Professional Documents
Culture Documents
UNIVERSITY OF MORATUWA
S.W.S Samarakoon
110491 M
Submitted on 21st March 2016
i
PREFACE
Chemical and Process Engineering focuses on adding value to raw materials and converting
them into useful, value added products. The ultimate goal of a chemical engineer should be to
utilize the available resources in the most energy efficient and cost effective manner to scale
up the laboratory scale processes to industrial scale. Therefore, as a chemical and process
engineering undergraduate, it is vital task to have a balanced exposure to both theoretical and
practical aspects. Comprehensive Design Project, group and individual modules are such
modules which encourages the student to gain that competency.
Under CH 4013, the group design project, our group was assigned to design a HFCS
manufacturing plant. HFCS is a substitute for common table sugar made of corn which is
more commonly known as maize. The capacity of the plant was decided to match with 10% of
the annual sugar import to the country. The material balance and energy balances were
performed and process flow diagram and economic and safety reviews were done. The
designed plant contained various unit operations such as Steepening, Centrifugation,
Liquefaction and Saccharification of starch, Ion exchange, Filtration, Isomeration and
Evaporation. Evaporation is an essential unit operation to achieve the required composition of
the end product.
Under CH 4033, the individual design project, I was assigned to design an evaporator. The
evaporator designed in this section is the final evaporator in the process which is used to
obtain the correct composition of HFCS-55 by evaporating excess water. This report contains
10 chapters describing the detail design of the evaporator including the literature review,
selection of the evaporator configuration, chemical design, detail mechanical design and
drawings, pipe and instrumentation and P&I diagrams, safety and economic aspects.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The successful completion of this report has everything to do with the support and the
guidance given by many people. Among them, first and foremost I extend my heartfelt
gratitude to Dr. P.G Rathnasiri, Head of the Department, Department of Chemical and Process
Engineering.
I must be thankful to Dr. Sanja Gunawardene, my supervisor for the support and the guidance
provided. If not for the motivation provided by my supervisor, this report wouldn’t have been
a reality.
Also, I must be thankful to Dr. Olga Sumanapala, the module coordinator for always guiding
and encouraging me to do my best.
All the theories I applied to complete this report successfully were taught to me by the
excellent panel of lecturers in my department. Therefore, I am forever in debt with them for
providing me that wisdom to accomplish this task successfully.
Last but not least, I am thankful to my fellow colleagues of my department for the friendly
support given to complete this report successfully.
iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
HFCS-55 has a close resemblance to sugar. Therefore, import cost of sugar can be reduced by
producing HFCS-55 locally. HFCS-55 production process has several unit operations.
Evaporation is one of the most important unit operations in the process.
The evaporator designed in this report is the final one in the process which is used to adjust
the final composition of HFCS-55 which is 77% of solids. The feed to the evaporator has a
solid composition of 72.5%. The designed evaporator is a single effect basket type evaporator
with thermal vapor recompression. The internal diameter of the evaporator is 0.502m and the
height is 2.51m. The calandria consists of 333 tubes each of length 0.9144m and external
diameter 19.05mm. The operating pressure of the evaporator is 70kPa and motive steam
pressure to the steam jet ejector is 500kPa. Exit vapor from the evaporator is compressed at a
ratio of 2.5 to the steam jet ejector and the exit steam pressure which is the steam inlet
pressure to the evaporator is 175kPa.
The evaporator is constructed using SS 304 L with a design stress of 115 MPa. The thickness
of the evaporator shell is around 4 mm and the thickness of the calandria shell is around 3 mm
to resist both elastic and plastic failure. The evaporator is constructed with a hemispherical
head to the top and a conical head for the bottom to facilitate easy product removal. Openings
are constructed for the feed in, steam in, concentrate out, condensate out and vapor out with
suitable dimensions and reinforcements are done. Combined loading calculations are done to
verify the thickness is able to handle the stresses due to combined loading. A skirt support is
used as the support.
Pipes are designed for the feed flow, concentrate out, steam in, condensate out and vapor out
using standard ASMI schedules. Plug valves are used as shut-off valves and globe and
butterfly valves are used as control valves. Classical feedback control and cascade control
structures are used to control flow, temperature, pressure and level. Use of PLC control is also
suggested.
Safety aspects of the operation procedure is inspected and a HAZOP study is performed.
