Temperature Controller Characteristics

Supply Voltage

There are typically two supply voltage options when it comes to temperature
controllers: low voltage (24VAC/DC) and high voltage (110-230VAC).
Size

Controllers come in several standard sizes that are referred to by DIN numbers
such as 1/4 DIN, 1/8 DIN, 1/16 DIN and 1/32 DIN. DIN is an acronym for the
roughly translated "Deutsche Institut fur Normung," a German standards and
measurements organization. For our purposes, DIN simply indicates that a device
complies with a generally accepted standard for panel dimensions.

The smallest size is the 1/32 DIN, which is 24mm × 48mm, with a corresponding
panel cutout of 22.5mm × 45mm. The next size up is the 1/16 DIN which measures
48mm × 48mm with a panel cutout size of 45mm × 45mm. The 1/8 DIN is 48mm
× 96mm with a 45mm × 92mm panel cutout. Lastly, the largest size is the 1/4 DIN
measuring 96mm × 96mm with a 92mm × 92mm panel cutout.

It is important to note that the DIN standards do not determine how deep a
controller may be behind a panel. The standards only allow for front panel
dimensions and panel cut-out dimensions.
Agency Approvals

It is desirable for a temperature controller to have some sort of agency approval to

ensure that the controller meets a minimum set of safety standards. The type of
approval depends on the country in which the controller will be used. The most
common approval, UL and cUL registration, applies to all controllers used in the
U.S. and Canada. Usually, there is one certification required for each country.

For controllers that are used in European Union countries, CE approval is

necessary.

A third type of approval is FM. This applies only to limit devices and for
controllers in the U.S. and Canada.

Front Panel Enclosure Rating

An important controller characteristic is the front panel enclosure rating. These

ratings can be in the form of an IP rating or a NEMA rating. IP (Ingress Protection)
ratings apply to all controllers and are usually IP65 or higher. This means that from
the front panel only, the controller is completely protected from dust and against
low pressure jets of water from all directions with only limited ingress permitted.
IP ratings are used in the U.S., Canada, and Europe.

A controller's NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) rating is

parallel to the IP rating. Most controllers have a NEMA 4 or 4X rating, which
means they can be used in applications requiring water washdown only (not oils or
solvents). The ‘X' in a NEMA 4X rating means that the front panel won't corrode.
NEMA ratings are used primarily in the U.S. and Canada.

Parts of a Temperature Controller

All controllers have several common parts. For starters, controllers have inputs.
The inputs are used to measure a variable in the process being controlled. In the
case of a temperature controller, the measured variable is temperature.

Inputs

Temperature controllers can have several types of inputs. The type of input sensor
and signal needed may vary depending on the type of controlled process. Typical
input sensors include thermocouples and resistive thermal devices (RTD's), and
linear inputs such as mV and mA. Typical standardized thermocouple types
include J, K, T, R, S, B and L types among others.

Controllers can also be set to accept an RTD as a temperature sensing input. A

typical RTD would be a 100Ω platinum sensor.

Alternatively, controllers can be set to accept voltage or current signals in the

millivolt, volt, or milliamp range from other types of sensors such as pressure,
level, or flow sensors. Typical input voltage signals include 0 to 5VDC, 1 to
5VDC, 0 to 10VDC and 2 to 10VDC. Controllers may also be set up to accept
millivolt signals from sensors that include 0 to 50mVDC and 10 to 50mVDC.
Controllers can also accept milliamp signals such as 0 to 20mA or 4 to 20mA.

A controller will typically incorporate a feature to detect when an input sensor is

faulty or absent. This is known as a sensor break detect. Undetected, this fault
condition could cause significant damage to the equipment being controlled. This
feature enables the controller to stop the process immediately if a sensor break
condition is detected.

Outputs

In addition to inputs, every controller also has an output. Each output can be used
to do several things including control a process (such as turning on a heating or
cooling source), initiate an alarm, or to retransmit the process value to a
programmable logic controller (PLC) or recorder.

Typical outputs provided with temperature controllers include relay outputs, solid
state relay (SSR) drivers, triac, and linear analog outputs. A relay output is usually
a single-pole double-throw (SPDT) relay with a DC voltage coil. The controller
energizes the relay coil, providing isolation for the contacts. This lets the contacts
control an external voltage source to power the coil of a much larger heating
contactor. It's important to note that the current rating of the relay contacts is
usually less than 2A. The contacts can control a heating contactor with a rating of
10–20A used by the heater bands or heating elements.

Another type of output is an SSR driver. SSR driver outputs are logic outputs that
turn a solid-state relay on or off. Most solid-state relays require 3 to 32VDC to turn
on. A typical SSR driver turn-on signal of 10V can drive three solid-state relays.

A triac provides the relay function without any moving parts. It is a solid state
device that controls currents up to 1A. Triac outputs may allow some small amount
of bleed current, usually less than 50mA. This bleed current doesn't affect heating
contactor circuits, but it may be a problem if the output is used to connect to
another solid-state circuit such as a PLC input. If this is a concern, a standard relay
contact would be a better choice. It provides absolute zero current when the output
is de-energized and the contacts are open.

Analog outputs are provided on some controllers which put out a 0–10V signal or a
4–20mA signal. These signals are calibrated so that the signal changes as a
percentage of the output. For example, if a controller is sending a 0% signal, the
analog output will be 0V or 4mA. When the controller is sending a 50% signal, the
output will be 5V or 12mA. When the controller is sending a 100% signal, the
output will be 10V or 20mA.

Other Parameters

Temperature controllers have several other parameters, one of which is a setpoint.

Basically, a setpoint is a target value set by an operator which the controller aims
at keeping steady. For instance, a setpoint temperature of 30°C means that a
controller will aim to keep the temperature at this value.

Another parameter is an alarm value. This is used to indicate when a process has
reached some given condition. There are several variations on types of alarms. For
instance, a high alarm may indicate that a temperature has gotten hotter than some
set value. Likewise, a low alarm indicates the temperature has dropped below some
set value.

For example, in a temperature control system, a high fixed alarm prevents a heat
source from damaging equipment by de-energizing the source if the temperature
exceeds some setpoint value. A low fixed alarm, on the other hand, may be set if a
low temperature could damage equipment by freezing.

The controller can also test for a broken output device, such as an open heating
element, by checking the amount of output signal and comparing it to the amount
of detected change in the input signal. For example, if the output signal is 100%
and the input sensor does not detect any change in temperature after a certain time
period, the controller will determine that the loop is broken. This feature is known
as Loop Alarm.

Another type of alarm is a deviation alarm. This is set at some plus-or-minus value
from the setpoint. The deviation alarm monitors the process setpoint. The operator
is notified when the process begins to vary some preprogrammed amount from the
setpoint. A variation on the deviation alarm is the band alarm. This alarm will
activate either within or outside a designated temperature band. Typically, the
alarm points are half above and half below the controller setpoint.

For example, if the setpoint is 150° and the deviation alarms are set at ±10°, the
alarms would be activated when the temperature reached 160° at the high end or
140° at the low end. If the setpoint is changed to 170°, the high alarm would
activate at 180° and the low alarm at 160°. Another common set of controller
parameters are PID parameters. PID, which stands for proportional, integral,
derivative, is an advanced control function that uses feedback from the controlled
process to determine how best to control that process.

How it Works

All controllers, from the basic to the most complex, work pretty much the same
way. Controllers control, or hold, some variable or parameter at a set value. There
are two variables required by the controller; actual input signal and desired setpoint
value. The input signal is also known as the process value. The input to the
controller is sampled many times per second, depending on the controller.

This input, or process, value is then compared with the setpoint value. If the actual
value doesn't match the setpoint, the controller generates an output signal change
based on the difference between the setpoint and the process value and whether or
not the process value is approaching the setpoint or deviating farther from the
setpoint. This output signal then initiates some type of response to correct the
actual value so that it matches the setpoint. Usually, the control algorithm updates
the output power value which is then applied to the output.

The control action taken depends on the type of controller. For instance, if the
controller is an ON/OFF control, the controller decides if the output needs to be
turned on, turned off, or left in its present state.

