organic materials by heat in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis

typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures

above 430°C (800°F). In practice, it is not possible to achieve a

completely oxygen-free atmosphere. Because some oxygen is

present in any pyrolysis system, a small amount of oxidation

occurs (Anales et al, 2014).

29
 Pyrolysis provides safer, better, faster, less costly and more

environmental friendly than any known solutions, with high

economical added value output products. It can be available in

electric and gas heat versions. Advanced technical solution for the

rotary kiln sealing provides totally closed and totally safe

technology. Safe vacuum system is easy to start up – shut down.

Also, it has low operational/maintenance costs. Pyrolysis systems

may be applicable to a number or organic materials that “crack” or

undergo a chemical decomposition in the presence of heat.

Pyrolysis is not effective in either destroying or physically

separating inorganic from the contaminated medium. Volatile

metals may be removed as a result of the higher temperatures

associated with the process but are similarly not destroyed

(Anales et. al, 2014).

6.1.1 Fast Pyrolysis

Fast pyrolysis is characterized by high heating rates

and short vapour residence times. This generally requires

feedstock prepared as small particle sizes and a design that

removes the vapour quickly from the presence of hot solids.

These are a number of different reactor configurations that

can be achieve this including ablative systems, fluidized

bed, stirred or moving beds and vacuum pyrolysis system.

A moderate (in pyrolysis terms) temperature of around

30
 500°C is usually used. Development of fast pyrolysis

developed rapidly following the oil crises of the 1970’s as a

way of producing liquid fuel from an indigenous renewable

resource, primarily wood, and the process is designed to

give a high yield of bio-oil.

6.1.2 Slow Pyrolysis

Slow pyrolysis can be divided into traditional charcoal

making and more modern processes. It is characterized by

slower heating rates, relatively long solid and vapour

residence times and usually a lower temperature than fast

pyrolysis, typically 400°C. The target product is often the

char, but this will be always accompanied by liquid and gas

products although these are not always recovered.

7. Properties of Activated Carbon

Table 2 shows the properties of commercially available activated

carbon in terms of moisture content, ash content, pH value, apparent

density, bulk density and hardness. The moisture content of the

activated carbon should be less than 3%, 2% for the ash content, 6.5 to

8 for the pH value, 250-650 g/L for the apparent density, 228-592 g/L for

the bulk density, minimum of 95% for hardness and particle size is one

inch (D. M. de Guzman, et al., 2018).

31
 Table 2. Properties of Commercially Available Activated Carbon
Moisture Ash pH Apparent Bulk Hardness Particle
Content Content Value Density Density Size
<3% 2% 6.5 to 250-650 228-592 >95% 1 in
8 g/L g/L

7.1 Moisture Content

The moisture content of activated carbon is often required to

define and express its properties in relation to the net weight of

the carbon. Activated carbon is made by passing hot air and

steam over in a kiln. Sometimes, the resulting activated carbon is

washed in a bath of acid, rinsed and then dried again. There is

bound to be some amount of moisture left in the activated carbon

upon final drying. A practical limit for the level of moisture present

in the activated carbon, when packed at the factory is 3%

(Abuzman et. al, 2013).

7.2 Ash Content

Ash is the mineral residue that is left on the surface of a carbon

sample after activation. The general content of the ash will

effectively lessen the activity level of the carbon sample. In

addition, high ash content will decrease the efficiency of

regeneration of the exhausted carbon. Depending on the mineral

residues present on the carbon, pre-treatment of the carbon may

reduce the ash content. In some cases, there will be no effect in

the nature of adsorption process when natural ash is present in

the carbon sample (Deithirn and Mazzoni, 1986).

32
 It reduces overall activity of activated carbon and reduces

efficiency of reactivation. Metals (Fe203) can leach out of activated

carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid or water soluble ash content

is more significant than total ash content (Keneco, 2005).

7.3 pH Value

The pH value of activated carbon is measure of whether it is

acidic or basic. The pH of a neutral substance such as pure water

has a value of 7. A pH of less than 7 implies that the substance is

acidic and pH of greater than 7 implies that it is basic. Activated

carbon, when coming out of the kiln, tends to be a bit basic with

pH of around 8. Too high pH indicates too much contaminant. Too

low pH, especially for acid washed activated carbon, means that

the acid has not been properly rinsed away. Most of the activated

carbon is specified for a pH of 6-8 (Keneco, 2005).

7.4 Bulk or Apparent Density

When talking about activated carbon, especially granular

activated carbon, regular density would not describe anything

useful. It would basically describe a solid without high degree of

surface area and, in turn, would describe a solid with essentially

no apparent adsorptive capacity. A much more sensible method

for describing the density of a carbon sample is the bulk density.

The bulk density is the mass of the no stratified dry activated

carbon per unit volume of activated carbon. A higher bulk density

33
 means a greater volume activity. Therefore, the bulk density will

be a considerably reduced value from the standard density

because of the intricate network of pores, a sample of activated

carbon process (Abuzman et. al, 2013).

7.5 Mesh Sieve (Particle Size)

In determining the design parameters for an activated carbon,

the particle size is very useful. A smaller mesh size of carbon will

increase the rate of adsorption and also the pressure drop across

the fluidized bed (Deithorn and Mazzoni, 1986).

7.6 Hardness

Hardness is the measure of the external integrity against

wearing along exterior and breakage of small points of activated

carbon. It is expressed as a percentage of loss on a particular

sieve after shaking granules under certain conditions.

