COMMUNICATION PROCESS,

PRINCIPLES AND ETHICS

Ed Mark Angel C. Belleza

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

The term "communication" has been derived from the Latin "communis," that means
"common” (Velentzas, 2010) Thus "to communicate" means "to make common" or it
underscores the fact that unless a common understanding results from the exchange
of information, there is no communication. Communication can be now defined as the
process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person to
anotner (Keyton, 2011).
Humans convey information through a variety of methods: speaking, telephones,
email, blogs, TV, art, hand gestures, facial expressions, body language and even
social contexts (Lakoff, 1999). Communication can occur instantaneously in closed,
intimate settings or over great periods of time in large public forums, like the Internet.
The sender and recipient must also share a common language or means of
understanding each other for communication to be successful (Velentzas, 2014).
As a field of study, communication spans a broad, rich array of subjects, including
sociology, psychology, philosophy, political science, linguistics, history, literature,
criticism and rhetoric. Although much of the field's subject matter is theoretical in
nature, communication studies have proven applicable to business, film, theatre,
composition, advertising, education, foreign policy and computer science.

Communication According to Mode

Verbal-Nonverbal Communication

The verbal communication includes all the types of

communication done using the words; it can either be a phone
call, face to face talk or the e-mail. When the use of words ever
come sin transference of data, information, or feelings it becomes
the verbal communication. The verbal communication can be
even kept as evidence, if it is done in the written form. Through
this type of communication, both the sender and receiver get the
communication rapidly done without any delay. As the message
via formal communication is reliable and quite clearer, the
feedback comes immediately.

Nonverbal communication involves the conscious and

unconscious processes of encoding and decoding. Encoding is
the act of generating information such as facial expressions,
gestures, and postures. Encoding information utilizes signals
 which we may think to be universal. Decoding is the interpretation
of information from received sensations given by the encoder.
Decoding information utilizes knowledge one may have of certain
received sensations (The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of
Psychology and Behavioral Science, 2004).

Visual Communication

Visual communication is the conveyance of ideas and information

in forms that can be seen. Visual communication in part or whole
relies on eyesight (Sless, 1981). Visual communication is a broad
spectrum that includes signs, typography, drawing and electronic
resources. (Smith, 2005).

Visual communication is all around us. It is a survival skill that we

tend to take for granted. We do not have to visit an art gallery,
read an art/design book to experience visual communication. We
use visual communication to navigate and understand the world.
A watch or clock is a classic example of visual communication
that we have grown used to depend on every day.

Communication According to Context

Intrapersonal

This is defined as communication between two or more people

and involves the transfer of information (or message) from one
person to the other(s).

The person transferring the information is called the sender or

transmitter. The people receiving the message are known as
receivers. The transmitter will need to send the information in a
format that the receiver(s) will understand. Converting the
information into a format that the receivers will understand is
known as Encoding.

Extended

Extended communication has become a very popular means to

communicate worldwide. Extended communication is used for the
transfer of different types of data and images through wire,
electromagnetic, photo electronic or photo-optical system and
radio. Extended communication is so popular that many
businesses and people consider it to be essential tool in our daily
lives. Extended communications is interactive. It engages
audiences in active, two-way communications; a self-selected
audience, engaged and actively participating in the
communications process.
Organizational

This is communication that takes place within (or across) an

organisation. In addition to the usual face to face, telephone, fax
or mail; modern organisations may use technology to
communicate internally. Technology may be used for e-mails or a
linked internal communication system such as the intranet which
is an internet system designed solely for use by those working for
the organisation (Cox, 1998).

An organizational chart consists of various boxes and the lines

connecting them. The lines connecting the boxes in the
organizational chart are lines of authority showing who must
answer to whom – that is, reporting relationships. The boxes and
lines form a blueprint of an organization showing not only what
people have to do but with whom they have to communicate for
the organization to operate properly (Jones, 2011).

The structure of an organization should provide for

communication in three distinct directions: downward, upward,
and horizontal (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). These three
directions establish the framework within which communication in
an organization takes place.

 Downward Communication
Traditional views of the communication process in
school organizations have been dominated by
downward communication flows. Such flows
transmit information from higher to lower levels of
the school organization.