ON/OFF control is one of the simplest types of control to implement. It works by

setting up a hysteresis band. For instance, a temperature controller may be set to
control the temperature inside of a room. If the setpoint is 68° and the actual
temperature falls to 67°, an error signal would show a –1° difference. The
controller would then send a signal to increase the applied heat to raise the
temperature back to the setpoint of 68°. Once the temperature reaches 68°, the
heater shuts off. For a temperature between 68° and 67°, the controller takes no
action and the heater remains off. However, once the temperature reaches 67°, the
heater will again kick in.
Unlike ON/OFF control, PID control determines the exact output value required to
maintain the desired temperature. The output power can range from 0 to 100%.
When an analog output type is used, the output drive is proportional to the output
power value. However, if the output is a binary output type such as a relay, SSR
driver, or triac, then the output must be time proportioned to obtain an analog
representation.

A time proportioned system uses a cycle time to proportion the output value. If the
cycle time is set to 8 seconds, a system calling for 50% power will have the output
on for 4 seconds and off for 4 seconds. As long as the power value doesn't change,
the time values wouldn't change. Over time, the power is averaged to the 50%
commanded value, half on and half off. If the output power needed to be 25%, then
for the same 8 second cycle time, the output would be on for 2 seconds and off for
6 seconds.

Output time proportioning example

All things being equal, a shorter cycle time is desirable because the controller can
more quickly react and change the state of the output for given changes on the
process. Due to the mechanics of a relay, a shorter cycle time can shorten the life
of a relay, and is not recommend to be less than 8 seconds. For solid state
switching devices like an SSR driver or triac, faster switching times are better.
Longer switching times, no matter what output type, allow for more oscillation in
the process value. The general rule is that, ONLY if the process will allow it, when
a relay output is used, a longer cycle time is desired.

Additional Features

Controllers can also have a number of additional optional features. One of these is
communication capability. A communication link lets the controller communicate
with a PLC or a computer. This allows data exchange between the controller and
the host. An example of typical data exchange would be the host computer or PLC
reading the process value.

A second option is a remote setpoint. This feature allows a remote device, such as
a PLC or computer, to change the controller setpoint. However, unlike the
communication capability mentioned above, the remote setpoint input uses a linear
analog input signal that is proportional to the setpoint value. This gives an operator
added flexibility by being able to change the setpoint from a remote location. A
typical signal might be 4–20mA or 0–10VDC.

Another common feature supplied with controllers is the ability to configure them
using special software on a PC connected via a communications link. This allows
quick and easy configuration of the controller and also the option to save
configurations for future use.

Another common feature is a digital input. The digital input can work together
with a remote setpoint to select the local or remote setpoint for the controller. It
can also be used to select between setpoint 1 and setpoint 2 as programmed in the
controller. Digital inputs can also remotely reset a limit device if it has gone into
the limit condition.

Other optional features include a transmitter power supply used to power a 4–

20mA sensor. This power supply is used to supply 24VDC power at a maximum of
40mA.

In some applications, a dual-color display can also be a desirable feature, making it

easy to identify different controller states. Some products also have displays that
can change from red to green or vice versa depending on preprogrammed
conditions, such as indicating an alarm condition. In this case, no alarm might be
shown by a green display, but if an alarm is present the display would turn red.

General Purpose Temperature Controllers

General-purpose temperature controllers are used to control most typical processes

in industry. Typically, they come in a range of DIN sizes, have multiple outputs,
and programmable output functions. These controllers can also perform PID
control for excellent general control situations. They are traditionally placed in the
front panel with the display for easy operator accessibility.

Most modern digital temperature controllers can automatically calculate PID

parameters for optimum thermal system performance using their built in auto-
tuning algorithms. These controllers have a pre-tune function to initially calculate
the PID parameters for a process, and a continuous tune function to constantly
refine the PID parameters. This allows for quick setup, saving time and reducing
waste.
Valve Motor Drive

A special type of general-purpose controller is the valve motor drive (VMD)

controller. These controllers are specifically designed to control valve motors used
in manufacturing applications such as gas burner control on a production line.
Special tuning algorithms give accurate control and fast output reaction without the
need for slidewire feedback or excessive knowledge of three-term PID tuning
algorithms. VMD controllers control the position of the valve, somewhere between
0% to 100% open, depending on the energy needs of the process at any given time.

Profile

Profiling controllers, also called ramp-soak controllers, allow operators to program

a number of setpoints and the time to sit at each setpoint. Programming a setpoint
change is called ramp and the time to stay at each setpoint is called soak or dwell.
One ramp or one soak is considered to be one segment. A profiler offers the ability
to enter a number of segments to allow complex temperature profiles. The profiles
can be referred to as recipes by the operator. Most profilers allow storage of
multiple recipes for later use. Smaller profilers may allow for four recipes with
sixteen segments each with more advanced profilers allowing for more recipes and
segments.

Profile controllers are able to execute ramp-and-soak profiles such as temperature

changes over time, along with hold and soak/cycle duration, all the while being
unattended by an operator.

Typical applications for profile controllers include heat treating, annealing,

environmental chambers, and complex process furnaces.

Multi-Loop

Besides single-loop controllers which can control only one process loop, multi-
loop controllers can control more than one loop, meaning they can accept more
than one input variable.

Generally speaking, a multi-loop controller can be thought of as a device with

many individual temperature controllers inside a single chassis. These are typically
mounted behind the panel as opposed to in front of the panel as with general-
purpose single loop controllers. Programming any one of the loops is similar to
programming a panel-mounted temperature controller. However, multi-loop
systems tend not to have the traditional, physical user interface (no display or
switches), instead using a dedicated communications link.

Multi-loop controllers need to be configured by a specialized software program on

a PC that can download the configuration to the controller using the dedicated
communications interface.

Information can be retrieved via a communications interface. Common

communications interfaces that are supported include DeviceNet, Profibus,
MODBUS/RTU, CanOPEN, Ethernet/IP, and MODBUS/TCP.

Multi-loop controllers provide a compact modular system that can operate either
within a stand-alone system or in a PLC environment. As a replacement for
temperature controls in PLCs, they provide fast PID control and off-load much of
the math intensive work from the PLC processor, allowing for faster PLC scan
rates. As a replacement for multiple DIN controllers, they provide a single point of
software access to all control loops. The cost of installation is reduced by
eliminating much wiring, panel cutouts, and saving panel space.

Multi-loop controllers provide some additional features not available on traditional

panel mounted controllers. For instance, multi-loop controllers have higher loop
density for a given space. Some multi-loop temperature control systems can have
up to 32 loops of control in a DIN rail mounted package not much longer than 8".
They also reduce wiring by having a common connection point for power supply
and communications interfaces.

Multi-loop temperature controllers also have enhanced security features, one of

which is the absence of buttons where anyone can change critical settings. By
having complete control over the information being read from or written to the
controller, the machine builder can limit the information that any given operator
can read or change, preventing undesirable conditions from occurring, such as
setting a setpoint too high to a range that may damage product or the machine. In
addition, controller modules can be hot-swapped. This lets a controller module be
changed out without having to power down the system. Modules can also auto-
configure after a hot swap.

About Process Controllers

Process control refers to the methods used to maintain the output of process
variables– such as temperature, pressure, flow, or level– within a desired range.
Precise control of these variables is critical in industrial settings as it improves the
quality of products while enabling automation, allowing smaller staffs to monitor
and control complex processes from a central location.

Process control is part of a closed loop system in which a process variable is

measured, compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct any deviation from
the setpoint. Closed loop control is feedback-dependent; receiving feedback from
sensors monitoring the process variable and providing feedback to the final control
element that corrects any deviation from the setpoint. By carefully monitoring and
correcting process variables, controllers greatly assist in reducing variability,
increasing efficiency, and ensuring safety. Any equipment that requires constant
monitoring of a process variable can benefit from a process controller.

Let’s use the example of an automated production facility that makes cookies.
Process controllers are responsible for delivering a specific ratio of ingredients,
mixed them together for an exact amount of time before being portioned into a
consistent size and shape. A conveyor transports the raw cookies to the oven where
they are baked to a perfect consistency and counted out for packaging.

In the above example, controllers monitor and correct temperature, pressure,

batching, humidity and other processes. If any of these were out of specification,
the cookies would be ruined. It is the process controllers that reduce variability in
the product and guarantee a consistent cookie.

Years ago, workers would’ve handled all these processes manually-- checking
temperatures, mixing ingredients, timing the baking. The process was much
slower, less cost effective, and output was lower because of that. Now production
is highly automated. It is process controllers that are responsible for the increase in
efficiency.

Process variables such as pressure and temperature are potentially dangerous.

Many of the “ingredients” used in industry (though not necessarily in cookies) are
harmful to people and/or the environment. It is process controllers that maintain
conditions to ensure safety.