8. Assessment of Activated Carbon

Basically, Iodine number is a widely used parameter for activated

carbon testing for its rapid assessment of adsorbent quality and simplicity

and since its quite small, it can be a good indicator of the capacity an

activated carbon has available in very small/high energy pores thus giving

an estimate of its surface, porosity and pore volume. Typical range 500–

1200 mg/g. It is determined according to the ASTM D4607-94 method.

This test method is based upon a three-point adsorption isotherm. A

standard iodine solution is treated with three different weights of activated

34
 carbon under specified conditions. The carbon treated solutions are filtered

to separate the carbon from the treated iodine solution (filtrate). Iodine

remaining in the filtrate is measured by titration. The amount of iodine

removed per gram of carbon is determined for each carbon dosage and the

resulting data used to plot an adsorption isotherm. The amount of iodine

adsorbed (in milligrams) per gram of carbon at a residual iodine

concentration of 0.02 N is reported as the iodine number.

III. Principle of Adsorption Process

Activated carbon can be considered as a material of phenomenal surface

area made up of millions of pores rather like a “molecular sponge”. The process

by which such a surface concentrates fluid molecules by chemical and/or

physical forces is known as adsorption (whereas, absorption is a process

whereby fluid molecules are taken up by a liquid or solid and distributed

throughout that liquid or solid). In the physical adsorption process, molecules

are held by the carbon’s surface by weak forces as Van Der Waals forces

resulting from intermolecular attraction. The carbon and the adsorbate are thus

unchanged chemically.

In general terms, to achieve adsorption, it is necessary to present the

molecule to be adsorbed to a pore of comparable size. In this way, the attractive

forces coupled with opposite wall effect will be at a maximum and should be

greater than the energy of the molecule. In contrast, coconut shell carbons are

particularly efficient in adsorbing small molecular species. Krypton and Xenon,

35
for instance, are readily adsorbed by coconut shell carbon but readily desorbs

from large pored carbons such as wood.

Maximum adsorption capacity is determined by the degree of liquid packing

that can occur in the pores. In very high vapour pressures, multilayer adsorption

can lead to capillary condensation even in mesopores (25A). If adsorption

capacity is plotted against pressure (for gases) or concentration (for liquids) at

constant temperature, the curve so produced is known as an isotherm.

Adsorption increases with increased pressure and also with increasing

molecular weight within a series of a chemical family. Thus, methane (CH 4) is

less easily adsorbed than the propane (C3H8). This is a useful fact to remember

when a particular system has a number of components. After equilibrium, it is

generally found that, all else being equal; the higher molecular weight species

of a multi-component system are preferentially adsorbed. Such a phenomenon

is known as competitive or preferential adsorption – the initially adsorbed low

molecular weight species desorbing form the surface and being replaced by

higher molecular weight species.

Physical adsorption in the vapor phase is affected by certain external

parameters such as temperature. The adsorption process is more efficient at

lower temperatures since molecular species are less mobile under such

conditions. Such an effect is also noticed in a system where moisture and an

organic species are present. The moisture is readily accepted by the carbon

surface but in time, desorbs as the preferred organic molecules are selected

by the surface. This usually occurs due to differences in molecular size but can

36
be also attributable to the differences in molecular charge. Generally speaking,

carbon surfaces dislike any form of charge – since water is highly charged

(ionic) relative to the majority of organic molecules, the carbon would prefer the

organic to be adsorbed. Primary amines possess less charge on the nitrogen

atom than secondary amines that in turn have less than tertiary amines. High

levels of adsorption can be expected if the adsorbate is a reasonably large

bulky molecule with no charge, whereas a small molecule with high charge

would not be expected to be easily adsorbed.

Molecular shape also influences adsorption but this is usually of minor

consideration. In certain situations, regardless of how the operating conditions

can be varied, some species will only be physically adsorbed to a low level.

(Examples are ammonia, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, mercury vapour

and methyl iodide). In such instances, the method frequently employed to

enhance a carbon’s capability is to impregnate it with a particular compound

that is chemically reactive towards the species required to be adsorbed. Since

carbon possesses such a large surface (a carbon granule the size of a “quarter”

has a surface area in the order of ½ square mile), coating of this essentially

spreads out the impregnate over a vast area. This, therefore, greatly increases

the chance of reaction since the adsorbate has a tremendous choice of reaction

sites.

Physical adsorption, the components of the system are changed chemically

and the changed adsorbate, chemically held by the carbon’s surface and

desorption in the original form, is non-existent. This principle is applied in many

37
industries particularly in the catalysis field, where the ability of a catalyst can

be greatly increased by spreading it over a carbon surface (Cameron Carbon

Incorporated, 2012).

IV. Principle of Water Filtration

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals,

biological contaminants, suspended solids and gases from water. The goal is

to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is disinfected for human

consumption (drinking water), but water purification may also be designed for

a variety of other purposes, including fulfilling the requirements of medical,

pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. The methods used

include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation;

biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon;

chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of

electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Purifying water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including

suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, as well as

reducing the concentration of a range of dissolved and particulate matter.

The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or

by international standards. These standards usually include minimum and

maximum concentrations of contaminants, depending on the intended purpose

of water use.

38
V. Methods of Water Treatment

Water Treatment is a field of high significance as it has direct practical

implications for resolving the problem of industrial oily wastewater/groundwater

and other oil/water pollution. It is a common water treatment method. Oil water

separators can efficiently aid in the removal of gasoline, diesel fuel, crude,

vegetable and almost any type of oil that is heavier than water. The effluent

from oil / water separators is typically discharged to either a sanitary sewer

system or a storm sewer. Properly designed, installed, and operated, oily water

separators provide a treatment system for handling oily water that prevents the

entry of unacceptable levels of contamination to a storm sewer or sanitary

sewer system.