Economic aspects are being considered and the total capital cost investment is found as
129.907 million LKR.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... ii
2.2.1 Evaporators in which heating medium is confined by double walls, plates, coils
or jackets. ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Evaporators in which heating medium is brought into direct contact with
evaporating liquid. .......................................................................................................... 10
3.1.4 Salting...................................................................................................................... 19
4.1 Nomenclature.................................................................................................................. 25
4.4.1 Determining the tube internal and external diameter and tube length ............ 32
4.4.2 Calculating the number of tubes required for the calandria ............................. 32
7.4 Determining the safe thickness against elastic and plastic failure for the evaporator
shell ...................................................................................................................................... 47
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 90
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Variation of viscosity of HFCS-55 with temperature [4]......................................... 18
Table 3.2 Guide to evaporator selection based on liquid characteristics [5]............................ 19
Table 4.1 Summary of Material Balance ................................................................................. 31
Table 4.2 Summary of Energy Balance ................................................................................... 31
Table 4.3 constants to be used in the correlation [5] ................................................................ 33
Table 4.4 Vapor density, liquid density and cross sectional area ............................................ 35
Table 4.5 Evaporator performance ........................................................................................... 37
Table 4.6 Parameter calculation summary ............................................................................... 37
Table 6.1 – SS 304 L properties ............................................................................................... 39
Table 6.2 – SB – 171 properties ............................................................................................... 40
Table 7.1 k and m values [12] .................................................................................................. 44
Table 7.2 volumetric flow rate determination .......................................................................... 48
Table 7.3 opening diameter calculation ................................................................................... 48
Table 7.4 pipe selection [18] .................................................................................................... 49
Table 7.5 list of drawings ......................................................................................................... 64
Table8.1 Pipe details ................................................................................................................ 65
Table 8.2 Valve details ............................................................................................................. 68
Table 9.1 HAZOP study for the evaporator ............................................................................. 80
Table10.1 typical factors for estimating the fixed capital cost [27] ......................................... 88
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 – Process Flow Chart of the HFCS manufacturing plant .......................................... 2
Figure 2.1 Types of jackets [1]................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.2 Stirrer evaporator [1] ............................................................................................... 7
Figure 2.3 Spiral Plate Evaporator [1] ....................................................................................... 8
Figure 2.4 a schematic diagram of a gasketed plate evaporator. [1] .......................................... 9
Figure 2.5 Patterned-Plate Evaporators [1] ................................................................................ 9
Figure 2.6 a schematic diagram of a submerged combustion evaporator [1] .......................... 10
Figure 2.7 a schematic diagram of a horizontal spray-film evaporator [1] .............................. 11
Figure 2.8 a typical short tube vertical evaporator [3] ............................................................. 12
Figure 2.9 a schematic diagram of an inclined tube evaporator [1] ......................................... 13
Figure 2.10 a typical long-tube vertical evaporator [1] ............................................................ 14
Figure 2.11 a schematic of a rising film evaporator [3] ........................................................... 15
Figure 2.12 a schematic diagram of a falling film evaporator [3] ............................................ 15
Figure 2.13 a rising/falling film evaporator [3]........................................................................ 16
Figure 2.14 a schematic diagram of an agitated thin film evaporator [3] ................................ 17
Figure 3.1 a basket type evaporator [1] .................................................................................... 21
Figure 3.2 a TVR system (Left) A comparison of the steam consumption when TVR is not
used and when TVR is used 1, 2 and 3 effects respectively (Right) [2] .................................. 22
Figure 3.3 a schematic diagram of a MVR system [2]............................................................. 23
Figure 4.1 Tube arrangements with the demarcation of the tube pitch Pt [5] .......................... 33
Figure 4.2 Shell-bundle clearance [5] ...................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.3 a single fixed-nozzle steam jet ejector [1] .............................................................. 35
Figure 4.4 Sizing chart for steam jet ejectors [1] ..................................................................... 36
Figure 3.1 welded plate ............................................................................................................ 51
Figure 8.1 schematic diagram of a plug valve ......................................................................... 66
Figure 8.2 Schematic drawing of a butterfly valve .................................................................. 67
Figure 8.3 Schematic diagram of a globe valve ....................................................................... 67
Figure 8.4 Block diagram of the flow controlling system ........................................................ 72
Figure 8.5 Block diagram of the level controlling system ....................................................... 72
Figure 8.6 Block diagram for the pressure control system ...................................................... 72
Figure 8.7 Block diagram of the cascade loop ......................................................................... 73
Figure 8.8 Positioning of the two level sensors ....................................................................... 74
Figure 8.9 Controlling aspects of steam jet ejectors [24] ......................................................... 75
xi
CHAPTER 01 – INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents a brief description about the work carried out during the Comprehensive
Design Group Project of designing a High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) manufacturing plant.
This also includes an introduction to the Comprehensive Design Individual Project.
The annual production capacity of the plant is 30000 MT of HFCS-55 which accounts for
around 100 MT per day of HFCS- 55. The plant yields around 8 MT per day of HFCS-42 and
2 MT per day of HFCS-90 as main by-products. In addition it yields around 13 MT of germ,
11 MT of fiber and 12 MT of gluten as other by-products which can be marketed as useful
products such as feedstock for cattle. The payback period is 2.13 years and an Internal Rate of
Return of 29% is achievable while maintaining a PI of 2.4.
The manufacturing process used for HFCS production is known as the Wet Corn Milling
Process, which involves numerous unit operations such as,
FE-03 is fed with HFCS-55 with accurate composition in dry basis. However, the water
content is more than required and hence the purpose of FE-03 is to evaporate the excess water
present in the feed to obtain the final specifications of the product to be sold. Thus, the
evaporator is used to concentrate HFCS-55 from 72.5% solids to 77% solids.
As a unit operation, evaporation can be compared with distillation, drying and crystallization.
Evaporation is distinguished from distillation due to the fact that no effort is done in
evaporation to fractionate the vapor into individual components. In evaporation, the final
residue or the concentrate is always a liquid or a suspension of a solid in a liquid. The desired
product may be a solid, but the heat transfer should be occurred in the evaporator from the
heating medium to a solution or a suspension of the solid in a liquid. Thus, it differs from
drying. Crystallization is utilized in order to facilitate crystal growth whereas evaporation is
only used to concentrate a solution. Thus, in most industries such as sugar manufacturing
crystallization is essentially a downstream process to evaporation.
Transfer large amounts of heat to the solution with the minimum amount of
metallic surface area. This plays the leading role in determining the type, size and the
cost for the evaporator system. [1]
Achieve the specified vapor-liquid separation with the simplest devices available.
Separation is a critical factor owing to several reasons: Ensuring the quality of the
product, preventing pollution, eliminating fouling and corrosion of the same
5
While the design criteria for evaporators are the same regardless of the industry involved, two
questions always exist: is this equipment best suited to the duty, and is the equipment
arranged for the most efficient and economic use? [2] As a result, numerous evaporator types
and arrangements have been developed to be used in specific applications.
