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Chapter16 PDF
Chapter16 PDF
16.1 The ocean is like a blanket of water that covers the seabed, or ocean
Origin of the Ocean floor. But there is no true “rest” on the seabed, and Earth is not a
and the Continents sleeping giant. There are many dynamic forces operating within
Earth’s solid part, or lithosphere, which influence and affect the char-
16.2 acteristics of the liquid part, or hydrosphere. For example, the sud-
The Theory of Plate den emergence of a volcanic island in the middle of the ocean (such
Tectonics as Surtsey, shown above) is evidence of the forces at work thousands
of meters below the surface of the sea.
16.3 The study of the development and physical characteristics of our
Ocean Floor planet’s seafloor and continents—and of the forces that have shaped
Topography them—makes up the field of science called geology. Scientists who
16.4 specialize in the study of geological features of the ocean are called
Coasts and marine geologists. You will begin your study of the geology of Earth’s
oceans and coastlines by going back in time to learn about the begin-
Reefs in Profile
ning of Earth itself.
384
16.1 ORIGIN OF THE OCEAN
AND THE CONTINENTS
Geyser
Overflow
Appalachian
Mountains Europe
Africa
Rock
South formations
America
India
Madagascar Australia
Evidence of
glaciation
Antarctica
Eurasia
North
America
Gondwanaland
Pangaea
Eurasia North
America Europe Asia
Africa Pacific
North Africa Ocean
America India
India South Indian
South America Ocean
America Atlantic
Antarctica Ocean Antarctica
Australia
Australia
2900 km
Outer core
2188 km Mantle
1255 km
Inner
core
J av
African
A n de s
Plate
aT
Pacific re
Plate nc
h
Mountains
Nazca
Plate Indian
South Plate
American
Plate
Antarctic
Plate
Continental
crust
Magma
Ocean
Rift valley Mid-ocean ridge
Magma
Spreading Spreading
Magma
South
the bands of rocks. When the magma hardened, the magnetic miner-
als in the rock aligned in the direction of Earth’s magnetic field. Dur-
ing Earth’s history, the magnetic poles have reversed several times.
The pattern of polarity on either side of the ridge was identical and
reflected these pole reversals. Scientists concluded that, as the magma
hardened, half moved to one side of the oceanic ridge and the other
half moved to the other side. This pattern of magnetic bands provided
strong evidence for ocean floor spreading. (See Figure 16-9.)
The theory of plate tectonics is called a unifying theory because
it explains the origin of, and connections between, such phenom-
ena as earthquakes, volcanic activity, faults, continental drift, and
seafloor spreading. A knowledge of plate tectonics is also helpful in
explaining how some structures on the ocean floor were formed.
(See Figure 16-10, which shows a profile of the Atlantic Ocean floor.)
What do the features of the ocean bottom look like? The average
depth of the ocean is about 3636 meters—much too deep for scuba
divers to explore. However, oceanographers can obtain a profile of
the ocean floor (without submerging in an underwater vehicle) by
using sonar. Modern ships are equipped with sonar. A ship’s sonar
device beams a continuous sound signal downward. After the sound
wave hits the bottom, the returning signal, called an echo, is
received by a depth recorder in the ship. This produces a line tracing
of the ocean floor. (See Figure 16-11.) Notice that the depth record-
ing of the ocean floor shows a bottom that varies from fairly smooth
to jagged, or irregular. The irregular part could be debris dumped on
the ocean floor, a sunken ship, or a natural feature. Recall that the
Titanic and other sunken ships have been located by using sonar.
Modern fishing boats also use sonar to locate schools of fish. Sonar
Source Receiver
d wa
600
Depth in meters
Soun
1200
1800
2400
0 1 2 3 4 5
Kilometers
600
Depth in meters
1200
1800
2400
5 kilometers
In this example,
D = 1454 ✕ 12
D = 727 meters
1500
Slope
3000
4500
6000
Long Island
Hudson
Canyon
Continental shelf
Continental slope
Figure 16-15 A
chain of islands
forms over a hot
spot.