1. Filtration

Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles in the water.

The filters are made of layers of sand and gravel, and in some cases,

crushed anthracite. Filtration collects the suspended impurities in water

and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection. The filters are routinely

cleaned by backwashing.

Filtration is the process of passing water through material to remove

particulate and other impurities, including floc, from the water being

treated. These impurities consist of suspended particles (fine silts and

clays), biological matter (bacteria, plankton, spores, cysts or other

matter) and floc. The material used in filters for public water supply is

normally a bed of sand, coal, or other granular substance. Filtration

39
processes can generally be classified as being either slow or rapid. Slow

sand filters are the original form of filtration. The first one was built in

1804 by John Gibb of Paisley, Scotland to treat water for his bleachery,

with the surplus treated water sold to the public. Slow sand filters were

first used in London in 1820 to treat water from the River Thames. From

about the 1930s water treatment by coagulation and rapid gravity

filtration or pressure filtration tended to replace slow sand filtration in

new plants and, in some cases, slow sand filters were replaced by rapid

gravity filters following introduction of a coagulation stage. The slow

sand filtration process has come back into favour in recent years due to

its superior ability, compared to rapid gravity filtration, to remove

pathogenic micro-organisms such as Giardia lamblia and

Cryptosporidium.

The water treatment system is subdivided into parts and it includes

filtration using specific kind of filter. Filter is a device which a substance

is passed when it is being filtered and is designed to remove certain

particles contained in it (Collins English Dictionary).

1.1 Activated Carbon Filter

Activated carbon works via a process called adsorption,

whereby pollutant molecules in the fluid are to be treated are

trapped inside the pore structure of the carbon substrate. Carbon

filtering is commonly used for water purification, in air purifiers and

industrial gas processing, for example the removal of siloxanes

40
and hydrogen sulphide from biogas. It is also used in a number of

other applications, including respirator masks, the purification of

sugarcane and in the recovery of precious metals, especially gold.

Activated carbon filters are most effective at removing

chlorine, sediment, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), taste and

odor from water. They are however, not effective at removing

minerals, salts, and dissolved inorganic compounds.

Typical particle sizes that can be removed by carbon filters

range from 0.5 to 50 μm. Each particle/granule of carbon provides

a large surface area/ pore structure, allowing contaminants the

maximum possible exposure to the active sites within the filter

media. One pound (454 g) of activated carbon contains a surface

area of approximately 100 acres (~40 hectares)

(WaterProfessionals, 2017).

1.2 Pleated Filter

Pleated filters allow maximum filtration area for the space

used. Filter media is pleated for greater surface area and is

synthetic cellulose-free.

Pleated filter has a great capacity to capture and retain

particles, compared to thin, more rigid media types which have

void space for particle retention. Lower pressure drop is another

significant advantage of using pleated filter which allows for

increased flow rates and the use of smaller filter housings to

41
reduce capital equipment costs. It provides depth filtration for

greater particle removal, along with more surface area.

These filters have a variety of end caps ranging from epoxy and

plastic to molded felt. Some of these filter elements are self-

supporting while others have metal cores comprised of springs or

screens. Depending upon the particular application, some of the

screens are zinc plated to protect them in corrosive materials or

environment. These filters increase the particle removal efficiency

and reduce impurities and no additives or binders which may

cause foaming (STD Specialty Filters, 2017).

1.3 Sediment Filter

Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by

fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid

particles on the bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid.

Sediments may appear in water as color or cloudiness which may

or may not settle on the bottom of containers. This type of

sediment is called suspended solids. Additionally, some

sediments develop from clear water only after it is exposed to air.

This type of sediment is called dissolved solids. Sediments can

affect the quality of the water in numbers of ways. Besides an

unappealing look, the sediment in the water can cause plumbing,

pumps, and even create clogs throughout the water system to

reduce the flow of the water.

42
 Sedimentation is the deposition by settling of a suspended

material. In a water plant these particles may be rust flakes from

the water pipes, sand grains, and small pieces of organic matter,

clay particles, or any other small particles in the water supply.

A sediment filter acts as a sieve to remove these particles or

basically functions like a net that catches unwanted dirt particles

as the water flows the system. Sediment filters are often used in

combination with water treatment system method for removal of

contaminants, turbidity or particulate. They are also used as a pre-

treatment for other process such as activated carbon (AC) filtration

and reverse osmosis (RO) to primarily increase their

effectiveness. It is generally a first stage process of filtering the

wastewater or groundwater efficiently (Lenntech, 2017).

1.4 Ceramic Filter

Ceramic filters have proven to be tremendously effective in

reducing the exposure of users to contaminated water, and the

incidence of diarrhea over an extended period of time and RDIC

continues to invest significant time and energy into developing its

processes and would like to share its knowledge and best practice

approaches with organizations who wish to have a similarly

positive impact on communities in developing countries. While the

technology is simple, adherence and commitment to best practice

43
 manufacture, training and education is essential to ensuring the

ceramic water filters provide the almost good quality of water.

This is a filter with fine pores wherein small particles of

adulterants and bacteria are trapped. It is generally superseded

by membrane-type filters. When in use, the ceramic filter removes

microscopic particles from the water (Resource Development

International, 2016).

