Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 45 (2012) 106–113

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Ichnological constraints on the depositional environment of the Sawahlunto

Formation, Kandi, northwest Ombilin Basin, west Sumatra, Indonesia
J.-P. Zonneveld a,⇑, Y. Zaim b, Y. Rizal b, R.L. Ciochon c, E.A. Bettis III d, Aswan b, G.F. Gunnell e
a
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T2L 2A7
b
Department of Geology, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
c
Department of Anthropology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
d
Department of Geosciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
e
Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1079, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A low diversity trace fossil assemblage is described from the Oligocene Sawahlunto Formation near
Received 27 April 2011 Kandi, in the northwestern part of the Ombilin Basin in western Sumatra, Indonesia. This trace fossil
Received in revised form 12 June 2011 assemblage includes six ichnogenera attributed to invertebrate infaunal and epifaunal activities (Arenic-
Accepted 16 June 2011
olites, Diplocraterion, Planolites, Monocraterion/Skolithos and Coenobichnus) and two ichnotaxa attributed
Available online 25 November 2011
to vertebrate activity (avian footprints: two species of Aquatilavipes). Arenicolites, Diplocraterion and
Monocraterion/Skolithos record the suspension feeding activities of either arthropods (most likely amphi-
Keywords:
pods) or vermiform organisms. Planolites reflects the presence of an infaunal deposit feeder. Coenobichnus
Sawahlunto
Arenicolites
records the walking activities of hermit crabs. Both the Coenobichnus and the avian footprints record the
Diplocraterion surficial detritus scavenging of epifaunal organisms within a subaerial setting. These traces occur within a
Coenobichnus fine-grained sandstone succession characterized by planar laminae and low-relief, asymmetrical, com-
Avian footprint monly mud-draped (locally bidirectional) ripples.
The presence of traces attributable to suspension feeders implies deposition in a subaqueous setting.
Their occurrence (particularly the presence of Arenicolites and Diplocraterion) in a sandstone bed charac-
terized by mud-draped and bidirectional ripples implies emplacement in a tidally-influenced marine to
marginal marine setting. Co-occurrence of these traces with well-preserved avian footprints (Aquatilav-
ipes) further implies periodic subaerial exposure. Thus, it is most likely that the Sawahlunto Formation
near Kandi records deposition within an intertidal flat setting. Definitive evidence of marine influences
in the Oligocene interval of the Ombilin Basin implies a more complex tectono-stratigraphic history than
has previously been implied.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The island of Sumatra is the product of dynamic structural influ-
ences resulting from plate subduction to the west and uplift of the
Sumatran arc massif on the leading edge of the Sunda Plate. Sedi-
mentary basins in Sumatra have complex histories of basin margin
uplift and basin floor subsidence that are reflected in the nature of
the sedimentary fill of individual basins. The present study focuses
on Cenozoic strata in the Ombilin Basin (Fig. 1) a small intermon-
tane basin on the western margin of the island of Sumatra. Previ-
ous studies have indicated that subsidence of the Ombilin Basin
was initiated as early as the Paleocene and was dominated by
continental deposition from the basin’s origin through the Paleo-
cene, Eocene and Oligocene (Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981;
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 780 492 3287; fax: +1 780 492 2030.
E-mail address: zonneveld@ualberta.ca (J.-P. Zonneveld).
Whateley and Jordon, 1989; Fatimah and Ward, 2009). Marine
influences are not inferred to have occurred until the Early Mio-
cene, with deposition of fossiliferous limestone and calcareous
shale beds of the Ombilin Formation.
Marine body fossils do not occur in the Ombilin Basin in strata
older than the Ombilin Formation. In the absence of clear body fos-
sil evidence, inference of marine influence can be problematic.
Physical sedimentary structures may not be diagnostic, particu-
larly in the absence of tidal indicators. Trace fossils may provide
unambiguous evidence for marine influence in a sedimentary suc-
cession. Continental and marine successions commonly exhibit
distinct trace fossil types and associations. Brackish successions
may have traces in common with both marine and continental suc-
cessions although in most cases brackish faunas consist primarily
of a low-diversity association of marine forms (Buatois et al., 2005).
Trace fossil associations identified within the Sawahlunto
Formation indicate that the Ombilin Basin experienced marine

1367-9120/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.06.017
 J.-P. Zonneveld et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 45 (2012) 106–113 107

100° 45’ E Recent Volcanics

- Neogene
Ombilin Fm.