Oceanic plate
QUESTIONS
1. Explain why the inhabitants of Hawaii cannot see Loihi’s eruptions.
2. Why is Loihi’s seismic activity potentially dangerous for Hawaiians?
3. Describe the technology scientists are using to monitor Loihi’s activity.
Oceanic plate
Ocean crust
Mantle
Atlantic Ocean
Mid-Atl a n
Africa
tic
R
d
i
ge
South America
A depression called the central rift valley runs along the crest of
the mid-ocean ridge (including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). The rift is a
crack in the seafloor through which molten rock from the mantle is
expelled. The rift zone is of special interest to oceanographers
because that is the place where new seafloor is continually being
created. When the hot magma pours out on the ocean floor, it cools
and solidifies to form new ocean crust. Lateral movements on both
sides of the rift then cause the seafloor to spread apart. About 250
million years ago, all the continents were joined together at the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Over geologic time, hot molten matter rising
up through the mantle and into the crust caused the continents to
split apart. The continuing flow of magma pushed the continents
farther apart and created a space between them, called an ocean
basin. This ocean basin filled up with water and became the Atlantic
Ocean.
solving minerals out of the rock as it flows. When the hot water
emerges from the seafloor, it makes contact with the cold ocean
water. Then the minerals dissolved in the hot water form a cloud that
looks like smoke coming from a chimney. Oceanographers call these
springs of mineral-laden waters “black smokers.” (See Figure 16-18.)
The area in the rift zone where these hot springs emerge is
called a hydrothermal vent. Submersibles have visited the hydro-
thermal vents, some more than 2400 meters deep. But the sub-
mersibles cannot get too close to a vent. The temperature can be as
high as 371°C. (Recall that water boils at 100°C.) The water was so
hot at one vent that it melted the first thermometer used to record
the temperature.
In 1977, scientists aboard the Alvin, an American submersible,
made an amazing discovery while investigating some hydrothermal
vents. Parts of the seafloor near the vents were carpeted by a thick
growth of living things. There were clusters of giant tube worms,
large clams, albino crabs, deep-sea fishes, and other organisms.
Oceanographers wondered how so much life could exist at such a
great depth, where there is no light. Since 1977, the Alvin and other
submersibles have made many more dives to study the vents and
to bring back water samples and specimens. The water was found
to be very rich in minerals, particularly the compound hydrogen
sulfide (H2S). Researchers also found that the water had a high con-
centration of bacteria. It turns out that these bacteria use the hydro-
gen sulfide to produce their food.
Beaches
Our coastal states have an abundance of sandy beaches and rocky
shores. In Hawaii, there are both sandy beaches and rocky coasts of
volcanic origin. Volcanic rock originates from the molten lava that
pours out of volcanoes and flows down to the sea. When the lava
reaches the ocean, it boils the water into steam, and the lava hard-
ens into rock. Sand on a beach is mainly the product of erosion
from rocks along the shore. Waves pound on the rocky shores, and
pieces of rock break off and fall into the surf. Tides move the rocks
back and forth, wearing them down into pebbles. Over time, the
pebbles are ground into sand by rubbing against one another as
they are tossed by the waves. (See Figure 16-19.)
Beach sand may also come from eroded rocks from mountains
located hundreds of km away. Rivers and streams wear down the
rocks. Sediments from the rocks are transported downstream to the
ocean, where they are deposited as sand on the beach. (You already
examined sand grains under the microscope to determine their ori-
gin in the lab investigation in an earlier chapter.) The erosion of
volcanic rock produced the black sands found on some Hawaiian
beaches. The white and pink sandy beaches of many other tropical
islands are largely composed of fine sediments eroded from offshore
coral reefs. Sand may also contain shell or bone fragments, fish
scales, and other debris from marine animals. (See Figure 16-20 on
page 406.)