Control system components

Process controllers are arranged into control systems (also known as control loops)
that consist of the controller, any associated sensors, a power supply, the final
control element, as well as any necessary load handling devices.
As we know, controllers seek to maintain the measured process variable at a preset
point.

Sensors provide the input signal to the controller. That signal is based upon a
measurable physical property like temperature, pressure, pH, flow, level, etc. There
are a staggering array of sensors, transmitters, and transducers compatible with
process controllers. Nearly the only limitation is the type of signal a controller is
capable of reading. More sophisticated controllers accept voltage, current, contacts,
frequency, thermocouple/RTD, and other signal types.

The final control element refers to the device that acts upon orders from the
controller. It can be a heater that is activated when the sensor finds a temperature
lower than the set point or a valve that opens when the pressure sensor measures a
pressure higher than the set point.

Process controllers, many (though not all) sensors, and final control elements
require power to operate. A power supply is an integral element to control loops

Control loops regularly feature additional instruments. Transmitters or signal

conditioners are often used to isolate, filter, amplify, or convert a sensor input
signal when conditions dictate it. Control loops also frequently include data
acquisition devices for archiving information related to the process.

Load handling devices are often needed when the final control element, such as
heaters or solenoids, require more power to operate than can be supplied by the
controller.

Types of Control Action

Depending upon the unit, process controllers are capable of providing multiple
types of control which are suited to different applications and process variables.

On-Off Control

On-off control, also called hysteresis control, is the simplest type of control. As
expected, on-off controllers switch abruptly between two states with no middle
state. They are for use with equipment that accepts binary input, for example a
furnace that is either completely on or completely off.

On-off controllers only switch output when the set point has been crossed. In the
case of heating control, the controller switches on when below the set point and off
when above the set point. To prevent rapid cycling of the system which can cause
damage, hysteresis or on-off differential, is added to the controller operations. The
differential prevents cycling by exceeding the setpoint by a small amount before
the controller switches on or off.

On-off controllers are often used in applications that don’t require precise control,
in systems which cannot handle having the energy turned on and off frequently,
where the mass of the system is so great that temperatures change extremely
slowly, or for temperature alarms.

PID Control

PID control uses three different control terms; proportional (P), integral (I), and
derivative (D) to help the controller’s algorithms provide a more accurate response
to deviations from the set point.

When a controller receives input that a process variable has varied from the set
point, instructions are sent to the final control element for correction. For example,
a controller receives a signal from a thermocouple that a process temperature is too
low prompting the controller to turn on a heater to bring it back up to temperature.

Simple on-off control often leads the final control element to overshoot the set
point, especially when the original deviation was small. Repeatedly overshooting
the set point causes the output to oscillate around the setpoint in either a constant,
growing, or decaying sinusoid. The system is unstable if the amplitude of the
oscillations continuously increase with time.

PID controllers use the algorithm derived from their three control terms to
maintain system stability by limiting overshoot and resulting oscillation. The
proportional variable controls the rate of correction so that it is proportional to the
error. The integral and derivative variables are time-based and help the controller
automatically compensate to changes in the system. The derivative variable
considers the rate at which the error is increasing or decreasing while the integral
variable uses knowledge of accumulated errors to the length of time the process is
not at the set point. This information is used to correct the proportional value.

PID controllers are generally considered the most efficient type of controller. They
are widely used in industrial settings. Though each of the variables must be tuned
to a particular system, PID controllers provide very accurate and stable control.
In order to make PID controllers even more responsive to real-world situations,
many manufacturers have incorporated fuzzy logic (or fuzzy control) into the
instruments. Fuzzy logic is a mathematical system that attempts to emulate human
reasoning. Rather than the binary logic of standard controllers, fuzzy logic
introduces continuous variables which provide an effective means of capturing the
approximate, inexact nature of the real world.

This ability enables controllers with fuzzy logic to make quick, subtle changes that
significantly improves response to fast-changing variables independent of the
programming done by the operator. For example, as heaters, valves and other final
control elements age, they show signs of wear and no longer respond in the same
way as they did when new. Fuzzy logic recognizes this and automatically
compensates.

Profile Control

Profile Control refers to controlling a changing process variable against time.

Users input the desired time and process profile with the help of extensive
instruction set like jump, loop, loop with count apart from ramp and soak control.

Profile control is especially useful for cycling applications which require multiple
temperature profiles as well as specific on and off periods.

Limit Control

Limit control involves an independent switch which will shut down the system if a
process variable crosses a preset threshold. Limit controllers are for use in
processes where for safety or quality issues, a process variable must be kept within
specified tolerance levels.

Limit controllers are designed to work in conjunction with another controller.

These units also require a manual rest to acknowledge the limit relay has been
activated.

Things to consider when selecting a process controller:

 What type of input is provided by the sensors?

 What type of control is needed?
 What power supply is available to power the controller?
 What amperage and voltage is required for the load?
  What type and number of outputs are needed to control load or load
handling devices?
 What size controller is required?
 Are there any mounting requirements for the controller?
 What are the environmental conditions the controller will be exposed to?
 Are any auxiliary functions required such as communications, remoter
setpoint, retransmission, etc.?
 What temperature range is required?

Manually Tuning Your Fuji Temperature Controller

Tuning

Tuning Fuji Temperature Controllers, as with any PID loop, requires tuning each
parameter separately and in sequence. To achieve good PID temperature control
manually, you can use the trial and error method explained below.

Tune the Proportional Band

Set Integral Time = 0 (off)

Set Derivative Time = 0 (off)

Start with a large Proportional Band value which gives very sluggish control with
noticeable offset and tighten by decreasing the value in half. Analyze the process
variable. If the control is still sluggish, tight-en by decreasing the value in half
again. Continue with the same procedure until the process starts to oscillate at a
constant rate. Widen the Proportional Band by 50%, or multiply the setting 1.5
times. From a cold start, test and verify that the Proportional Band allows
maximum rise to setpoint while maintaining minimum overshoot and offset. If not
completely satisfied, fine-tune the value, up or down, as needed and test until
correct. The Proportional Band is now tuned.

Add Integral Time

Start with a large Integral Time value which gives very sluggish response to
process offset and tighten by decreasing the value in half. Analyze the process
variable. If the response to process offset is still sluggish, tighten by decreasing the
value in half again. Continue with the same procedure until the process starts to
oscillate at a constant rate. Increase the Integral Time value by 50%, or multiply
the setting 1.5 times. From a cold start, test and verify that the Integral Time allows
maximum elimination of offset with minimum overshoot. If not completely
satisfied, fine-tune the value, up or down, as needed and test until correct. The
Integral Time is now tuned.

Add Derivative Time

Do not add Derivative Time if the system is too dynamic. Start with a small
Derivative Time value which gives sluggish response to process upsets and double
the value. Analyze the process variable. If the response to process upsets is still
sluggish, double the value again. Continue with the same procedure until the
process starts to oscillate at a quick constant rate. Decrease the Derivative Time
value by 25%. From a cold start, test and verify that the Derivative Time value
allows maximum response to process disturbances with minimum overshoot. If not
completely satisfied, fine-tune the value, up or down, as needed and test until
correct. Note that the Derivative Time value is usually somewhere around 25% of
the Integral Time value.

Another tuning method is the closed-loop cycling or Zeigler-Nichols method.

According to J.G. Zeigler and N.B. Nichols, optimal tuning is achieved when the
controller responds to a difference between set-point and the process variable with
a 1/4 wave decay ratio. That is to say that the amplitude of each successive
overshoot is reduced by 3/4 until stabilizing at setpoint.

Procedure Step by Step

1. Integral Time=0
Derivative Time=0
2. Decrease the Proportional Band to the point where a constant rate of
oscillation is obtained. This is the response frequency of the system. The
frequency is different for each process.
3. Measure the Time Constant which is the time to complete one cycle of the
response frequency. The Time Constant will be defined as "T" when
calculating Integral and Derivative Times.
4. Widen the Proportional Band until only slightly unstable. This is the
Proportional Band's Ultimate Sensitivity. The Proportional Band's Ultimate
Sensitivity width will be defined as "P" when calculating the actual
 Proportional Band.

5. Use the following coefficients in determining the correct PID settings for
your particular application.

Control Action P Setting I Setting D Setting

P Only 2P * *

PI 2.2P .83T *

PID 1.67P .5T .125T

About Signal Conditioners

Signal conditioners are used as part of process and control applications to

manipulate the output signal of a transmitter or transducer in such a way as to
ensure it meets the requirements of the next stage of the process. Signal
conditioning typically involves steps that isolate, filter, amplify, or convert a
sensor input signal to a proportional output signal that is transmitted to another
control device or system.