Paleogene
Sawahtambang Fm.
Sawahlunto Fm.
Sangkarewang Fm.

Pre-Cenozoic
Limestone
Meta-sediments
0° 30’ S Granite
0 kms 10

101° E
Talawi
KANDI Taku
ng Fa
ult

Tanjung Ampalo Fa
Banda
Aceh Sawahlunto
Su

0° 45’ S
m
at
ra

ult
Padang
Ombilin
Basin

Fig. 1. Geological map of the Ombilin Basin, west-central Sumatra (after Koning, 1985 and Whateley and Jordon, 1989). The bird footprint locality at Kandi is illustrated by
the star in the center of the map. Pre-Cenozoic basement lithologies are illustrated in dark grey. Cenozoic Ombilin Basin fill lithologies are white. Quaternary volcanics, which
cover the Ombilin Basin to the north and west, are shown in light grey. The Brani Formation is included within the Sangkarewang Formation. Note that the Ombilin Basin was
likely originally more extensive than is preserved, however montane uplift resulted in erosional removal of the basin’s margins.

influence considerably earlier than previously believed, perhaps as
early as the Eocene. Although these trace fossils exhibit very low
diversity, several forms occur which are known solely in marine
and brackish successions.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Structural setting
The ichnofossils discussed herein occur within the Ombilin Ba-
sin (Fig. 1), a small (25  60 km) intra-arc/back-arc basin with a
thick (4600 m) Cenozoic fill (Koesoemadinata and Matasak,
1981; Koning, 1985; Howells, 1997). It occurs on the western side
of central Sumatra and trends roughly parallel with the main axis
of the island. Uplift of the Sumatran arc massif is related to subduc-
tion of the Indian Ocean plate beneath the Sunda Continental Plate
to the east/northeast. Pronounced asymmetry in plate motion, as a
result of interaction of other plates with the Indian Ocean and Sun-
da plates, has resulted in a significant strike-slip component to
what is otherwise a dominantly convergent margin setting. The
Ombilin Basin is a graben-like, pull-apart basin related to strike-
slip motion in the Great Sumatra fault zone that runs up the axis
of the island (Koning, 1985; Fatimah and Ward, 2009). The present
study area, near the hamlet of Kandi, occurs in the northwestern
part of the Ombilin Basin (Fig. 1). This area, referred to as the Tala-
wi syncline or Talawi Sub-basin, is separated from the Sinamar
sub-basin to the east by the Tanjungampalu Fault zone (Howells,
1997).
2.2. Stratigraphic setting
The Paleogene fill of the Talawi syncline has been reported as
dominantly nonmarine (de Coster, 1976) and has been interpreted
as lacustrine, lacustrine-deltaic and fluvial (de Coster, 1976; Koe-
soemadinata and Matasak, 1981). The Paleogene succession rests
unconformably upon Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic sedi-
mentary and volcanic strata and Cretaceous granite in the western
part of the Ombilin Basin (Whateley and Jordon, 1989; Freidrich
et al., 1999) (Fig. 2).
The Paleogene succession starts with the Brani Formation
(Fig. 2), a dominantly coarse-grained (sandstone and conglomer-
ate) succession interpreted as an alluvial fan and fan delta succes-
sion (Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981; Whateley and Jordon,
1989). Sediments were sourced from Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata
on the basin’s faulted margins. The Brani Formation interfingers
with, and is overlain by, lacustrine strata of the Sangkarewang For-
mation (Fig. 2). The Sangkarewang Formation consists of a thick,
organic-rich, laminated shale succession with common, sharp-
based feldspathic sandstone interbeds interpreted as turbidites
(Fatimah and Ward, 2009). The Sangkarewang is overlain by the
Sawahlunto Formation (Fig. 2), the focus of the present paper.
The Sawahlunto is a heterolithic succession of shale, siltstone,
sandstone, conglomeratic sandstone and coal interpreted as a
meandering fluvial system with associated floodplain sediments
(Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981). Coarse conglomerate, brec-
cia and sandstone of the Brani Formation interfinger with the Saw-
ahlunto in several areas, particularly adjacent to faults on the
extreme margins of the basins (Moss and Howells, 1996). Coarse
108 J.-P. Zonneveld et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 45 (2012) 106–113