Solar evaporation demands a large extend of land and only feasible in evaporating natural
brines such as during the manufacture of table salt. [1]
Evaporators with tubular heating surfaces are prominent in the industry. Circulation of the
liquid past the surface may be induced in terms of boiling (natural circulation) or by using
pumps (forced circulation). The latter may or may not involve boiling in the heating surface.
Evaporators can be further categorized according to the mode of operation: Batch, semi-batch,
continuous-batch and continuous.
6
Batch evaporators are utilized for small quantities of product which require large residence
times. Filling, evaporation and emptying of the vessel occur at three separate stages which
generates unwanted changeover times. A batch evaporator should be large enough to handle
the entire amount of the feed and the heating element should be located as low enough not to
be uncovered when the volume is reduced to that of the product. [1]
Semi-batch operation is more commonly used than batch operation where a continuous supply
of feed is taking place in order to keep the liquid level a constant compensating for the loss of
water due to evaporation. [1]However, product is withdrawn once only when the desired
concentration has been achieved. Continuous-batch mode also has a continuous feed but
unlike semi-batch, it has a continuous discharge over at least part of the cycle. The most
widely used continuous evaporators have continuous feed and discharge.
2.2.1 Evaporators in which heating medium is confined by double walls, plates, coils or
jackets.
2.2.1.1 Jacketed Vessels
These are utilized in small scale operations. The rate of heat transfer is lower than other types
of evaporators and a limited surface area is available for heat transfer. Agitation may be
provided to improve heat transfer characteristics. Jackets may be of several types:
conventional jackets made with another cylinder concentric to the evaporator, dimpled jackets
and patterned plate jackets. Jacket evaporators are used when the product is very viscous and
good mixing is required. [1]
7
Figure 2.1 Types of jackets [1]
Small capacity
When the product is difficult to handle
High operating pressures for either process or heating fluid.
Spiral flow is used to increase heat transfer characteristics and reduce fouling.
8
These curved flow units are particularly suitable to handle high viscous fluids containing solid
particles.
Some advantages of this type of evaporator are: ability to handle heat sensitive, viscous and
foaming materials, faster start up and shut down times, compact size and lower head room
requirement and easiness to clean and modification. However, the large gasket area and the
possibility to rupture and mix the two fluids are some drawbacks. [1]
2.2.2 Evaporators in which heating medium is brought into direct contact with
evaporating liquid.
2.2.2.1 Submerged Combustion Evaporator
This is burning a fuel inside a specially designed burner under the surface of a liquid. The hot
combusted gases bubble out from the liquid immediately transferring the heat of combustion
to the liquid to be evaporated. A typical submerged combustion evaporator consists of a tank,
a burner, a combustion distribution system and a combustion control unit. [1] A schematic
diagram is shown in Fig 2.6
Submerged combustion evaporators are widely used with corrosive, scaling, salting and
highly viscous liquids having considerably high boiling points. [1]The depression in boiling
point associated with bubbling can be controlled with the percentage of excess air supplied
with fuel. However, the maximum excess air percentage tolerable is 20%.
In short-tube vertical evaporators, the boiling liquid is inside the tubes and heating medium
outside the tubes. The circulation of boiling liquid past the heating surface is accomplished by
natural circulation. Since the rate of circulation is many times that of the feed rate, down
comers are essential to permit liquid flow from top of the tube sheet to the bottom.
13
A special type of short-tube vertical evaporator called Basket Type Evaporator is used where
the central down comer is replaced with an annular down comer which facilitates removal of
the calandria and easy cleaning. [1]
Some advantages of this type of evaporators are: reduced floor space requirement and ability
to handle foamy liquids. Some disadvantages are: high head-room requirement, higher
pressure drop through tubes than in a falling film evaporator and possibility of inclined
boiling temperature due to the hydrostatic head at the bottom of the tubes which will affect
heat sensitive material. [3]A schematic diagram is shown in Fig 2.11
15
Some advantages of agitated thin film evaporators are: high heat transfer coefficients due to
the turbulence imparted by the rotor, plug flow with minimum back mixing and ability to
handle viscous material. One notable disadvantage is the high capital cost and the
impracticability for vapor recompression.
18
3.1.1 Viscosity
Generally, more viscous the liquid, more difficult it will be to flow and handle using normal
evaporators. Higher viscosities over 300 cP eliminates the use of falling film and rising film
evaporators. The viscosity of the HFCS-55 feed entering the evaporator at 70oC was
calculated using a correlation developed using the available viscosity data as follows.
3.1.4 Salting
Salting refers to the growth of a material on the evaporator surface having a solubility which
increases with the temperature. [1] Here, there is minimum possibility of salting.
3.1.5 Scaling
Scaling means the growth or deposition of a material which is either insoluble or having a
solubility which decreases with the temperature [1]. Here, scaling is mostly due to the
presence of impurities such as ash. However, the scaling possibility is moderate.
3.1.6 Fouling
Fouling is the formation of deposits due to reasons other than salting or scaling [1]. In HFCS
manufacturing, there are two main fouling possibilities: Due to impurities carried out with
steam and impurities found in HFCS. However, the possibility of fouling is also moderate.
3.1.7 Foaming
Stable foaming might lead to excessive entrainment. There are many reasons for the
occurrence of foams: Presence of dissolved gases in the liquor, presence of an air leak in the
vessel and presence of surface-active agents or finely divided solid particles in the liquor [1].