Signal conditioners are a common, though not always required, component of

process systems. In typical installations, signal conditioners, when needed, are
installed between the sensor and the controller or other data acquisition device.
Whether or not signal conditioning is required depends on the sensors included in
the system as well as the requirements of equipment down the line.

Sensors measure various physical properties such as temperature, force, pressure,

position, light intensity, sound, flow, etc. The output of the sensor, conditioned to
provide the corresponding measurement of the physical property, is picked up by a
display, recorder, process controller or another piece of equipment to initiate a
process.

The output of most sensors is a relatively small voltage, current or change to

resistance. Sometimes those signals need to be converted from analog to digital,
voltage to frequency, or some other conversion. Sometimes the signal has to travel
too long of a distance causing it to degrade. Sometimes proximity to sources of
high voltage or radio signals inserts noise into the signal. Sometimes the sensor
need to be isolated from the data acquisition device to avoid earth loops or other
common mode voltage problems. These are all instances when signal conditioning
is needed.

Types of devices that use signal conditioning include signal filters, instrument
amplifiers, sample-and-hold amplifiers, isolation amplifiers, signal isolators,
multiplexers, bridge conditioners, analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-analog
converters, frequency converters or translators, voltage converters or inverters,
frequency-to-voltage converters, voltage-to-frequency converters, current-to-
voltage converters, current loop converters, and charge converters.

Signal Conditioning Functions

Signal conditioners are equipped with a range of functions that prepare signals
from sensors and transmitters for the next stage of the process. The functions you
should look for are determined by the needs of your application and equipment.

Adjustability

Though sensor outputs are nearly always shown with convenient endpoint signals
(e.g., 0.00 mV through 50.0mV), in the real world sensors provide approximate
values such as 4.73mV through 48.9mV. Adjustable signal conditioners can scale
the output signal to more convenient endpoints as well as optimize performance by
calibrating out errors due to the sensors and/or the system such as voltage drops,
other devices, etc.

As sensors age they are also prone to drifting. The ability to adjust zero and span
through the signal conditioner increases the useful life of sensors without affecting
other devices, burdening host processors, or affecting system accuracy.

Amplification
Output signals often need amplification especially when used with long cable runs.
Signal conditioners amplify output signals by increasing the voltage, thus
increasing the measurement resolution and sensitivity. When amplification of the
signal is paramount, placing the signal conditioner closer to the signal source, or
transducer, improves the measurement signal-to-noise ratio by magnifying the
voltage level before it is affected by environmental noise.

Attenuation

Attenuation is the opposite of amplification. It is commonly needed when

converting a signal from analog to digital and the signal strength is beyond the
range of the Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC). This is typically necessary when
measuring voltages that are more than 10 V. Signal conditioners with attenuation
decrease the input signal amplitude so that the conditioned signal is within ADC
range

Isolation

Signal conditioners isolate output signals by using transformers or optical

couplers--rather than a direct physical connection-- between circuits. This replaces
a low-impedance path with a high-impedance path from input to output. Isolation
breaks up potential ground loops and protects equipment from high voltage surges
and spikes.

Filtering

Filtering in signal conditioning involves removing unwanted noise within a certain

frequency range, such as using low-pass filters to block out high-frequency noise
in electrical measurements. Filtering can also prevent aliasing from high-frequency
signals.

RFI/EMI

As commercial and industrial settings become increasingly automated, radio

frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI) becomes a
bigger problem. Whether it is the effects of inductive load switching relays or
simply someone keying up a radio transmitter, RFI/EMI protection should be
considered when selecting a signal conditioner.

Excitation
Many sensors and transmitters require external voltage or current excitation. For
example, strain gages, accelerometers, thermistors, and resistance temperature
detectors use some variation of an introduced electrical signal upon which to base
measurement. RTD and thermistor measurements measure and convert the
variation in resistance of a current source to a measurable voltage. Accelerometers
often have an integrated amplifier, which requires a current excitation provided by
the measurement device. Strain gages typically are used in a Wheatstone bridge
configuration with a voltage excitation source.

Linearization

Some sensors, notably thermocouples, produce output signals that are not linearly
related to the physical measurement. Linearization is the process of interpreting the
signal from the sensor such that it aligns with the physical measurement.

Cold-Junction Compensation

In order get absolute temperature readings from thermocouples, there needs to be a

stable reference temperature. This is accomplished through cold-junction
compensation. As thermocouples measure temperature based upon the difference
in voltage between two dissimilar metals, cold-junction compensation uses another
voltage generated at the connection between the thermocouple and terminal of your
data acquisition device. Cold-junction compensation improves measurement
accuracy by providing the temperature at this junction and applying the appropriate
correction.

Bridge Completion

Bridge completion is required for quarter- and half-bridge sensors to comprise a

four resistor Wheatstone bridge. Strain gage signal conditioners typically provide
half-bridge completion networks consisting of high-precision reference resistors.
The completion resistors provide a fixed reference for detecting small voltage
changes across the active resistor(s).

Some signal conditioners can also perform computation functions such as

totalization, integration, pulse-width modulation, and other math operations on a
signal.
About Temperature Calibrators

Temperature is the most commonly measured parameter in commercial and

industrial settings. Industries as diverse as food processing, pharmaceuticals, cold
storage, paper manufacturing, and others absolutely rely on process temperatures
being within a certain range. To maintain accuracy, calibrating temperature
monitoring equipment is necessary.

Measuring temperature involves a wide range of specialty sensors such as

thermocouples, thermistors, resistive temperature detectors (RTDs), infrared (IR)
sensors, bimetal thermometers, and others. These sensors produces an electrical
output such as resistance, millivolts or milliamps which correspond to the
temperature. These output signals are sent to a readout or controller where they are
displayed or used to control a process function.

When discussing temperature calibration it's important to note that output of the
temperature sensors, themselves, cannot be adjusted. Instead, the controller or
readout is adjusted to account for the inaccuracy of the sensor.

ITS-90

Temperature calibrations are done in accordance with The International

Temperature Scale of 1990. ITS-90 is the legal temperature scale that establishes a
number of fixed point temperatures that can be used as reference values. The
purpose of which is to define procedures for calibrating temperature equipment in
such a way that the values of obtained are precise and reproducible, while at the
same time approximating the corresponding thermodynamic values as closely as
possible.

Calibration

Calibration is a comparison between two devices. The first device is the unit to be
calibrated, often called the unit under test. The second device is the standard,
which has a known accuracy. Using the standard as a guide, the unit under test is
adjusted until both units display the same results while exposed to the same
temperature. Typically, calibration of an instrument is checked at several points
throughout the calibration range of the instrument.

Not all standards are created equally. While all standards have a known accuracy,
there are some—known as primary standards— that are the highest level of
accuracy for a specific parameter. Primary standards achieve their high accuracy
by relying upon measurement technologies using fundamental physical constants
that do not drift such as the triple point of water. These fixed values minimize
uncertainty, making primary standards the most accurate calibration tools.

The hierarchy of temperature calibration standards from lowest to highest:

 Field standards, also known as industrial standards typically have

accuracies ranging from 5°C to 0.5°C. These are useful for spot checking
sensors at the point of use rather than a laboratory environment.
 Secondary standards, also known as laboratory standards can provide
calibration accuracies from 0.5°C to 0.02°C. They can be used to calibrate
field standards.
 Primary standards can be as accurate as 0.001°C.

Traceability

To improve the quality of a calibration to levels acceptable to outside

organizations, it is generally desirable for the calibration and subsequent
measurements to be traceable to internationally recognized standards. Establishing
traceability is accomplished by a formal comparison to a standard which is directly
or indirectly related to national standards ( such as NIST in the USA), international
standards, or certified reference materials.

Types of Temperature Calibrators

Temperature calibrators have been designed according to the needs of the

technician using it. Each application has certain demands regarding sensor type,
location, budget, need for accuracy/stability/uniformity, and temperature range. As
a result, there are differences—some pronounced, others subtle, between types of
temperature calibrators.

There are three specifications that are of extreme importance when selecting a
temperature calibrator. Understanding these specifications and their implications
will go a long ways towards helping you select the best calibrator for your needs.

Accuracy: An expression of how closely a measured value agrees with the true or
expected value of the quantity of interest (NCSL glossary). For temperature
calibrators, accuracy is the relationship between the instrument's display
temperature and the actual temperature of calibration well. Accuracy is improved
by regular calibrations to a traceable standard.