provides unambiguous evidence of a local marine incursion (Koe-

Quat. Ranau Fm.
soemadinata and Matasak, 1981; Fatimah and Ward, 2009).
unconformity
Miocene

3. Dataset
Ombilin Fm.
The trace fossils discussed herein were examined at an outcrop
unconformity of the Sawahlunto Formation in the western Ombilin Basin, west of
Kandi, in west central Sumatra (Fig. 1). The outcrop section occurs
at the junction of a minor creek and the main Kandi access road.
Sawahtambang Fm. The Sawahlunto section described consists of a thinly laminated,
Oligocene

coarsening upward sandstone overlain by a relatively thin layer

(0.5 m) of coaly shale capped by a quartzose, sand-matrix con-
glomerate (Fig. 3). The sandstone contains abundant carbonaceous
debris and small to medium-scale asymmetrical (current) ripples
Sawahlunto Fm.
are present. The trace fossils discussed herein come from the
Brani Fm.
fine-grained, planar laminated to current rippled sandstone at
the base of the section (Fig. 3). Excellent bedding plane exposures
Eocene

Sangkarewang Fm.
Brani Fm.
unconformity
Pre-
Cen. Basement Rocks
-volcanic tuffs
-marine deposits (grey calcareous shale, &
local bioclastic limestone beds).
-braided stream with local marine intercala-
tions (dominated by fine to coarse sandstone).
-river & floodplain (multicolored shale, fine
to coarse sandstone lenses, interbedded coal).
-lake deposits (dark laminated shale,
sharp-based sandstone beds).
-alluvial fan & fan delta (medium to coarse
sandstone, conglomerate & breccia).
-basement rock (Carboniferous, Permian, &
Triassic shale, limestone, sandstone, phyllite,
marble & Cretaceous granite).
Fig. 2. Cenozoic stratigraphy of the Ombilin Basin (adapted from Moss and Howells,
1996 and Noeradi et al., 2005). Note that lithology patterns utilized in this figure are
largely identical to those used in Fig. 1.
occur in the basal part of the section, ideal circumstances for the
identification of the trace fossils described in this paper. Trace fos-
sils on these bedding planes are overall abundant although the
diversity of the assemblage is moderate to low.
4. Ichnology
Bedding plane trace fossil assemblages in the Sawahlunto For-
mation are characterized by trace fossils emplaced by both inver-
tebrates and vertebrates. Trace fossils interpreted to have been
constructed by invertebrates include Arenicolites, Diplocraterion,
Planolites, Monocraterion/Skolithos and Coenobichnus (Figs. 4 and
5). Traces emplaced by vertebrates include two distinct forms of
avian footprints (Zaim et al., 2011; Zonneveld et al., in press). All
traces observed occur within very fine- to fine-grained silty sand-
stone characterized by planar laminae, low-amplitude current rip-
ples, and abundant carbonaceous detritus.
Arenicolites, simple U-shaped tubes, are preserved in convex
epirelief and occur most commonly as paired circular openings on
bedding planes (Figs. 4A and 5B). These traces are moderately abun-
dant (5–15 specimens per m2) and are small (tubes 1–3 mm in