2. Reverse Osmosis

In the reverse osmosis process cellophane-like membranes

separate purified water from contaminated water. RO is when a pressure

is applied to the concentrated side of the membrane forcing purified

water into the dilute side, the rejected impurities from the concentrated

side being washed away in the reject water. RO can also act as an ultra-

filter removing particles such as some micro-organisms that may be too

large to pass through the pores of the membrane. (Accepta, 2017)

Reverse osmosis works by forcing water through a membrane. The

membrane's microscopic openings allow water to pass through but trap

larger particles and compounds. Sometimes the membrane possesses

an electrical charge. This aids in removing some chemicals from the

water.

The advantages of RO systems can only be found in the government

and commercial sectors as they were designed to provide desalination

for naval ships and provide clean drinking water for the crew. The

44
printing industry also uses reverse osmosis to supply clean water to its

machines to help them perform at optimal levels.

One of the major disadvantages of RO systems for the home is that

they remove most of the minerals from the water leaving it with an acidic

pH. Also, during the purification process, up to 20 gal of water is flushed

down the drain for every gallon of filtered water produced.

Another disadvantage of reverse osmosis systems is they take too

long to filter water when they’re compared to a whole-house water filter

system. In fact, an RO system can take anywhere from 3 to 4 hours to

filter just one gallon of water, which means it would take all day to be

able to filter enough water for everyone in the home.

Reverse osmosis can also be very costly as some whole-home units

can cost thousands of dollars including installation. The high price does

speed up the water filtration process but at the same time the amount of

water wasted is significant. (Whole House Water Filter Systems, 2012)

3. Coagulation

Coagulation water treatment is a technique that makes it easier to

remove waste from water. Chemicals called coagulants are added to

water to bind waste particles together, so they can be more readily

collected. In a traditional clarifier, the goal is to create masses of

particles large enough that they sink to the bottom of the tank. In an air

flotation tank, coagulants are used to create large particle clusters that

45
air bubbles can raise to the surface of the water, where the waste can

be skimmed away (Beckart Environmental, Inc.).

The purpose of coagulation water treatment process is to remove the

colloidal particles from water. The water may contain suspended matter,

small or large solid particles. Sedimentation and filtration processes can

remove most of the solid particles but the small particles that are

remains in colloidal suspension cannot be removed. If they clump

together and form larger particles, then it would be possible to remove

them easily. But a negative charge prevents them to coagulate; as like

two same magnetic poles repulse each other. They are very stable in

colloidal system. If we are able to neutralize these charges, then they

would be consolidated into coarse formations. For this purpose, we add

a chemical that produces positive charges. This chemical is known as

coagulant. The positive charges of the coagulant neutralize the negative

charges on the colloidal particles (Hard and Soft Water, 2017).

4. Adsorption

Adsorption processes have played a central role in water treatment

for many years but their importance is on the rise with the continuous

discoveries of new micropollutants in the water cycle (pharmaceuticals

for example). In addition to the classical application in drinking water

treatment, other application fields are attracting increasing interest, such

as wastewater treatment, groundwater remediation, treatment of landfill

leachate, and so on.

46
 Adsorption is the deposition of molecular species onto the surface.

The molecular species that gets adsorbed on the surface is known as

adsorbent and the surface on which adsorption occurs is known as

adsorbate. There are common examples of adsorbent such as clay,

silica gel, colloids and metals. Adsorption is also a surface phenomenon.

Desorption is the process of removal of adsorbent from the surface of

adsorbate.

One of the mechanisms of adsorption is the enthalpy of adsorption.

It is the amount of heat evolved when one mole of the adsorbate is

adsorbed on adsorbent. Adsorption is an exothermic process and

enthalpy change is always negative. When adsorbate molecules are

adsorbed on the surface, freedom of movement of molecules become

restricted and this results in decrease in entropy.

VI. Groundwater

Groundwater is water that flows or seeps downward and saturates soil or

rock, supplying springs and wells. Groundwater often begins as precipitation

and soaks into the ground where it is stored underground in rock crevices and

in the pores of geologic materials (these are aquifers), the same way as water

fills a sponge. The upper surface of the saturated zone is called the water table.

Groundwater is in constant motion, although the rate at which it moves is

generally slower than it would move in a stream because it must pass through

the intricate passageways between free spaces in the rock. First groundwater

47
moves downward due to the pull of gravity. But it can also move upwards

because it will flow from higher-pressure areas to lower pressure areas.

The rate of groundwater flow is controlled by two properties of the rock:

porosity and permeability. Porosity is the percentage of the volume of the rock

that is open space (pore space). This determines the amount of water that a

rock can contain. In sediments or sedimentary rocks, the porosity depends on

grain size, grain shapes, the degree of sorting, and the degree of cementation.

Permeability is a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces are

interconnected, and the size of the interconnections. Low porosity usually

results in low permeability, but high porosity does not necessarily imply high

permeability. It is possible to have a highly porous rock with little or no

interconnections between pores. A good example of a rock with high porosity

and low permeability is a vesicular volcanic rock, where the bubbles that once

contained gas give the rock a high porosity, but since these holes are not

connected to one another the rock has low permeability

1. Properties of Groundwater

1.1 Turbidity

Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large

numbers of individual particles that are generally invisible to the

naked eye, similar to smoke in air. Turbidity is caused by

suspended materials which absorb and scatter light. These

colloidal and finely dispersed turbidity-causing materials do not

settle under quiescent conditions and are difficult to remove by

48
sedimentation. Turbidity is a key parameter in water supply

engineering, because turbidity will both cause water to be

aesthetically unpleasant and cause problems in water treatment

processes, such as filtration and disinfection. Turbidity is also

often used as indicative evidence of the possibility of bacteria

being present.