Stability: The tendency of an attribute to remain within tolerance (NCSL

glossary). When a calibrator reaches its set-point, there is some fluctuation in
temperature as the unit tries to maintain that temperature. That fluctuation can
influence calibrations. Stability adds to accuracy in determining overall system
uncertainty.

Uniformity: Temperature homogeneity of the heat source throughout the test zone.
All calibrators have slight temperature differences from the bottom of the of the
test well to the top as well as from the middle of the test well outward. A few
simple strategies allow users to place probes in such a way as to minimize
uniformity errors.

Dry Blocks

Dry blocks are versatile temperature calibrators that work by heating, and in many
cases cooling, a metal block to a specific temperature and maintaining that
temperature. Most dry blocks utilize one or more interchangeable inserts into
which holes are drilled. These holes accommodate a range of temperature sensors
to be calibrated. The size of the holes correspond to the diameter of the
temperature sensors under test.

Dry block calibrators can designed as portable or benchtop configurations. Though

specifications can vary considerably between models, dry bocks typically offer an
accuracy better than ±0.5°C and ranges from about –25 to 650°C. Hole-to-hole
temperature uniformity is typically ±0.05°C.

Dry block calibrators provide a solid combination of accuracy, portability,

stability, and price. They excel in performing field- or industrial-level calibrations
on nearly any type of temperature sensor, including: RTDs, thermocouples,
thermistors, , PRTs, bi-metal thermometers, etc.

Good heat transfer between insert and sensor is critical for accurate calibrations
when using a dry block temperature calibrator. This transfer depends on a very
close fit between the sensor and the insert. Ideally, there should be no more than a
couple of thousandths clearance between the two. Selecting the proper insert to
match your sensor is critical.
Liquid Baths

Liquid baths are a temperature measurement and calibration tool in which a liquid,
or in some cases a material that acts as a liquid, is heated or cooled to a specific
temperature and maintained. In many ways, liquids baths are similar to dry block
calibrators except that they utilize a liquid as the calibration medium, rather than a
metallic insert, which permits easier calibration of oddly shaped or sized probes.
Since liquid baths do not rely on drilled inserts, they are also capable of calibrating
many more inserts at a time. Because the liquid is being stirred, these baths do not
suffer from vertical temperature differences experienced in dry blocks and by
consequence usually will provide much better overall uncertainty.

Depending upon the model, liquid baths using an oil medium can achieve
temperatures from about –30°C to 200°C. Specialized baths using sand, salt, or
aluminum oxide particles instead of oil can reach temperatures up to 700°C. These
"fluidized" baths act as high temperature liquid baths.

Liquid baths offer greater precision and larger calibration volumes than dry block
calibrators. They also offer excellent stability over the entire temperature range.
Accuracy with liquid baths can be as high as ≤0.2°C, better than that which can be
achieved by most dry blocks. Liquid baths offer secondary-level calibrations on
nearly any type of temperature sensor, including: RTDs, thermocouples,
thermistors, , PRTs, bi-metal thermometers, etc.

Blackbody Sources

Blackbody sources are used for calibrating infrared thermometers. Generally

consisting of a target plate that can be heated or cooled to very specific
temperatures, blackbody sources take their name from their very high emissivity.

Emissivity is the relative power of a surface to emit heat by radiation. The lower
the emissivity the more heat radiates from the surface. Higher emissivity,
"blackbodies", radiate little heat and are, therefore, not prone to errors due to
interference from radiation upon the infrared sensor. For best results, the emissivity
of the infrared sensor under test should match the emissivity of the blackbody
source.

Once emissivity issues are accounted for, calibrating infrared thermometers using a
blackbody source are straightforward. The infrared thermometer takes a
measurement of the target plate. The temperature of the plate is compared with the
reading. The infrared thermometer is then adjusted until the results match.
Depending upon the model, blackbody sources have temperature ranges from
about -30° to 500°C with an accuracy of ±0.5°C making them excellent tools for
field- or industrial-level calibrations. Some models incorporate fixed-point cells
making them suitable as primary standards.

Multifunction

Multifunction calibrators are the do-everything calibration instrument. Capable of

accepting input from a wide range of sensors, many have functions related to
temperature calibration. Multifunction calibrators are not temperature calibrators in
the truest sense as they do not provide a temperature reference as a point of
comparison. What they do is simulate and source thermocouples, RTDs, and other
temperature sensors. Using sophisticated electronics, multifunction calibrators can
compare the temperature measured by the sensor with the voltage or milliamp
signal produced. This gives a pretty good idea of the accuracy and allows
technicians to easily field test sensors.

Multifunction calibrators can also be used to check the accuracy of temperature

controllers, often a crucial component in temperature calibrators (as well as a very
wide range of other applications).

Thermocouple / RTD Calibrators

Thermocouple / RTD calibrators are much like multifunction calibrators without

the multifunction part. Generally single-purpose instruments, thermocouple / RTD
calibrators test the accuracy of temperature sensors through sophisticated
electronic circuitry rather than comparison to a reference. In this way they are not
true calibrators though they are able to provide technicians a simple, cost effective
way to field test thermocouples and RTDs by comparing the temperature measured
by the sensor with the voltage or milliamp signal produced.

Fixed Point Cells

Fixed point cells are primary standards and offer the greatest accuracy and stability
of any temperature calibration method. Fixed cells work by heating or cooling a
highly pure substance to the temperature at which a phase change occurs. Phase
changes are the transitions between solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter.
These transitions occur at very specific temperatures and, at the point of phase
change, temperatures become very stable, often plateauing for several hours or
even days providing a highly accurate and stable reference temperature.
Fixed point cells are usually incorporated into dry blocks or liquid baths to provide
the necessary heating/cooling and temperature control. Fixed point cells can
achieve an uncertainly of just ±0.001°C.

The most accurate of fixed point cells are triple point cells. Triple point cells are
based on the principle that certain substances in a highly pure (99.9999%) state
have a triple point, or a temperature at which all three phases (gas, liquid, and
solid) of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. The most common
of these is water which has a triple point of 0.01°C. Triple point cells have an
uncertainty better than ±0.0001°C, so accurate that ITS–90 uses triple point cells of
hydrogen, neon, oxygen, argon, mercury, and water for delineating six of its
defined temperature points.

Thermocouple Reference Equipment

Thermocouple reference equipment provides high accuracy monitoring by

eliminating the need for cold junction compensation in thermocouples, a major
cause of measurement errors. Thermocouples are a temperature-measuring devices
formed by the junction of two dissimilar metals. A thermocouple produces a
voltage proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot junction and
the lead wire (cold) junction. Since the measurement is of the temperature
difference between the two junctions, it is a relative reading. To make a more
useful absolute reading, a reference sensor is set to and placed next to the cold
junction. This is referred to as cold junction compensation.

Though cold junction compensation makes thermocouple readings more useful,

they can distort readings by 1°C, or more. In thermocouple reference equipment, a
controlled reference temperature, usually 0°C, replaces the cold junction
compensation. The accuracy when using reference equipment can be as high as
±0.05°C, much better than standard thermocouple set-ups and there is no long-term
drift.

Thermocouple reference equipment is integrated into existing monitoring systems

and, depending upon the model, can monitor dozens (or more) of thermocouples.

Things to consider when selecting a temperature calibrator:

 What type of electrical signal does it output?

 Do I need to calibrate sensors or just temperature displays?
  Which is more important? Speed to change temperatures or doing multiple
probes at a time?
 How deep does the dry block or liquid bath need to be?
 What are the physical characteristics (size, shape) of the sensor?
 Over what temperature range is it used?
 And what accuracies are relied on over those temperatures?
 Must the calibrations occur in a laboratory or can they be done in the field
or even in-situ?

About Thermocouples / RTDs

Thermocouples and RTDs are temperature sensing devices that play and extremely
important role in a wide range of measurement and control applications. Though
both thermocouples and RTDs share many similarities including a wide measuring
range; good accuracy; and simple, reliable design, they are very different devices
that rely on very different technologies . RTDs and/or thermocouples are found in
cars, homes, offices, commercial spaces, and industrial settings—anywhere
accurate, affordable temperature readings are required.

Thermocouples

A thermocouple is a temperature sensing device consisting of two dissimilar metals

joined together at one end. This configuration produces a voltage proportional to
the difference between the temperature at the sensing end of the thermocouple and
a reference temperature. Thermocouples are one of the most widely used
temperature sensors available. They are very common in measurement and control
applications in industrial and commercial settings and are also found in thermostats
and flame sensors in residential applications.