Foaming can be suppressed by operating at low liquid heights, using inclined calandria and by
using mechanical methods. Here, since the concentration of HFCS is quite high, there is a
moderate possibility of foaming.
The following table shows a guide to select an evaporator based on the liquid characteristics.
Batch evaporators are not suitable because: the operation is continuous and large scale and
batch evaporators have very high residence times and very low heat transfer characteristics.
Therefore, continuous, once-through mode of operation should be selected.
Forced circulation evaporators and agitated thin film evaporators are suited for high viscous,
high scaling liquids which have tendency to form crystals. However, in this operation the
liquid is having low viscosity, moderate scaling possibility and no tendency to form crystals.
Therefore, those two types of evaporators can be eliminated.
Submerged combustion evaporators are used with corrosive, highly viscous liquids.
Therefore, they can also be eliminated. Jacketed and coiled evaporators are also not suitable
due to the limited heat transfer.
Plate type evaporators are not suitable to be used in this application because plate heat
evaporators generally give higher efficiencies for small scale operation. Also, it should be
assured that the maintenance which should be performed once in every week or every other
week owing to the moderate scaling and fouling possibility does not interrupt the normal
operation of the plant.
Therefore, the most suitable type of evaporators are the natural circulation tube evaporators.
Horizontal tube evaporators cannot be used due to the inefficiency as well as due to moderate
possibility of scaling while horizontal spray film evaporators cannot be used due to
infeasibility in once-through evaporation.
Long-tube vertical evaporators are not suited due to the moderate scaling possibility which
can cause severe operational drawbacks and difficulty in maintenance.
Therefore, the most suitable type of evaporator for this application is the Short-tube Vertical
Evaporator which has significant advantages in handling moderately scaling liquids and has
significantly high heat transfer coefficients for higher temperature differences. Further, heat
transfer characteristics can be improved by reducing the tube diameter and increasing the
number of tubes. Entrainment separators are used to prevent entrainment.
21
A special type of short-tube vertical evaporator called Basket Type Evaporator is preferred
as the type of evaporator to be used in this application.
The major components inside a basket type evaporator are the calandria, deflector and vapor
head and the down comer. Calandria is the heat exchanger consisting of a bundle of tubes in
which heat transfer occurs from steam to the boiling liquid. Deflector is used to assist
entrainment separation. Vapor head is used to accumulate the vapor formed and also acts as
an entrainment separator. However, due to the high possibility of entrainment, an umbrella
type entrainment separator is used with the evaporator in which the working principle is based
on difference in momentum. An annular down comer is required to allow the cool liquid to
pass down, boil and move up through the tubes.
The working pressure is 70 kPa which is a rough vacuum. Therefore, a steam jet ejector is
used to provide the necessary pressure drop.
In addition, a sight glass should be installed to inspect the evaporator interior during operation
and a non-condensable gas vent should be located in calandria.
22
1. Multi-effect evaporation
2. Thermal vapor recompression
3. Mechanical vapor recompression
This section will briefly identify features of each of the methods mentioned and adopt the
most feasible method to the evaporator design.
One of the above three methods should be incorporated with the evaporator design to
facilitate energy conservation.
According to the results of the material balance done to FE-03 in Comprehensive Design
Group Project, the evaporation rate is 6160 kg/day. Here, a scale up factor of 5 is used which
makes the evaporation rate around 1283 kg/hr. Therefore, using multi-effects as an energy
conservation mechanisms is infeasible. Hence, the evaporator should be a single-effect one.
4.1 Nomenclature
T Temperature (oC)
B.P.R Boiling Point Rise (oC)
P Absolute pressure (kPa)
X Mass fraction of solids in the liquid stream
M Flow rate (kgs-1 )
U Overall heat transfer coefficient (kWm-2K-1)
PCF Pressure Correction Factor
TCF Temperature Correction Factor
Ra Entrainment ratio
λ Latent heat ( kJkg-1)
Cp Specific heat capacity (kJkg-1K-1)
A Area of the heat exchanger (m2)
Q Heat load
Subscripts
in Inlet
f Feed
o Outlet
b Boiling
v Evaporator
ev Entrained vapor
c At the condenser
d Evaporated steam
m Motive steam
s Compressed vapor
26
Entrained vapor
Total vapor formed
C
Condensed vapor
Condensed
motive steam
Product concentrate
72.5% HFCS-55 at 70o C enters the feed pre-heater. The function of the pre-heater is to heat
the feed before being sent to the evaporator by using the enthalpy of the condensing vapor
formed within the evaporator. This helps to increase the thermal efficiency of the evaporator
system. Part of the vapor formed is entrained by the steam jet ejector to be recompressed. The
rest of the vapor is utilized in two ways. Part of that is condensed inside the condenser/pre-
heater and the remaining is sent through a cooler. (A boiler feed water heater). The entrained
vapor is compressed with a supply of high pressure steam known as motive steam. Then, the
compressed vapor is supplied back to the evaporator. 77% concentrated HFCS-55 is removed
from the bottom of the evaporator.
27
The following assumptions were made in carrying out the energy balance.
However,
and
is calculated from steam tables as 89.08oC. B.P.R associated is calculated as 5.62oC [6].
Therefore,
The outlet temperature from the pre-heater is determined as 10 degrees below the boiling
temperature. Therefore,
Pressure drop across the entrainment separator is neglected. Similarly pressure drop inside the
condenser is also neglected.
Therefore,
28
For the successful operation of the steam jet ejector, the compression ratio should be equal or
above 1.81 [7]. Therefore, here a compression ratio of 2.5 is selected for the design.