1.2 Color

Color is not a toxic characteristic, but is listed by the

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a secondary

(aesthetic) parameter affecting the appearance and palatability of

the water. When chlorinated, color-causing organic matter may

form chlorinated organic compounds such as trihalomethanes.

Chloroform is a common trihalomethane, and is along with several

others, considered to be a potential carcinogen. Color is measured

in units based on a platinum-cobalt standard solution which forms

a yellow tint and is limited to 15 units in public water supplies.

1.3 Oil and Grease Content

The oil and grease contents certain industrial wastes and the

sludge, is of an important consideration in the handling and

treatment of these materials for ultimate disposal. Knowledge of

the quality of the oil and grease present is helpful in proper design

and operation of groundwater treatment system.

49
1.4 Total Suspended Solids

It is the solid materials in groundwater that consist of organic

and inorganic materials and organisms.

1.5 Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) are a measure of the combined

content of all inorganic and organic substances contained in a

liquid in molecular, ionized or micro-granular (colloidal sol)

suspended form. The principal application of TDS is in the study

of water quality for streams, rivers and lakes, although TDS is not

generally considered a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to

be associated with health effects) it is used as an indication of

aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an aggregate

indicator of the presence of a broad array of chemical

contaminants.

1.6 Chemical Oxygen Demand

Chemical Oxygen Demand is an important water parameter

because it provides an index to assess the effect discharged

groundwater on the receiving environment.

1.7 pH Value

pH is an indicator of the acidity or basicity of water but is seldom

a problem by itself. The normal pH range for irrigation water is from

6.5 to 8.4; pH values outside this range are a good warning that

50
 the water is abnormal in quality. Normally, pH is a routine

measurement in irrigation water quality assessment.

2. Parameters for Safe Groundwater

The following tables show the parameters for safe to consume

groundwater based on Department of Environment and Natural

Resources (DENR) and Philippine National Standards for Clean Water

(PNSDW).

Table 3. UFC Average composite influents properties

Parameter Average
Oil and Grease (mg/l)- 200 – 10,000
Total Suspended Solids (mg/l) 50 – 5,000
pH (range) 6–8
COD (mg/l) 5,000 – 80,000
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 2,000 – 1,000
Source: Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC)

Table 3 illustrates the average amount of organic constituents of an

influents according to the Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC).

Table 4. DENR Standard Discharge Limit for Clean Water

Parameter Unit Protected Inland Waters
Waters
Category
Color PCU 100 150
Temperature (max. rise) °C 3 3
pH (range) 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0
COD mg/l 60 100
Total Suspended Solids mg/l] 50 70
Total Dissolved Solids mg/l 1,000 -
Oil/Grease mg/l 5.0 5.0

Source: DENR Administrative Order No. 35 Series of 1990

51
 Table 4 shows the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources (DENR) standard limitations of properties for clean water.

Table 5. Philippine National Standards for Clean Water

PNSDW Standard
Parameter Unit
(Maximum Level)
Turbidity 5 NTU
Color 10 PCU
pH at 25°C 6.5 to 8.5 -
Total Dissolved Solids 500 mg/L
Total Suspended Solids 25 mg/L
Source: DOH AO 2017-0010

Table 5 shows the Philippine National Standards for Clean Water

(PNSDW) maximum level of data’s given in the table.

3. Sources of Groundwater

3.1 Springs

A spring is an area on the surface of the Earth where the water

table intersects the surface and water flows out of the ground.

Springs occur when an impermeable rock (called an aquiclude)

intersects a permeable rock that contains groundwater (an

aquifer). The occurrence of springs is closely related to the

geology of an area. If an impervious layer of rock, such as a clay

deposit, underlies a layer of saturated soil or rock, then a line of

springs will tend to appear on a slope where the clay layer

outcrops. Igneous rocks are also impervious to water, yet they are

often extensively fractured, and springs commonly appear where

these fractures come to the surface. Fractures in limestone are

52
often enlarged by the dissolving action of groundwater, forming

small underground channels and caves.

3.2 Wells

A well is human-made hole that is dug or drilled deep enough

to intersect the water table. If the well is dug beneath the water

table, water will fill the open space to the level of the water table,

and can be drawn out by a bucket or by pumping. An artesian well

is a deep drilled well through which water is forced upward under

pressure. The geologic conditions necessary for an artesian well

are an inclined aquifer sandwiched between impervious rock

layers above and below that trap water in it. Water enters the

exposed edge of the aquifer at a high elevation and percolates

downward through interconnected pore spaces. The water held in

these spaces is under pressure because of the weight of water in

the portion of the aquifer above it. If a well is drilled from the land

surface through the overlying impervious layer into the aquifer, this

pressure will cause the water to rise in the well. In areas where the

slope of the aquifer is great enough, pressure will drive the water

above ground level in a spectacular, permanent fountain.

3.2.1 Dug Wells

Historically, dug wells were excavated by hand shovel

to below the water table until incoming water exceeded the

digger’s bailing rate. The well was lined with stones, bricks,

53
tile, or other material to prevent collapse, and was covered

with a cap of wood, stone, or concrete tile. Because of the

type of construction, bored wells can go deeper beneath the

water table than can hand-dug wells. Dug and bored wells

have a large diameter and expose a large area to the

aquifer. These wells are able to obtain water from less-

permeable materials such as very fine sand, silt, or clay.