The popularity of thermocouples stems, in part, from their simplicity, adaptability

and cost. Thermocouples are a fraction the cost of other temperature sensors and
can be fashioned into nearly any length or diameter. They are supplied with
standard connectors making them very interchangeable. In contrast to most other
methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self-powered and require
no external power supply. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy,
system errors of less than one degree Celsius (°C) can be difficult to achieve.
How Thermocouples Work

When any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient it will generate a voltage, a

condition known as the Thermoelectric Effect or Seebeck Effect. To correlate
that voltage to a specific temperature, we can’t simply measure the voltage. To do
so it would be necessary to attach another conductor to the “hot” end. If that
conductor were of the same material as the first, as it experienced the temperature
gradient , it would produce its own voltage, opposing the first.

Fortunately, different metals generate different voltages when exposed to a thermal

gradient. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates two legs which
generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for
measurement. That difference increases with temperature.

Creating a junction of any two dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential
related to temperature. Thermocouples, designed for accurate temperature
measurement in a variety of environments, use junctions of specific metals and
alloys which have a highly predictable and repeatable relationship between voltage
and temperature. Different combinations of metals and alloys are used for different
temperature ranges.

The junction created by joining together the two dissimilar metals is known as the
measurement or thermocouple junction. This is the “hot” end of the thermocouple.
The other end, where the thermocouple ties into the system (often a controller or
display) is called the reference or cold junction. A thermocouple generates a
voltage proportional to the temperature difference between the measurement
junction and the reference junction. This is a relative temperature measurement. In
order get more useful absolute temperature readings, there need to be a stable
reference temperature. This is accomplished through cold junction compensation.

Depending upon the measurement and control system, cold junction compensation
can be accomplished in a number of ways. In highly sophisticated calibration
systems, the cold reference is maintained at a controlled temperature, often 0˚C.
Though useful in a laboratory, controlling the temperature of the reference junction
isn’t practical for most applications. There are also other ways to compensate. One
is to add a small temperature sensor to monitor the cold junction temperature. A
second is to have a diode simulate a specific temperature within the cold junction.
The electronics to which the thermocouple is attached can quickly apply
corrections based upon the cold junction compensation and provide an accurate
absolute temperature.
Most thermocouples include sheathing for protection from their environment.
Thermocouples that are sheathed have options grounding their measurement
junctions. A grounded junction, the most common type, physically connects the
thermocouple wires to the metal sheathing. This configuration provides a faster
response time as it improves heat transfer from the outside. Grounded junctions are
more prone to electrical interference, however, which can cause measurement
errors.

Ungrounded junctions include an insulating layer between the measurement

junction and the metal sheathing. Response time is slower than the grounded style,
but the ungrounded junction offers electrical isolation.

Thermocouples without sheathing are referred to as exposed thermocouples or

bare-wire thermocouples. This style exposed the measurement junction which
provides the fastest response time but forgoes any protection the sheathing offers
limiting their use to dry, noncorrosive and non-pressurized applications.

Thermocouple Types

Although thermocouples can be made from joining together any two different
metals, science and experience have established that certain combinations of
metals produce reliable temperature measurements suitable to particular
environments. These combinations of metal are referred to as thermocouple types.

Since different thermocouple provide different temperature ranges and physical

capabilities, it’s important to select the correct type based upon the application in
which it will be installed. The desired temperature range, chemical resistance,
abrasion and vibration resistance, and installation requirements are all factors to
consider when selecting a thermocouple type.

Some of the more common thermocouple types include:

Type J Thermocouple: Type J thermocouples are the most common of all types.
They include an Iron leg and a Constantan leg. They are suitable for temperatures
from -346 to 1,400˚F (-210 to 760˚C) and have a basic accuracy of ±2.2˚C or
±0.75%. Type J thermocouples can be used in vacuum, reducing, oxidizing and
inert atmospheres.

Type K Thermocouple: Type K thermocouples consists of a Chromel and an

Alumel leg. They are suitable for temperatures from -454 to 2300˚F (-270 to
1260˚C) and have a basic accuracy of ±2.2˚C or ±0.75%. Type K thermocouples
are recommended for oxidizing or inert atmospheres. Cycling above and below
1800˚F is not recommended due to EMF alteration from hysteresis.

Type N Thermocouple: Type N thermocouples consist of a Nicrosil and a Nisil

leg. They are suitable for temperatures from -454 to 2300˚F (-270 to 1260˚C) and
have a basic accuracy of ±2.2˚C or ±0.75%. Considered an improved Type K,
Type N thermocouples have better resistance to degradation due to temperature
cycling, green rot and hysteresis than the Type K.

Type T Thermocouple: Type T thermocouples consist of a Copper and a

Constantan leg. They are suitable for vacuum, oxidizing, reducing and inert
atmospheres. Type T thermocouples are suitable for temperatures from -454 to
700˚F (-270 to 370˚C) and have a basic accuracy of ±1.0˚C or ±0.75%. They
maintain good resistance to corrosion in most atmospheres and high stability at
sub-zero temperature making them an ideal option for very cold temperatures.

Type E Thermocouple: Type E thermocouples consist of one Chromel leg and

one Constantan leg. They are not subject to corrosion in most atmospheres. The
Type E also has the highest EMF per degree of any standard thermocouple type.
However, this thermocouple must be protected from sulfurous atmospheres. They
are suitable for temperatures from -454 to 1600˚F (-270 to 870˚C) and have a basic
accuracy of ±1.7˚C or ±0.5%.

Type S Thermocouple: Type S thermocouples consist of a Platinum-10%

Rhodium leg and a Platinum leg. They are recommended for use in oxidizing or
inert atmospheres. Reducing atmospheres may cause excessive grain growth and
drift in calibration. They are used in very high temperature applications and are
suitable for temperatures from -58 to 2700˚F (-50 to 1480˚C) and have a basic
accuracy of ±1.5˚C or ±0.25%.

Type R Thermocouple: Type R thermocouples consist of a Platinum-13%

Rhodium leg and a Platinum leg. They are recommended for use in oxidizing or
inert atmospheres. Reducing atmospheres may cause excessive grain growth and
drift in calibration. They are good in very high temperature applications and are
suitable for temperatures from -58 to 2700˚F (-50 to 1480˚C) and have a basic
accuracy of ±1.5˚C or ±0.25%.

Type B Thermocouple: Type B thermocouples consist of a Platinum-30%

Rhodium leg and a Platinum leg. They are recommended for use in oxidizing or
inert atmospheres. Reducing atmospheres may cause excessive grain growth and
drift in calibration. They are used in extremely high temperature applications and
are suitable for temperatures from 32 to 3100˚F (0 to 1700˚C) and have a basic
accuracy of ±0.5%.

Type C Thermocouple: Type C thermocouples consist of Tungsten and Rhenium

legs. They are recommended for use in vacuum, high purity hydrogen or pure inert
atmospheres. They are used for extremely high temperatures and are suitable for
temperatures from 32 to 4208˚F (0 to 2320˚C) and have a basic accuracy of ±1.0%.
Type C thermocouples are inherently brittle.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermocouples

Thermocouples have a number of in inherent advantages and disadvantages when

compared to other temperature sensors, particularly RTDs.

Advantages:

 Low cost
 High temperature range
 Very simple design
 Rugged
 Fast response
 Temperature sensing is at the tip of a thermocouple

Disadvantages:

 Low sensitivity
 Moderate accuracy
 Non-linear
 Low voltage
 Low stability/repeatability

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), often referred to as resistance

thermometers, are temperature sensing devices that work by correlating the
resistance of a highly pure conductor to temperature. RTDs are commonly used in
a wide range of process and measurement applications. For applications below
600°C, RTDs have generally supplanted thermocouples as the temperature sensor
of choice.
RTDs are generally considered to be among the most accurate temperature sensors
available. In addition to offering very good accuracy, they provide excellent
stability and repeatability. RTDs also feature high immunity to electrical noise and
are, therefore, well suited for applications in process and industrial automation
environments, especially around motors, generators and other high voltage
equipment.

How RTDs Work

RTDs work on the well-known principle that the resistivity of a conductor

increases as the temperature increases and decreases as the temperature decreases.
In practice, a small electrical current is passed through a conductor, which serves
as the RTD element. The resistance to that electrical current is then measured and
correlated to a specific temperature based upon the known resistance
characteristics of the material that makes up the RTD element.