Coasts have differently shaped profiles. On sandy shores with
heavy surf, the crashing waves erode the sand, forming a steeply
sloped beach. On beaches where large rivers empty into a calm sea,
Running
water
Gravel
and sand Silt Mud Ooze
Shells
sediments carried by the river are deposited along the shore, pro-
ducing a fan-shaped feature called a delta. (See Figure 16-21.) The
Nile River, which flows into the Mediterranean, and the Mississippi
River, which empties into the Gulf of Mexico, both form deltas. (See
Figure 16-22.)
Rocky Coasts
Compared to sandy beaches, rocky coasts are often very steep. (See
Figure 16-23.) How are they formed? The rocky coast of Maine was
formed 12,000 years ago, toward the end of the last Ice Age. As the
climate warmed, the glacier that covered much of North America
retreated, carving out troughs, or valleys, which later became river
valleys. When the glaciers melted, the sea level rose. The ocean
Lagoon Delta
Hook
Spit
Offshore bars
invaded the land, filling in the eroded valleys left by the retreating
glaciers. Coasts eroded by glaciers are found in such places as Alaska,
Chile, Greenland, Norway, and Scotland, where they are known as
fjords. A fjord (pronounced FEE-yord) is a narrow inlet from the sea
that is both steep and deep. For example, one of the fjords in Chile
is more than 1210 meters deep. (See Figure 16-24 on page 408.)
Types of Reefs
You may recall that a coral reef is a limestone structure that is built
by coral polyps that live on the reef’s surface. There are three kinds
of reefs: fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. (See Figure 16-25.)
A fringing reef lies a few kilometers offshore and is parallel to the
mainland. On the shore side of the reef, the water is shallow; on
the ocean side, it is deep. A fringing reef grows most rapidly on the
ocean side of the reef because there is greater water circulation,
which brings more food and oxygen to the coral. Fringing reefs are
typically found in the Florida Keys and in the Caribbean.
A reef that grows farther offshore is called a barrier reef. Most
barrier reefs lie approximately 25 km offshore and are separated
from the island by a channel. The world’s most famous barrier reef
is the Great Barrier Reef, which is actually a series of reefs that lie
between 16 and 160 km off the northeast coast of Australia. The
Great Barrier Reef is 2000 km long.
Fringing reefs and barrier reefs grow right up to the surface of
the ocean. At low tide, the tops may extend above the water. Waves
Lagoon
Atoll
Fringing reef
PROCEDURE
1. Put on the safety glasses. Heat the evaporating dish over a Bunsen burner
or on a hot plate for a minute to evaporate possible moisture from the dish.
2. Use tongs to transfer the dish to a cooling pad for a few minutes.
3. After it cools, transfer the dish to the balance to be weighed. In your note-
book, record the weight (mass) in a copy of Table 16-1.
4. Use a spatula to measure out 2 grams of copper sulfate and put it into the
evaporating dish. Record the weight (mass) of the dish plus the copper sul-
fate in the table.
5. Place the evaporating dish that contains the copper sulfate onto a hot plate
or over the Bunsen burner. Heat gently for five minutes, until the blue color
of the copper sulfate disappears.
6. Use tongs to transfer the dish to a cooling pad and wait a minute for it to
cool. Place the dish on the balance and record the weight (mass) in the table.
1. To find the weight (mass) of the copper sulfate, subtract the weight (mass)
obtained in step 3 from that of step 4.
2. To find the weight (mass) of the water, subtract the weight (mass) obtained
in step 6 from that of step 4 (line 3 from line 2 in the table).
1. Compare your answer for calculation 4 with those of the other students. Your
answers may vary. How can you explain these differences? (The correct num-
ber of water molecules is five.)
2. Describe what happened—physically and chemically—to the copper sulfate
hydrate when it was heated.
3. What is the important difference between the copper sulfate before it was
heated and the copper sulfate after it was heated?
Vocabulary
The following list contains all the boldface terms in this chapter.
Fill In
Use one of the vocabulary terms listed above to complete each sentence.
Inquiry
Base your answers to questions 9 through 11 on the information in
Figure 16-8 on page 393, and on your knowledge of marine science.
Multiple Choice
Choose the response that best completes the sentence or answers the
question.
Channel
Barrier reef
Lagoon
Atoll
Fringing reef
Research/Activity