Disadvantages of this type of well are that they are shallow

and lack continuous casing and grouting, making them

subject to contamination from nearby surface sources, and

they go dry during periods of drought if the water table drops

below the well bottom.

3.2.2 Driven Wells

Driven wells are constructed by driving a small-

diameter pipe into shallow water-bearing sand or gravel.

Usually a screened well point is attached to the bottom of

the casing before driving. These wells are relatively simple

and economical to construct, but they can tap only shallow

water and are easily contaminated from nearby surface

sources because they are not sealed with grouting material.

Hand-driven wells usually are only around 30 feet deep;

machine-driven wells can be 50 feet deep or more.

54
 3.2.3 Drilled Wells

Drilled wells are constructed by either cable tool

(percussion) or rotary-drilling machines. Drilled wells that

penetrate unconsolidated material require installation of

casing and a screen to prevent inflow of sediment and

collapse. They can be drilled more than 1,000 feet deep.

The space around the casing must be sealed with grouting

material of either neat cement or bentonite clay to prevent

contamination by water draining from the surface downward

around the outside of the casing.

Research Literature

There are studies that have been conducted which are related on

groundwater treatment system. The following studies may have been related to

this current research in terms of producing activated carbon from pineapple peels,

treating contaminated groundwater and/or providing water treatment system as a

whole.

I. Foreign Studies

A study entitled “A Research on Groundwater Rehabilitation through

Water Filtration” conducted by A. Amad et al. (2013) discussed the

contaminants present in groundwater from seven wells (4 dug wells, 2 driven

wells, 1 drilled well) which were used in their research. The researchers took

water samples to a laboratory to determine the level of total dissolved solids,

total suspended solids and pH value. As concluded, the water filtration helped

55
the groundwater to be treated at the following filtration rates in percentage (on

average): 93.5, 96.67 and 95.24 respectively on the mentioned parameters. It

was also concluded that water from drilled well is less contaminated because

of its depth. Moreover, water from dug well has the most risk of contamination.

In the study of P. D. Ashtaputrey et al. (2012), research was conducted

to use pineapple peel activated carbon as an adsorbent for the removal of toxic

heavy metal ion on sample waters. The low cost agricultural waste pineapple

peel activated carbon (PPAC) was prepared at three different temperatures:

3000C, 4000C, 5000C. Batch experiments were carried out to determine the

effect of various parameters such as different initial concentration of metal ions,

adsorbent dose and contact time on the toxic heavy metal ions removal

efficiency of activated carbons using synthetic water sample. The experimental

results indicate that percentage removal efficiency for Ni2+ was the highest and

that for Cd2+ was the lowest where as Cu2+ removal efficiency was in between

in case of all three activated carbons.

Another related study by A. N. Yamay et al. (2016) entitled “Utilization

of Fruit Peels as Activated Carbon for Water Treatment System” was

conducted. The researchers have proven that fruit peels are best to use in

producing active carbons. Biomass wastes are prevalent in the society.

However, these so-called waste can be re-used as adsorbents. In the study,

fruit peels such as banana, apple, tomato, pineapple and papaya were

experimented to produce activated carbon. The activated carbon was then

used in water filtration thus resulting to very efficient filtration rate.

56
 II. Local Studies

In the study of J. M. Silvestre et al. (2017), they have concluded that

there are potentials of pineapple (Ananas comosus) waste biomass especially

as activated carbon by its proven physical and chemical properties. For

physical analysis, the calculated bulk density of the activated carbon from

pineapple was near to the range of the commercial activated carbon which

ranges about 20 lb/ft3 or 0.32 g/cm3 (Ekpete and Horsfall, 2011) and as the

concentration of the digested activating agent increases the dry bulk density of

the carbon also increase. In addition, moisture content of the activated carbon

from pineapple agrowaste biomass (3M) shows that it is nearly in the range of

commercial activated carbon which is also below 5% (ASTM D2867). Thus, the

concentration of the activating agent directly affects the per cent moisture of

the activated carbon because, as the concentration increase the per cent

moisture also increases.

In the study of M. Lopez et al (2016), they conducted a study about

pineapple peel waste activated carbon as an adsorbent for the effective

removal of methylene blue dye from aqueous solution. The results revealed

that pineapple peel waste activated carbon (PPWAC) is an effective sorbent

and can be used for removing cationic dyes like Methylene Blue from infected

water.

Synthesis

In the foreign study conducted by A. Amad et al. (2013), the researchers

tested and studied the contamination level of different types of wells: dug, driven

57
and drilled. The properties they tested were total dissolved solids, total suspended

solids and pH value which will also be tested in this on-going research. Also, they

concluded that dug wells have the most risk of contamination. This observation

gave the researchers the idea to provide a groundwater treatment system for a

dug well – which is located at the Badjao Village in Malitam, Batangas City.

In the study of P. D. Ashtaputrey et al. (2012), they test the effectivity of

pineapple peel activated carbon in adsorbing toxic heavy metal ions. This study

also proved that pineapple wastes can be a good producer of activated carbon

which can therefore be used for water treatment.

Moreover, in the study of A. N. Yamay et al. (2016), they utilized fruit peels

to produce activated carbon which were used for water treatment. Pineapple peel

is one of the experimented fruit peels which yielded to a high filtration efficiency.