, -
Therefore,
Overall heat transfer coefficients for the evaporator and condenser are calculated using the
correlations given in Appendix A
* ( ) ( ) ( ) +
* ( ) ( ) ( ) +
Then, the P.C.F and T.C.F are calculated using the following equations
( ) [7]
( )
( ) [7]
( )
Then, the entrainment ratio is calculated using the correlation given below
. / [7]
( )
Therefore,
29
In order to find , energy balance should be applied to the evaporator. The following
equation is obtained after the energy balance.
( ) ( )
However, since ,
( ) ( )
Here, should be calculated for the temperature range from 84.7oC to 94.7oC for HFCS-55
solution. By using interpolation, it is calculated as 2.8985 kJ/kg.K [6]
are calculated from steam tables as 2285.56 kJ/kg and 2213.55 kJ/kg respectively.
Therefore,
( ) ( )
Therefore, and
Therefore,
Heat duty of the evaporator can be found by using the following equation
( )
( )
Heat transfer area required for the evaporator can be calculated using the following equation
( )
( )
Energy available in
Heat required to raise the temperature of from 70oC to 84.7oC can be found from
( )
30
Here should be calculated for the temperature range from 70oC to 84.7oC. The calculated
value using interpolation is 2.8368 kJ/kg.K. [6]
Therefore,
( )
Therefore, it is clear the condensing vapor has excess energy than required for the pre-heater.
In order to calculate the condenser heat transfer area required, LMTD across the condenser is
calculated as follows
( )
. /
Therefore,
If this heat is utilized in the secondary cooler to heat up boiler feed water from 30oC to 40oC,
the flow rate of cooling water M in the cooler can be found out by applying energy balance to
the cooler.
( )
Therefore,
31
Determining the tube internal and external diameters and tube length
Calculating the number of tubes required for the calandaria
Determining the suitable tube sheet arrangement
Calculating the bundle diameter or the calandria diameter
Calculating the evaporator shell internal diameter
Calculating the height of the evaporator shell
Sizing of the steam jet ejector.
4.4.1 Determining the tube internal and external diameter and tube length
Tube diameters in the range 16mm to 50mm are being used in the industry [5]. Smaller
diameters in the range 16mm to 25mm are used in most duties since they are more compact
and cost effective [5]. Larger diameter tubes are chosen for higher capacities and heavily
fouling fluids. Here, the capacity is small and there is moderate fouling possibility [5].
Therefore, tubes of outside diameter 19.05mm and inside diameter 14.83mm are selected for
the design. The preferred tube lengths used in the industry are 3ft, 6ft, 8ft, 12ft, 16ft, 20ft and
24ft. Long tubes are used to reduce the shell diameter when the capacity is large. Therefore,
here the chosen tube length is 3 ft (0.9144m).
( )
33
Figure 4.1 Tube arrangements with the demarcation of the tube pitch Pt [5]
Therefore, here equilateral triangular pattern is selected in which the pitch is given by,
[5]
( )
( ),
( )
are constants which are specified in the correlation and should be found from Table
4.3
( )
According to Fig 4.2, the shell-bundle clearance for fixed and u tube type is taken as 13mm.
Therefore,
( )
(√ )
Therefore,
Since the value of is high, the entrainment possibility is high. Therefore, the height of the
vessel is chosen as 5 times the internal diameter of the shell
Therefore,
In order to determine the size of the ejector, the following graph is used which is shown in Fig
4.4
SS 304 L properties
Minimum Tensile Strength (MPa) 485 [9]
Minimum Yield Strength (MPa) 170 [9]
Melting range of the alloy (oC) 1399 – 1454
Can be subjected to temperatures around 900oC in continuous use
Has an excellent corrosion resistance over a wide range of industrial applications
Can be welded by using common fusion and resistance techniques
with UNS identification number of C-44300, which is commonly known as SB-171 was
chosen as the material of construction for the calandria tubes.
Some properties of SB-171 are tabulated below
Table 6.2 – SB – 171 properties
SB-171 properties
Composition Cu – 71%, Zn – 28%, Sn – 1% [11]
Minimum Tensile Strength (MPa) 310 [9]
Minimum Yield Strength (MPa) 100 [9]
The maximum possible pressure difference occurs while in operation and the hydrostatic head
within the tubes is neglected.
According to Section VIII of ASME BPVC 2007, this belongs to the category where,
P external > P atmospheric and P internal absolute < P atmospheric
Therefore,
P design = P maximum external by guage + 10% extra + P max internal by gauge [12]
However, here the effect of the hydrostatic head is considered. Considering the level of HFCS
is maintained at 1m so that the calandria is totally immersed in the liquid and the density of
HFCS is 1312 kg/m3
In the above equation, all symbols used have their usual meanings.
Since the material of construction is SS 304 L, corrosion allowance is taken as zero.
This thickness will be checked for elastic and plastic failure under external pressure later in
proceeding sections.
7.2.2 Thickness of the calandria shell
The following equation is used,
Here also, corrosion allowance is taken as zero due to corrosion resistance in SS 304 L
However, since the calandria shell is under external pressure, this thickness should be checked
for elastic and plastic failure.
7.2.2.1 Safe thickness against elastic failure
The following equation is used to determine the safe thickness against elastic failure.
. / [12]
Here,
By interpolation,
Finding the safe design pressure for the thickness calculated against elastic failure,
( )
The calculated value is much less than the actual design pressure,
Therefore under a thickness of 0.28mm, the shell will undergo elastic deformation.
In order to find safe thickness for elastic failure, is replaced with the operating design
pressure and a new thickness is calculated.
( )
. / [12]
* +
[ ]
Where all symbols have their usual meanings. U, which is the out of roundness is taken as
1.5%.