 Upward Communication
The behaviourists have emphasized the
establishment of upward communication flows. In a
school organization, this refers to communication
that travel from staff member to leader. This is
necessary not only to determine if staff members
have understood information sent downward but
also to meet the ego needs of staff.

 Horizontal Communication
Upward and downward communication flows
generally follow the formal hierarchy within the
school organization. However, greater size and
complexity of organizations increase the need for
communication laterally or diagonally across the
lines of the formal chain of command.
 Intercultural

Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message

producer is a member of one culture and a message receiver is
a member of another (Porter & Samovar, 1988:15). Porter and
Samovar further define the notion of communication as "a
dynamic transactional behaviour-affecting process in which
sources and receivers intentionally code their behaviour to
produce messages that they transmit through a channel in order
to induce or elicit particular attitudes or behaviours (Porter &
Samovar 1988:17).”

When a message reaches the culture where it is to be decoded;

it undergoes a transformation in which the influence of the
decoding culture becomes a part of the message meaning. The
meaning content of the original message becomes modified
during the decoding phase on intercultural communication
because the culturally different repertory of communicative
behaviour and meanings possessed by the decoder does not
contain the same cultural meanings possessed by the encoder
(Porter & Samovar 1988:21).

Communication According to Purpose and Style

Formal

The formal communication is also known as the official communication

as it takes place through the pre-planned or the officially designated
mediums. The context of the conversation is also prepared before the
communication and things mostly go in hierarchical order. The context
of the conversation is already chosen in this form of communication and
more work-oriented discussions are done. While doing this type of
communication, a certain type of rules and regulations and conventions
and styles are being followed. No slang language is used in the formal
communication, and the conversation is mostly in the documented form
as it is kept as the evidence for official purpose.

Informal

Informal communication is also known as the grapevine communication;

it takes place between the employees of the workplace through any
channels. Unlike formal communication, informal communication doesn’t
take place through the officially designated channel. The context of the
conversation or information is stretched in all directions as the certain
point or work oriented tasks are not done in this. No rules and regulations
are followed in this types of communication and it can be in any
convention or style.
WHAT ARE THE COMMUNICATION MODELS?

Aristotle’s Model

One of the earliest is Aristotle’s simple linear model. In his Rhetoric

(Aristotle, 350 B C), Aristotle tells us that we must consider three
elements in communication:
 the speaker
 the speech
 the audience

It is a simple linear model and very obvious. In this paper I focus on the
speech, but all three elements are tightly connected.

Laswell’s Model

An interesting model is the model of Laswell (Laswell H D, 1948).

t is to be noted that it was published before and had in accordance with

Aristotle(Aristotle, 350 B C) its base in politics and mass communication.
Laswell developed a similar model for systems analysis and ontology
generation, the Socrates model (Flensburg, 1988). It has also been used
in an EU-project for ontology generation in the automotive industry
(Flensburg P, 2004).
Shannon- Weaver Model

The first major model for communication was introduced by Claude

Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories in 1949 (Shannon &
Weaver, 1949).

The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and
telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary
parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a
telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and
the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other
person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static
that interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they
deemed noise (Shannon & Weaver, 1949).

1. An information source, which produces a message.

2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
4. A receiver, which "decodes" the message from the signal.
5. A destination, where the message arrives.

Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems
for communication within this theory.
Berlo’s Model

A more elaborated model is presented in (Berlo D, 1960). It is also a

linear transmission model based upon the steps Source, Message,
Channel and Receiver, but each step is more elaborated (fig 8). In fact,
there are resemblances to the model I suggest; even some of the
concepts are the same. However, Berlo does not distinguish between bit
stream, data and information; they are all imbedded in the code. Further
on, he does not introduce the concept of meta-data.

The transmission models have received critique for not taking the
meaning, intention, context of the communication into account as well as
the channel and the relations between the sender and receiver. Much of
the critique can be traced to semiotics and similar linguistic approaches
(Saussure de, 1971). Fish (Fish S, 1980), who is a literature scientist
rejects the text's independence as a repository of meaning. He
emphasizes that meaning is not inherent waiting to be 'transmitted' to
more or less passive 'receivers'. Rather, the reader's active construction
of meaning is so central that it might even be more accurate to speak of
writing than of reading.

Berlo (Berlo D, 1960) also emphasizes the meaning. In short he says:

 Meanings are in people.