This gave the researchers the idea to use pineapple peels, also considering its

abundance, to be used as raw material in this current study. However, only one

fruit will be tested in this study. Additionally, a local research conducted by J. M.

Silvestre et al. (2017) also proved that pineapple wastes have high carbon content

which makes it a good producer of activated carbon. In support to this, another

study about the effectivity of pineapple peel waste activated carbon was

conducted. In line with this on-going research’s objective, it aims to prove that

pineapple peel is a good adsorbent of water contaminants.

58
 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURE

This chapter presents the methods and procedures that will be used by the

researchers in the Design and Development of Dug Well Water Treatment

System for Badjao Village at Brgy. Malitam, Batangas City. This includes the

discussion of procedures to be followed to attain essential information needed in

achieving the objectives of the study.

Research Design

This study will use engineering design, experimental design, planning and

analysis. The research design aims to illustrate the flow of the study from the

beginning to the end. This includes design and development stage, preliminary

and final testing, and final data gathering. This phase will also discuss methods of

gathering data and information that will be used as the basis of the design of the

machine from journals, articles, internet, and books.

Development Stage

1. Design Stage

This stage focuses on making design plan and layout considering the

machine’s system components and the material specification. Ideas on both

factors are acquired from online publications and also from the suggestions

given by professors and the fabricator. Upon the collection of the required data,

the dug well water treatment system will be fabricated; different stages of

filtration will be incorporated. In choosing the materials to be used, availability

59
 and cost were considered. The final design will be simulated using Solid Works

software.

2. Fabrication Stage

The designed machine will be fabricated by Premium One Water

Equipment Enterprise at Don Caedo, Kumintang Ibaba, Batangas City. The

machine operation concepts and procedures will be one of the bases of the

fabricator. The researchers and the fabricator must assure that manufacturing

the prototype will only be based on the design requirements. They should also

consider that the materials and equipment needed for the fabrication is locally

available.

Determination of Properties of Dug Well Water

On the past studies related to water treatment system, the properties being

tested were turbidity, color, oil and grease content, pH level, total dissolved solids,

total suspended solids and chemical oxygen demand. The following methods will

be applied to determine the properties of the sample influent and effluent which

will be examined at Lipa Quality Control Center (LQCC). The following methods

were based on American Society for Testing and Material (ASTM).

1. ASTM D1889 Standard Test Method for Turbidity of Water

This method is tested on municipal drinking water and final effluent

discharges. It is the user's responsibility to ensure the validity of this test

method for waters of untested matrices.

60
2. ASTM D1209-05 Standard Test Method for Color of Clear Liquids

(Platinum-Cobalt Scale)

This test method describes a procedure for the visual measurement

of the color of essentially light colored liquids. It is applicable only to

materials in which the color-producing bodies present have light absorption

characteristics nearly identical with those of the platinum-cobalt color

standards used

3. ASTM D3921-96 Standard Test Method for Oil and Grease

This test method defines oil and grease content in groundwater. This

will be measured by infrared absorption.

4. ASTM D5907–13 Standard Test Methods for Filterable Matter (Total

Dissolved Solids) and Non-filterable Matter (Total Suspended Solids)

in Water

These test methods helped determines total dissolved solids (TDS)

and total suspended solids (TSS) in saline, surface, drinking waters,

domestic, industrial wastewaters and ground waters. The acceptable

amount of the TSS is 4- 20,000 mg/L and the acceptable amount of the TDS

is 10 mg/L to 150,000 µg/g.

5. ASTM D1293–12 Standard Test Methods for pH of Water

These test methods determine the level of pH by electrometric

measurement using the glass electrode as the sensor. The pH of water is a

critical parameter affecting the solubility of trace minerals, the ability of the

water to form scale or to cause metallic corrosion, and the suitability of the

61
 water to sustain living organisms. It is a defined scale, based on a system

of buffer solutions with assigned values. In pure water at 25°C, pH 7.0 is

the neutral point, but this varies with temperature and the ionic strength of

the sample. Pure water in equilibrium with air has a pH of about 5.5, and

most natural uncontaminated waters range between pH 6 and pH 9.

6. ASTM D1252–06 Standard Test Methods for Chemical Oxygen

Demand (Dichromate Oxygen Demand) of Water

These test methods determine the quantity of oxygen that certain

impurities in water consume, based on the reduction of a dichromate

solution under specified conditions. These test methods were used to

chemically determine the maximum quantity of oxygen that could be

consumed by biological or natural chemical processes due to impurities in

water. Typically, this measurement is used to monitor and control oxygen-

consuming pollutants, both inorganic and organic, in domestic and industrial

wastewaters, as well as in groundwater.

62
 Flowchart Procedure

Preparation of Pineapple Peels

Washing

Sun Drying

Carbonization
@300oC

Acid Activation
H2SO4

Analyses

Bulk Density Moisture Content Iodine Adsorption

Test

Preparation of Pineapple Peels for Carbonization and Activation

The raw material to be used in this study is pineapple peels which will be

collected from Silang Proper Public Market located at P. Montoya St. 4118, Silang,

Cavite. The sample will be washed with water until it is free from dirt and dust and

cut into an average length of 2 cm (Muhammed et al., 2014). The pineapple peels

will be sundried for 12 hours. The dried pineapple waste will be used for the

preparation for activated carbon. A steel drum will be prepared that will serve as a

metal kiln. Also, a metal container will be placed inside the steel drum wherein

carbonization of pineapple peels will be done. This will be sealed properly to

prevent gas vapor occurrence. The temperature to be used for carbonization is

63
300°C for three (3) hours. Pineapple wastes will be completely mixed with

concentrated sulphuric acid in the ratio 1:1 and maintained in a metal kiln furnace

at 300oC at 3 hours for activation. The material will be taken out and will be washed

with tap water for 1 minute. It will be sieved for the particle size of 150-250 µm

which was based on Yamamuna.M and Kamaraj.M et al. (2016).