RTD elements are available in different styles but all consist of a highly pure
conductive metal such as platinum, copper, aluminum, or nickel; inside of a
sheathed probe for protection. These materials, are used for their highly predictable
resistance versus temperature relationship and operating temperature range.

Platinum is the preferred material for RTD elements. As a noble metal, platinum
doesn’t react with other materials making it highly stable with a very linear and
repeatable resistance-temperature relationship over an effective temperature range
of -272.5 to 961.78°C. Platinum RTDs, which are often called PRTs (Platinum
Resistance Thermometers) , are accurate enough to serve as the sensors that
define the International Temperature Standard, ITS-90. RTDs of the highest
accuracy are called SPRTs (Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers)
which can achieve an accuracy of up to ±0.001°C.

RTD elements are classified according to their resistance in ohms at 0°C. For
example, the most common classification, Pt100, demonstrates 100Ω of resistance
at 0°C. The resistance to temperature coefficient depends on the classification of
the RTD element with Pt100 sensors at 0.385 Ohm/°C and Pt1000 sensors at 3.85
Ohm/°C. Pt1000 sensors, therefore makes possible a higher resolution n while
Pt100 sensors provide a wider temperature range.

RTDs also differ in their wiring configurations. A simple rule of thumb is that the
more wires an RTD has the more accurate it is. Since the lead wires, usually
copper, have their own resistance value different from that of the platinum
element, they can impact the accuracy of the RTD. Two-wire RTDs do not have a
practical means for accounting for the resistance associated with the copper lead
wires and are therefore the least accurate configuration. Three-wire RTDs, the
most common configuration, use a Wheatstone bridge to compensate for the lead
wire resistance. Four-wire RTDs are the most accurate because they are able to
completely compensate for the resistance of the wires without having to pay
attention to the physical properties of them.

RTD Styles

Thin Film: Thin film elements consist of a ceramic substrate to which a very thin
(1 to 10 nanometers) layer of resistive material, normally platinum, has been
deposited. A layer of epoxy or glass provides a protective coating over the
platinum. Thin film elements provide a faster response than other construction
styles though at a cost of lower stability. The size and shape of the element makes
it easy to mount on flat surfaces, especially in tight spaces.

These elements work with temperatures up to 300°C though, if encapsulated with

ceramic or glass, can operate up to 500°C. Thin film elements can only operate
over a narrow temperature range since different expansion rates for the ceramic
substrate the platinum resistive layer can affect the resistive temperature
coefficient.

Wire Wound: Wire-wound elements consist of a sensing wire wrapped around an

insulating core. The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical
stability and allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and consequential
drift. The materials chosen as the sensing wire, core, and lead wires are selected to
minimize EMF that would otherwise distort readings. Wire wound elements
provide higher accuracy than other types of RTDs, especially over a wide
temperature range. Wire wound elements are suitable for temperatures to 660°C.

Coil Element: Coiled elements utilize a wire coil held in place by a mechanical
support. This produces a strain-free design which allows the coil to expand and
contract freely as the temperature changes without any influence from other
materials. It is the most accurate and stable of RTD styles and has largely
supplanted wire wound elements. Coil elements are suitable for temperatures up to
850°C.

Advantages and Disadvantages of RTDs

RTDs have a number of in inherent advantages and disadvantages when compared

to other temperature sensors, particularly thermocouples.
Advantages:

 Good stability
 Excellent accuracy
 Contaminant resistant
 Good linearity
 Highly repeatable
 Area temperature sensing

Disadvantages:

 Higher cost
 Current source required
 Slow response time
 Lower temperature range
 Self-heating
 Medium sensitivity to small temperature changes

Things to Consider When Selecting an RTD or Thermocouple:

 What is the required temperature range?

 What level of accuracy is needed?
 Is response time a factor?
 Is a power supply available?
 Will the sensor be exposed to abrasion or vibration resistance?
 Is chemical resistance required?
 How far will the sensors be from their controller or display?

About Conductivity / Resistivity / Salinity /

TDS Meters
Conductivity, resistivity, salinity, and TDS meters are a class of instruments that
measure the specific conductance of ions dissolved in solution as a means to
analyze water quality. Though each instrument measures a different water quality
parameter, all share a strong correlation which allows them to all use conductivity
as the measuring principle with resistivity, salinity and TDS values are calculated
from conductivity readings.
The specific conductance of a water sample measures its ability to carry an
electrical current. This ability is directly related to the concentration of ions in the
water. Water without impurities, conducts electricity very poorly. Conductive ions
come from dissolved salts and inorganic materials such as alkalis, chlorides,
sulfides and carbonate compounds. The more of these ions present in a water
sample, the higher the conductivity of the sample. Because of this, we can estimate
the degree of impurity based upon the specific conductance of a sample.

Conductivity, resistivity, salinity, and TDS measurements provide a fast,

inexpensive and reliable way of measuring water quality and are routinely used in
many industrial, agricultural and environmental applications. Since most bodies of
water maintain a fairly constant specific conductance that can be used as a baseline
for comparison, conductivity (and resistivity, salinity, and TDS) tests can quickly
identify changes which indicate deteriorating water quality.

Principle of Measurement

Conductivity, resistivity, salinity, and TDS meters all measure the specific
conductance of a water sample in order to determine or calculate a value. The
process by which those instruments measure specific conductance consists of
measuring the AC resistance of the solution between two electrodes. Conductivity,
the inverse of resistivity is determined from the voltage and current values
according to Ohm’s law.

Since we know that conductance is dependent upon ions dissolved in the water, the
conductivity of a water sample is proportional to its ion concentration, though ionic
interactions can alter the linear relationship between conductivity and
concentration in some highly concentrated solutions.

Conductivity meters generally use a 2-cell electrode configured into either a dip or
flow-through style. The electrode surface is usually platinum, titanium, gold-plated
nickel, or graphite. A 4-cell electrode can be used for applications requiring higher
accuracy. These electrodes use a reference voltage to compensate for any
polarization or fouling of the electrode plates. The reference voltage ensures that
measurements indicate actual conductivity independent of electrode condition,
resulting in higher accuracy for measuring pure water.

Temperature Compensation

Conductivity measurements are temperature dependent. Increasing temperature

causes a decrease in water viscosity allowing more movement of ions in solution.
Molecules may also begin to dissociate resulting in an increase in the number of
ions. Since increase in movement and number of ions directly results in higher
conductivity, then an increase in the solution’s temperature will lead to an increase
in its conductivity. The rule of thumb is to expect a 2% increase in conductivity per
°C.

All conductivity, resistivity, salinity, and TDS meters have temperature

compensation to correct for the effects of temperature. Some meters have
adjustable compensation for higher precision across any temperature range. Other
meters have fixed temperature compensation referenced to a standards
temperature, usually 25°C.

Cell Constant

The geometry of a conductivity sensor, particularly the placement of the

electrodes, directly affects the sensitivity and accuracy of measurement. The cell
constant (K) describes the precise geometry of the sensor cell. The cell constant is
the ratio of the length between electrodes divided by the cross-sectional area of
sample between them.

When measuring solutions with lower conductivity, the electrodes can be placed
closer together or made smaller resulting in a cell constant of less than one which
will yield a better signal. Higher conductivity solutions require higher cell
constants to produce a value more easily interpreted by the meter.

Cell constants increase the efficiency of the sensor. It’s a factor that the meter uses
to make the standard value agree with the measured value. Conductivity sensors
each have a nominal values such as k=1.0. This value may vary somewhat as
oxidization, scratches, coating, bending, etc. affect the sensor. Only with
calibration is the true value of the cell constant known.

It’s important to choose a cell constant based on the anticipated measuring range:

Cell Constant Optimal Range

0.01 less than 1 µS
0.1 0.5 to 200 µS
1.0 10 to 2,000 µS
10 1 to 200 mS

Calibration
Conductivity meters and cells should be calibrated to a standard solution before
using. When selecting a standard, choose one that has the approximate
conductivity of the solution to be measured.

Conductivity

Conductivity measures the ability of a test sample to carry an electrical current.

Since that electrical current depends upon dissolved ions to carry it, conductivity
can be seen as a measure of dissolved ions present in a test sample. Those ions are
impurities that come from dissolved salts and inorganic materials such as alkalis,
chlorides, sulfides and carbonate compounds. The more of these ions present in a
water sample, the higher the conductivity of the sample. Those dissolved ions are
also a major source of pollution making conductivity tests one of the basic water
quality measurements

Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. In practice, conductivity is used when

resistance values are very low, such as when referring to water ranging from
drinking water to sea water, and resistance is used when conductivity values are
very low, such as when referring to deionized or reverse-osmosis water.