Determining the safe design pressure for the calculated safe thickness for elastic failure,
( )
0 1
0 1
, -
Here, corrosion allowance is taken as zero due to the corrosion resistance in SB-171.
[12]
[12]
( )
( )
Compare the value of the semi apex angle with found using the following table
47
By interpolation, =14.78 which is less than the semi-apex angle. Therefore additional
reinforcement is required.
If reinforce the junction with an area given by,
0 1 [12]
[ ]
7.4 Determining the safe thickness against elastic and plastic failure for the evaporator
shell
Calculation procedure is similar as shown in 3.2.2.1 and 3.2.2.2
Here, ( )
Therefore,
This is much less than the operating design pressure. Therefore, a new thickness is calculated
to resist elastic failure.
Therefore,
Generally steam and vapour flow rates are maintained between 80-100 ft/sec [16]and juice
flow rates are maintained between 5-10 ft/sec [17]for safe and optimum operation.
Therefore, calculated opening diameter assuming all openings are circular in shape are shown
in the following table
Table 7.3 opening diameter calculation
However, the pipes are selected based on the ANSI Schedule for stainless steel pipes. The
selected pipe dimensions are listed in the following table
Table 7.4 pipe selection [18]
The suitable pipe schedules will be selected after the calculation of the theoretical wall
thickness of the nozzles.
The type of the nozzle is chosen such that a protruded nozzle is used for Feed In stream and
External nozzles are used for all the other streams.
7.5.2 Reinforcements for openings
Area needed for reinforcements will be calculated using the equal area method and it is
assumed that the openings are well apart from each other so that there is no interaction
between any openings.
7.5.2.1 Opening for the Feed In
( ) ( ) ( )
Where t theoretical is the calculated theoretical thickness of the shell
However corrosion allowance is zero for SS 304 L,
Therefore,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
T actual = 0.00381mm
Therefore,
( ) ( )
Excess area in the nozzle should also be found out in order to calculate the area for
reinforcements
50
First, the theoretical thickness for the nozzle should be calculated using,
Where all parameters are for SS 304 L and weld joint efficiency at the joint is assumed to be
1.
Therefore,
Where Ao is the excess area in the external nozzle and Ai is the excess area in the internal
nozzle.
Considering the external protrusion H1 as 5 cm,
The external boundary limit should be calculated using the equation
√( ) ( )
Therefore,
√( ) , which is lower than H1 actual
Therefore, H1 calculated should be used in the proceeding calculations
( ) ( )
( )
Considering internal protrusion H2 as 3 cm,
The internal boundary limit should be calculated using the equation,
√( ) ( )
Therefore,
Therefore,
But
( ) ( ) , where tr is the thickness of reinforcement
Therefore,
Therefore,
( )
( )
Therefore,
Considering
Therefore,
Therefore,
( )
( )
Therefore,
Considering
Therefore,
Therefore,
( )
( )
53
Therefore,
Considering
Therefore,
Therefore,
( )
( )
Therefore,
Considering
Therefore,
54
Therefore the maximum temperature difference occurring at the worst condition is 64.7oC.
Polyurethane is chosen as the insulation material with a conductivity ( ) of 0.03 W/m.K [19]
Conductivity of SS 304 L (ks) at the operating conditions is found as 16.2 W/m.K [20]
( )
( )
Overall heat transfer co-efficient based on the internal surface without insulation is calculated
using the following equation
. /
( )
Where r1 is the internal radius and r2 is the external radius of the shell
Therefore,
. / . /
( )
Therefore,
55
r3 is calculated as 0.4614m
Therefore,
Both circumferential and longitudinal stresses are way below the design stress.
7.7.2 Stresses due to dead weight
The following components are considered in calculating the dead weight of the vessel
Weight of the evaporator shell
Weight of the two heads
Weight of the working volume of HFCS-55 in the evaporator
Weight of the calandria including the tubes
Weight of the insulation is neglected.
7.7.2.1 Weight of the evaporator shell
( )
Where all symbols have their usual meanings
( )
0.0342m3
The density of SB-171 is found as 8530 kg/m3 [11]
Therefore,
Therefore,
Compressive stress due to total dead weight is given by the following equation,
( )
Where all symbols have their usual meanings
( )
Therefore,
57
( )
Where
is taken as 0.7 since the cylindrical surface is exposed to wind and is taken as 2 assuming
a natural period greater than 0.5 seconds. is taken as 0.7 kN/m2
is the height of the vessel from the foundation which is 1m in this case.
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
( )
Therefore,
Stresses due to seismic loads have been neglected since earthquakes are not abundant in the
site location.
58
Therefore,
( )
√. /
Therefore,
( )
√. /
Therefore,
Therefore,
All the stress intensities are much lower than the design stress of SS 304 L in this case which
is 115 MPa.
Therefore, the calculated thickness in previous sections is stable against combined loading.
59
Therefore,
(Compressive)
( )
Therefore,
Similarly,
( )
Therefore,
However,
Therefore,
However,
Therefore,
Substituting this value instead of the actual compressive stress should be calculated
Therefore,
Therefore
( )
Therefore, the use of a steel rolled angle is recommended.
7.8.3 Design of anchor bolts
First, the requirement for anchor bolts is checked
Therefore,
0 1 [21]
Where,
Considering the skirt inner diameter and the bearing plate width (Lb), a suitable bolt circle
diameter is selected as 0.566m. Considering the minimum recommended bolt spacing as
600mm [21],
Now, bolt root diameter should be calculated in order find out the size of the anchor bolt
required.