1. Determination of Moisture Content

The moisture content of the pineapple peels will be determined by

ASTM-DI762 (1990) Method. A sample weighing 20 kg will be taken. The

pineapple peels will be sundried for 12 hours. The moisture content (Y) was

calculated on wet basis by the formula:

M1 − Mo
Moisture Content (Y) =
M1
Where:

Y = Moisture Content of the sample

M1 = Initial weight of the sample

Mo = Final weight of the sample

2. Determination of Particle Size

Based on the study of Muhammed et al. (2014), the ideal size of

pineapple peel sample is 2 cm. In this study, the researchers will use the

same measurement for the pineapple peel samples.

3. Determination of Carbonization Temperature

The carbonization temperature used by Yamamuna.M and Kamaraj.M

et al. (2016). In producing activated carbon from pineapple waste is 300°C

64
 for three (3) hours. In this study, the researchers will use the same

parameters in carbonization process.

Determination of the Properties of Activated Carbon

1. ASTM D2854 - 09 Standard Method for Bulk Density of Pineapple Peel

Activated Carbon

The bulk density of activated carbon depends greatly on the physical

makeup of the activated carbon and the degree of compaction. First.

Measure the diameter of the 50 mL beaker and the height of activated carbon

will measure. For wet bulk density the sample of activated carbon will weigh,

giving the mass total Mtotal. For dry bulk density, the sample will be oven

dry at 105oC and weigh, giving the mass solids, Ms. The relationship

between those two masses is Mtotal = Ms + Mt, where Mt is the mass

substance lost on oven drying used by Buckman and Brady et al. (1960)

2. ASTM DI762 – Standard Test Method for Determination of Moisture

Content of Pineapple Peel Activated Carbon

The moisture content of the pineapple peels activated carbon will be

determined by ASTM-DI762 (1990) Method. A sample weighing 20 kg will

be taken. The pineapple peels activated carbon will be sundried for 12

hours. The moisture content (Y) was calculated on wet basis by the formula:
M1 − Mo
Moisture Content (Y) =
M1
Where:

Y = Moisture Content of the sample

M1 = Initial weight of the sample

65
 Mo = Final weight of the sample

3. ASTM D4607- 14 Standard Test Method for Determination of Iodine

Number of Activated Carbon

This test method helped to determine the iodine number that is a

relative indicator of porosity in an activated carbon. Iodine number is a

measure of the surface area and the porosity of an activated carbon which

means that the higher number of Iodine number indicates higher degree of

activation and greater adsorption properties. The typical range of iodine

number is 500–1200 mg/g.

Preliminary Testing Stage

When the machine was fabricated, preliminary testing and machine

modifications will be executed to determine certain parameters and to ensure the

machine’s functionality. Thorough testing and observation on the machine

operations in terms of operating pressure, number of activated carbon filters and

number of additional filters will be done for the pre-evaluation of the prototype.

1. Method of Determining the Operating Pressure

The operating pressure of the machine will be determined by controlling

the valves. The reading can be seen at the pressure gauges. The operating

pressure is based on the residence time of the groundwater which is the

entry of the influent to the system up to the exit of the effluent.

66
 2. Method of Determining the Number of Activated Carbon Filters

The number of activated carbon filters will be determined through trial-

and-error method. Varied number of activated carbon filters will be pre-

tested until it produced an effluent output that meet the DENR standard for

clean water. The number of activated carbon filter/s that result to acceptable

effluent in accordance to DENR standard will be the established parameter

for final testing of the machine.

3. Method of Determining the Number of Additional Filters

In this study, the additional filters to be used are sediment filter, pleated

filter and ceramic filter. The number of additional filters will be determined

through trial-and-error method. Varied number and combination of

additional filters will be pre-tested until it produced an effluent output that

meet the DENR standard for clean water. The number and combination of

additional filter/s that result to acceptable effluent in accordance to DENR

standard will be the established parameter for final testing of the machine.

Final Performance Testing

The final performance testing of Dug Well Water Treatment System using

activated carbon from pineapple peels will be conducted to determine the

treatment rate and filter efficiency.

67
1. Method of Determining the Dug Well Water Treatment System

Treatment Rate

The treatment rate will be determined by the ratio of the volume of

the influent to the residence time of the groundwater inside the dug well

water treatment system.

volume of influent (L)
Treatment Rate =
Residence time (min)
The volume of the influent is the amount of the collected dug well

water while the residence time will be determined by recording the time of

entry of the influent in the machine up to the exit of the effluent.

2. Methods of Determining the Dug Well Water Treatment System

Filter Efficiency

To determine the efficiency of dug well water treatment system, the

beginning volume of the dug well water’s properties will be subtracted from

its final volume. It will then be divided by the initial volume of sample’s

properties and multiplied by 100%. The properties include turbidity, color,

oil and grease content, pH value, total suspended solids, total dissolved

solids and chemical oxygen demand.

𝐼𝑉 − 𝐹𝑉
Filter Efficiency = 𝑥 100%
𝐼𝑉
Where:

IV is the initial volume of the dug well water’s properties

FV is the final volume of the dug well water’s properties

68