 Communication does not consist of the transmission of
meanings, but of the transmission of messages.
 Meanings are not in the message; they are in the
message-users.
 Words do not mean at all; only people mean.
WHAT ARE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION?

Effective communication occurs when a desired effect is the result of intentional or

unintentional information sharing, which is interpreted between multiple entities and
acted on in a desired way. This effect also ensures the message is not distorted during
the communication process. Effective communication should generate the desired
effect and maintain the effect, with the potential to increase the effect of the message.
Therefore, effective communication serves the purpose for which it was planned or
designed. Effective communication involves talking and listening.

Principles of Oral Communication

The ability to communicate effectively through speaking as well as

writing is highly valued and demanded in business. Oral communication,
while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication, can also
employ visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the conveyance
of meaning. Oral communication includes speeches, presentations,
discussions, and aspects of interpersonal communication. As a type of
face-to-face communication, body language and choice tonality play a
significant role, and may have a greater impact upon the listener than
informational content (O’Reilly, 1982). This type of communication also
garners immediate feedback. (Velentzas, 2011).

Principles of Written Communication

The progression of written communication can be divided into three

revolutionary stages called "Information Communication Revolutions".
During the first stage, written communication first emerged through the
use of pictographs. The pictograms were made in stone, hence written
communication was not yet mobile. During the second stage, writing
began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc. with common
alphabets. The third stage is characterized by the transfer of information
through controlled waves of electromagnetic radiation (i.e., radio,
microwave, infrared) and other electronic signals.

The medium most widely used for communication affects what people
think about themselves and how they perceive other people, so this can
be used to divide the civilizations of world history into five "ages" or
epochs: Ideographic writing produced the first civilization; alphabetic
writing produced the second civilization; printing produced the third
civilization; electronic recording and broadcasting produced the fourth
civilization; and computer communication produced the fifth civilization.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and
conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process,
which requires a vast repertoire of skills in interpersonal processing,
listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analysing, gestures, and
evaluating enables collaboration and cooperation (Velentzas, 2011).
ARE THERE ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION?

Communication is a two way process. Communication implies a party other than

ourselves and an attempt on our part to influence that person or party in some way.
As one scholar has put the matter, "A communicator, with particular motives, attempts
to achieve a specific end with a specific audience by employing (intentionally or
unintentionally) communicative means or techniques to influence that audience"
(Johanssen, 1990)
The nature of the influence we have on others will depend to a large extent on our
attitudes towards our audiences. As several have observed, an ethical communicator
is one who regards other persons as possessing inherent dignity and worth (Jaska
and Pritchard, 1988; Nilsen 1974). Human beings are to be regarded not as means to
ends but rather as valued participants whose welfare is a significant and considered
part of the interaction.
In terms of practice, this principle means that audience analysis is an important part
of communication. We cannot respond appropriately if we are ignorant of the people
with whom we communicate.
A great deal of the ethics of communication involves a respect for truth. Indeed, as
one has put it, the assumption of truth undergirds the very concept of communication
itself: "an inherent end of speech is the communication of belief" (Kupfer, 1982). If we
cannot trust the other party, we cannot accurately judge how to respond. If we cannot
accurately judge how to respond, then our communication becomes increasingly
ineffective. If the lack of trust is pervasive enough, it is destructive finally to society. As
one person has observed, "This is why some level of truthfulness has always been
seen as essential to human society, no matter how deficient the observance of other
moral principles" (Bok, 1989).
As an ethical communicator, a respect for truth means being informed on a topic before
posing as any kind of authority on the subject. Certain professions such as law,
medicine, and education have formal standards of expertise and knowledge that must
be met before one can be a practitioner.
In addition to securing information, we also need to consider the accuracy of the
information and the accuracy with which we use it. When we communicate, we expect
people to react in some way to what we say and do. When we use inaccurate
information to influence others, we cause difficulty for them and for ourselves.
Accurate information is information that is timely, up to date, and applicable to the
situation. In making a presentation on where to attend college, a speaker might quote
a reference work that listed information about schools such as tuition, majors, and
academic standing. If the reference book, though, were ten years old, the information
would be of little use. Out of date information about other significant topics such as the
environment, drug use, or crime rates would be as useless.
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