Here,
( )
Therefore,
0 1
62
Therefore,
supports are used to weld L supports to shells and each other. The skirt is welded to the main
shell with a lap joint with efficiency 0.8 and fixed to the bearing plate using rolled ring plate.
64
Shut off valve for the vapour leaving the steam jet ejector
Control valve to regulate feed flow
Control valve to regulate vapour flow from the evaporator
Control valve to regulate motive steam flow rate to the steam jet ejector
Control valve to regulate the input steam flow rate
Control valve to regulate the vapour flow rate to the condenser
Control valve to regulate concentrate flow rate
Drain valve for the evaporator
8.2.1 Selection of shut-off valves
Shut-off valves should provide minimum resistance to flow when they are open and positive
seal when they are closed. Therefore, based on the requirements of the process, plug valves
made of SS 304 L are used since they are relatively cheaper and provide low resistance to
flow in open condition and tight seal in close position.
One float steam trap is used for the steam supply to the evaporator. Continuous operability,
good corrosion resistance, resistance to wear, fast response to condensate slugs are some
promising features of this type of steam traps.
8.4 Instrumentation
Instrumentation is a vital part in designing of an equipment. Instruments provide vital
information that can be used for process controlling purpose. Some of the key processing
controlling aspects facilitated by instrumentation are,
Temperature control
Flow control
Level control
Pressure control
8.4.1 Temperature measurement
Temperature measurements are very critical for the operation of an evaporator. Lower the
temperature, the required evaporation rate will not be achieved and higher the temperature,
over evaporation will occur and product degradation can also occur. Therefore, temperature
measurements should be obtained at the following locations of the evaporator,
Temperature of the inlet feed solution
Temperature inside the evaporator
Temperature inside the calandria
Temperature of the concentrate out
Temperature of the steam coming to the evaporator
Several factors should be considered in selecting a temperature sensor. Some of them are,
Operating temperature range
Sensitivity
Precision
Reliability
Accuracy
The most common type of temperature sensors used in the industry are thermocouples and
resistance thermometers which are better known as Resistance Temperature Devices (RTD).
Particular to this application, the sensor used should be guarded against attacks from
corrosion. In that case, thermocouples show an increased time constant to a rapid change in
temperature which is not favourable. However, in the case of RTDs, even when they are
protected by enclosing in a sheath, very small time constants in the order of 0.4 seconds are
70
obtained [22]. In addition, out of the two, thermocouples show much lower temperatures upon
aging. Therefore, RTDs are selected as the suitable temperature sensors. Since the maximum
operating temperature is around 116oC and the minimum operating temperature which is the
temperature of the inlet feed is 70oC, RTDs made of copper are selected which have an
operating temperature range from -200oC-260oC [22].
8.4.2 Pressure measurement
Maintaining the internal pressure at the optimum level is a must for proper functioning of the
vessel. If the internal pressure is higher than the required level, the boiling point will rise
which changes the temperature and product degradation might occur. Also, a higher internal
pressure reduces the level of vacuum. Then the natural pumping effect due to vacuum might
be not sufficient to pump the feed into the evaporator. If the internal pressure is lower than the
required level, boiling point is reduced and under evaporation occurs which affects the
composition of the end product. Other than that, maintaining the inlet steam pressure at the
required level is also important since it determines the steam temperature. Change of steam
pressure changes the temperature driving force of the evaporator and affects the performance.
Considering all these, pressure sensors should be located to measure the internal pressure of
the vessel and the inlet steam pressure. For that, a diaphragm type pressure sensor is used.
8.4.3 Flow measurement
In process controlling aspects, flow rate is used as the manipulated variable to control the
pressure, temperature and level. Therefore, precise instrumentation should be there to measure
both liquid and vapour flow rates. Orifice plate flow meters which can be used to measure
both liquid and vapour flow rates are used in this case due to their applicability over a broad
range and relatively low cost [22].
8.4.4 Level measurement
The liquid level should be maintained just above the top level of the calandria in the
evaporator for optimum heat transfer. Lower the liquid level, maximum heat transfer is not
occurred and higher the liquid level, steam economy will reduce. Owing to the food grade
requirement of the product, non-contacting type of level sensors should be used in with
respect to this application. Therefore, guided wave radar type level measuring device is used
as the level sensor.
71
Here, , is the control signal and , is the proportional constant and , is the integral time
constant and , is the differential time constant. A P controller generates the control signal
proportional to the error signal which is the difference between the set point value and the
actual value. However, a P type controller has an offset which is not favourable for industrial
applications requiring very high accuracy. A PI controller generates the control signal based
on both the error and the accumulation of error. Therefore, the offset is very much reduced
and the accuracy is increased. A PID controller generates the control signal based on the error,
accumulation of error and the rate of change of error. Therefore, the offset is further reduced
and the accuracy is the highest. However, a noise filter should be included in the control loop
when a PID controller is utilized.
The following sections show some control structures that can be implemented for controlling
temperature, pressure, flow rate and level in the evaporator using PID controllers.
8.5.1.1 Flow control of the feed into the evaporator
The main elements of the control loop in this case are as follows
Process – controlling the flow rate of the feed in
Controller – PID controller
Sensor – Orifice plate flow meter at feed in
Final element – globe valve in the feed flow pipe
The block diagram is shown below.
72
In the above diagram, 1 represents the output shut-off valve and it is considered as a normally
open input which is activated by closing the valve.
Notation 2 stands for the upper maximum level and it is also considered as a normally open
input which is activated when the level is reached
Notation 3 stands for the lower maximum level and it is also considered as a normally open
input which is activated when the level is reached.
The output is rapidly closing the valve.