The relationship between resistance and conductivity is illustrated by the unit of

measurement for conductivity, the mho (ohm spelled backwards). Siemens per unit
area is a more common measurement for conductivity and is equal to the mho. As
conductivity ranges in aqueous solutions are usually small, the measurements are
usually made in milliSiemens/cm (mS/cm) and microSiemens/cm (μS/cm).

Resistivity

Resistivity measures water’s opposition to the flow of an electrical current over

distance which is directly related to the amount of impurities; usually in the form
of dissolved salts, alkalis, chlorides, sulfides and carbonate compounds; in the
sample. Water with a high concentration of such impurities will have a low
resistivity and vice versa.

Resistivity, measured in ohms per unit area, is the reciprocal of conductivity so if a

water sample has a low resistivity it will have high conductivity. In practice,
conductivity is used when resistance values are very low, such as when referring to
water ranging from drinking water to sea water, and resistance is used when
conductivity values are very low, such as when referring to deionized or reverse-
osmosis water.
Resistivity is a vital measurement when ultra-pure water is required, such as for
use in a growing number of laboratory and industrial processes. In the field,
resistivity measurements are used as part of a water quality testing regime.
Resistivity measurements can be used to check for contamination from agricultural
runoff, landfill leachate, and road salt.

Salinity

Salinity refers to the total concentration of all dissolved salts in water. Since salts
form ionic particles when dissolved, salinity is a strong component of conductivity.
Though salinity can be measured via a complete chemical analysis, this method is
difficult and time consuming. More often, salinity is estimated using algorithms
based upon conductivity, which is much easier to measure. Salinity values can be
expressed as parts per thousand (ppt) or as practical salinity units (psu) which
compares the sample to a salinity standard such as seawater.

Salinity is an important water quality measurement as it affects the basic chemistry

of water as well the biological processes that occur within it. Salinity influences
the types organisms that can live in a body of water. It also affects dissolved
oxygen solubility.

Salinity measurements are common in industries ranging from agriculture,

aquaculture, hydroponics, food, pools and spas, wastewater management, and
others where it is necessary to constantly monitor the salt level.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total dissolved solids (TDS) is the measure of all dissolved particles smaller than 2
microns in a water sample. This includes all inorganic and organic substances in
molecular, ionized or micro-granular suspended form. In clean water samples, TDS
is approximately equal to salinity while in polluted waters , TDS includes organic
solutes as well.

The primary sources of dissolved solids are agricultural and residential runoff,
leaching of soil contamination, industrial discharge, and discharge from sewage
treatment plants. While TDS is not necessarily a “pollutant”, it is used as a general
indication of water quality. High TDS levels indicate hard water which can cause
scale buildup in pipes, valves, and filters, reducing performance and adding to
system maintenance costs.
TDS can be determined in a couple of ways though, most commonly, it is
calculated from conductivity readings as this is a simple, effective method of
testing. When calculating total dissolved solids from a conductivity measurement,
a TDS factor is used. The TDS factor is empirically determined by the nature of
the dissolved solids and the water source. TDS measurements, therefore, measure
conductivity and multiply the reading by the TDS factor. Values are usually
expressed as parts per million.

Things to Consider When Selecting a Conductivity, Resistivity, Salinity, or

TDS Meter:

 Which parameter(s) do you need?

 What is the measuring range?
 How much accuracy is needed?
 Is a 2-cell or 4-cell design preferred?
 Which cell constant best fits your needs?
 Where will the meter be used? Is portability a factor?
 Will the meter be exposed to harsh environmental conditions?
 Which probes and calibration accessories are needed?

Selecting a Flow Meter

The basis of good flow meter selection is a clear understanding of the requirements
of the particular application. Therefore, time should be invested in fully evaluating
the nature of the process fluid and of the overall installation.

1. What is the fluid being measured by the flow meter(s) (air, water, etc…)?
2. Do you require rate measurement and/or totalization from the flow meter?
3. If the liquid is not water, what viscosity is the liquid?
4. Is the fluid clean?
5. Do you require a local display on the flow meter or do you need an
electronic signal output?
6. What is the minimum and maximum flow rate for the flow meter?
7. What is the minimum and maximum process pressure?
8. What is the minimum and maximum process temperature?
 9. Is the fluid chemically compatible with the flow meter wetted parts?
10.If this is a process application, what is the size of the pipe?

About Pressure Sensors / Transmitters /

Transducers
Pressure is defined as the amount of force applied over a unit area. Usually
involving liquids and gases, pressure is a critical component of a diverse array of
applications, both those that rely on accurate pressure control as well as those that
derive other values (such as depth/level or flow) based upon pressure. Pressure
sensors, transmitters, and transducers are the class of instruments which convert
applied pressure into a measurable electrical signal which can be used for display
or to trigger a control function.

Transmitters vs. transducers vs. sensors

Although many users—and even some manufacturers— use the terms sensors,
transmitters and transducers interchangeably, technically there are differences
between them.

Pressure transmitters are current output devices that, generally, have two or three
wires that are used to both power the device as well as transmit the output signal.
They are often scaled from 4-20 mA although other ranges are available.
Transmitters are ideal for longs runs as wiring is simpler and cheaper and there is
no significant degradation of the output signal with distance.

Pressure transducers are voltage output devices that, generally, have three or four
wires to power the device as well as transmit the output signal. Transducers are
better for short runs as electrical resistance can cause errors on longer runs. They
are also sensitive to electromagnetic interference.

Pressure sensor is a catch-all term that includes both pressure transmitters as well
as pressure transducers.

More about pressure…

As pressure is defined as force over a unit area, there are a number of ways to
articulate pressure readings depending upon the unit of force and the unit of area.
Most commonly, we will see PSI ( pounds per square inch) or bar. Other units of
measure include kg/cm2, inH2O, mmHg, Pa, and many others.

There are also different types of pressure to consider. The type of pressure refers to
the zero reference point of a measurement. For example:

Gauge pressure: The sensor is referenced against atmospheric pressure so it does

not include the effects of that pressure. It is equal to absolute pressure minus
ambient air pressure. Sealed gauge sensors may use a fixed pressure different than
ambient atmospheric temperature.

Absolute pressure: The sensor is referenced against a perfect vacuum so it,

therefore, includes the effects of atmospheric pressure. It is equal to gauge pressure
plus atmospheric pressure.

Differential pressure: Similar to gauge pressure although the reference point is

another pressure point rather than ambient pressure. The sensor measures the
difference between two pressures, such as each side of a filter to measure pressure
drop.

Pressure Sensing Technology

Though there are many sensing technologies available, most pressure sensors,
transmitters, and transducers use force collector type sensors. These electronic
sensors employ a force collector such as a diaphragm or piston to measure the
strain caused by force applied over an area. Simply put, pressure applies force to a
diaphragm or piston which causes the piston or diaphragm to move in relation to
the amount of pressure. Sensors detect that movement (the strain) and convert to a
unit of pressure.

Among force collector sensors, there are two types that we see most often:

Piezoresistive sensors are based upon the piezoresistive effect which describes
changes in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor or metal —commonly
silicon, polysilicon thin film, bonded metal foil, thick film, or sputtered thin film—
when mechanical strain (pressure) is applied. Increasing pressure results in changes
in the resistivity of the strain gauges which is detected and converted into an
electrical signal proportional to pressure. Generally, the strain gauges are
connected to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit to maximize the output of the sensor
and to reduce sensitivity to errors.
Capacitive sensors generally feature two closely spaced, electrically-isolated
metallic surfaces one of which acts as a diaphragm by slightly flexing under
applied pressure. The flexing alters the gap between the plates creating, in effect, a
variable capacitor. The resulting changes in capacitance can be measured and
converted into an electrical signal proportional to pressure.

Things to consider when purchasing a pressure sensor:

Pressure sensors, transmitters, and transducers can differ dramatically in design,

performance, and cost. Some of the factors that may influence your decision on
which sensor to purchase may include:

 What type of output is required?

 What accuracy is required?
 What is the type and range of the pressure?
 What units of measurement are preferred?
 Which process connection is required?
 Are there any issues with material compatibility or chemical resistance?
 What is the temperature range? Is compensation needed?
 Will a local or remote display be used? If remote, what is the distance
between the display and the sensor?
 What burst pressure is required?
 Is electrical interference a concern?
 Are any agency approvals needed?
 Is a submersible unit needed or not?
 Does the unit need to be bidirectional?