Similarly ladder diagram for the slow closing of the valve is shown below using the same
notations
Type of the control method depends on whether the steam jet ejector is sonic or sub-sonic. If
the compression ratio is larger than 1.8, the ejector is sonic [24]. In this case the compression
ratio is taken as 2.5. Therefore, the steam jet ejector is sonic. Respective control methods for
sonic and sub-sonic conditions are depicted below.
3. Evaporator Pressure Low Vacuum pump may be When the pressure reduces, Make sure vacuum pump
operating along with the boiling point reduces and it is operational only during
steam jet ejector. reduces the evaporation rate the startup.
Pressure controller Regular maintenance for
malfunctioning. controllers and sensors.
Pressure sensor
malfunctioning.
High Malfunctioning in the steam If there is a leak and air is Regular maintenance of
jet ejector. sucked in, contamination the steam jet ejector and
A leak in the nozzles, valves happens. nozzle, valve and pipe
83
or pipes can suck air into the Higher pressure increases connections for possible
vessel the boiling point and over leakages.
evaporation occurs.
Temperature Low Temperature controller Temperature driving force is Regular maintenance of
malfunctioning. increased and increases the controllers and sensors.
Temperature sensors evaporation rate which can
malfunctioning. affect the product
composition
High Temperature controller Temperature driving for is Regular maintenance of
malfunctioning. reduced and decreases the controllers and sensors
Temperature sensors evaporation rate which can
malfunctioning. affect the product
composition
Level of High Level controller increased hold up of liquid Regular maintenance of
liquid malfunctioning. increases the retention time controllers, valves and
Level sensor malfunctioning. which can degrade the sensors.
Control valve malfunctioning. quality of the end product
Flow controller
malfunctioning.
Flow meter malfunctioning.
84
4.Calandria Pressure High High pressure in steam Increased pressure can Installing an alarm system
inflow. increase the temperature and for increased pressure.
Pressure controller hence increase the Regular maintenance of
malfunctioning. evaporation rate and affect controllers, control valves
Pressure sensors product composition. and sensors.
malfunctioning. Further increment in
Control valve malfunctioning pressure may affect the
mechanical integrity of the
tubes.
Malfunctioning control valve Liquid hold up can increase controllers, control valves
or sensor. the retention time and and sensors and pipes for
Partially blocked product degrading the product blockages.
pipe. quality.
Composition As well as Composition of the product Presence of impurities Ensuring all lubricants
may be changed and vastly degrade the quality of used are food grade.
impurities can be present due the end product. Installing metal detectors.
to oil leakages, worn out Regular maintenance of
metal parts. the vessel parts.
6. Condensate Flow No Non-return valve is closed. Accumulation of condensate Regular maintenance and
out pipe Malfunctioning controller, can affect the condensation inspection of controllers,
control valve or flow meters. process of steam and lessen control valves and sensors
Blockage in the condensate the steam economy and condensate out pipe
line. for blockages
87
Figure 10.1 Purchased equipment cost of a single stage evaporator made of stainless steel [26]
88
Therefore according to the above chart taking the respective equipment cost for a short tube
evaporator with a heat transfer area of 195.62 square feet,
Using the CEPCIs for 1987 and 2015, the equipment cost in 2015 was calculated using the
following equation,
[27]
( )
Therefore,
( )
Then, the fixed capital cost is calculated based on this calculated purchased cost of equipment
using the relations given in the following table
Table10.1 typical factors for estimating the fixed capital cost [27]
89
Based on Table 3.1, evaporator falls under the category of fluids. Therefore, by using the
factors given in the table,
( )
( )
The combined cost for design and engineering, contractor’s fee and contingency (C) is
calculated as follows,
Therefore,
Therefore,
Total capital cost=112.963+16.944=129.907 million LKR
Total capital cost = 129.907 million LKR
90
REFERENCES
[1] P. E. Minton, Handook of evaporation technology, New Jersey: Noyes publications, 1986.
[4] "Typical data information for Cornsweet 55," ADM Corn Processing.
[9] ASME, "Section ii part D," in ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes, ASME, 2004, pp. 105-
106.
[10] E.Hugot, "Construction of multiple effects," in Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering, Elsevier,
1972, pp. 500-508.
[14] "304/304L Stainless Steel Sheet, Coil & Plate AMS 5513, AMS 5511 UNS S30400, UNS
S30403," [Online]. Available: http://www.upmet.com/products/stainless-steel/304304l. [Accessed
14 March 2016].
[16] E.Hugot, "Circulation of Steam and Vapour," in Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering, Elsevier,
1972, pp. 507-508.
[17] E.Hugot, "Juice Circulation," in Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering, Elsevier, 1972, pp. 524-
525.
[18] "Dimensions, wall thickness and weights of stainless steel pipes according to ASME B36.19 -
Stainless Steel Pipe," [Online]. Available: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ansi-stainless-
steel-pipes-d_247.html. [Accessed 15 03 2016].
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/polyurethane-insulation-k-values-d_1174.html. [Accessed
15 03 2016].
[21] R. Sinnot, "Skirt supports," in Chemical Engineering Design Volume 6, Coulson and
Richardson's, pp. 844-852.
[25] R.Sinnot, "Hazard and operability studies," in Chemical Engineering Design-Volume 6, Coulson
and Richardson, pp. 380-385.
[27] R.Sinnot, "Capital cost estimation," in Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson and Richardson,
pp. 250-260.
APPENDIX
Appendix A
The overall heat transfer co-efficient of a short tube vertical evaporator and a condenser can
be calculated using the following two correlations
* ( ) ( ) ( ) +
* ( ) ( ) ( )