>1m -medium-grained sandstone

clastic sediment (sand and gravel) is a minor component of the
Sawahlunto and, where present, is texturally mature (Whateley -sand-matrix conglomerate
± 1.5 m
and Jordon, 1989; Fatimah and Ward, 2009). Thus these sediments
are considered to have experienced significant transport distance ± 0.5 m -coaly shale
prior to deposition in the Ombilin Basin (Koesoemadinata and
Matasak, 1981; Fatimah and Ward, 2009). The Sawahlunto has also ± 1.5 m -fine-grained sandstone
been reinterpreted as a shallow lacustrine succession with exten-
sive marginal swamps (Whateley and Jordon, 1989). This is at-
tested to by the presence of several thick coal seams within the ± 3.0 m -medium-grained sandstone
Sawahlunto Formation. Three seams have economic potential with
two of these seams (Seam A at 1.5–2.5 m in thickness and Seam C
-fine-grained sandstone
at 4.5–9.0 m) mined in the Sawahlunto area (Horkel, 1990).
The Sawahlunto Formation is overlain by a thick succession of >5m
coarse-grained sandstone, siltstone, shale, variegated mudstone,
trace fossil locality
and thin, impersistent coal seams referred to the Sawahtambang
Formation (Fig. 2). High-sinuosity channels and associated varie- -fine-grained sandstone
gated mudstone beds in the lower Sawahtambang are interpreted
to represent a meandering fluvial and overbank/floodplain succes-
sion, whereas coarser-grained units higher in the Sawahtambang -low relief cross-laminae -cross bedding
are interpreted to represent braided river systems (Whateley and -horizontal lamination -asymmetrical ripples
Jordon, 1989). The Sawahtambang Formation is overlain by gray, -ripples with mud drapes -bidirectional ripples
calcareous shale of the Ombilin Formation. This unit, which con-
tains limestone interbeds characterized by coral and shell debris, Fig. 3. Lithology of the Sawahlunto outcrop section at Kandi, west-central Sumatra.
 J.-P. Zonneveld et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 45 (2012) 106–113 109

Diplocraterion isp. Arenicolites isp.

Skolithos isp.

protrusive
spreite

retrusive
spreite

Monocraterion isp.
A
Planolites isp.

Coenobichnus isp.

III IV B
1 cm
II II
II

Avipeda isp. III

Aquatilavipes isp.

IV
C 1 cm IV D III

Fig. 4. Line drawings of trace fossils from the Sawahlunto Formation, Kandi, west-central Sumatra. A. Line drawings of Diplocraterion, Arenicolites, Monocraterion, Skolithos and
Planolites. Cross-sectional profiles are shown through Arenicolites and Diplocraterion illustrating the architectural differences of these traces with burrow depth. B. Sketch of
the Coenobichnus specimen from Fig. 5. Note that the cheliped impressions are only visible in the left side of the trace where the shell-dragging groove is shallower. Scale bar
is 1.0 cm in length. C. Sketch of Aquatilavipes ichnospecies A. Scale bar is 1 cm in length. Note the absence of a Hallux (digit I) and the curved nature of digits II and IV. D. Sketch
of Aquatilavipes ichnospecies B Scale bar is 1 cm in length. Note the absence of a Hallux (digit I) and the straight nature of digits II and IV.

diameter; traces 6–14 mm in width). Arenicolites are interpreted as
the dwelling traces of either infaunal amphipods or vermiforms
(Fischer and MacGinitie, 1928; Häntzschel, 1939). Arenicolites trace-
makers consist dominantly of suspension feeders (Pemberton and
Wightman, 1992).
Diplocraterion are U-shaped tubes that possess spreite (back-fill
laminae) either beneath the burrow (retrusive spreite) or between
the arms of the burrow (protrusive spreite) (Figs. 4A and 5B). They
are less abundant in the study interval than Arenicolites (5–8 spec-
imens per m2). In retrusive forms Diplocraterion may be difficult to
differentiate from Arenicolites in bedding plane exposures, however
their distinctive ‘dumbbell’ shape easily differentiates protrusive
forms. Within the Sawahlunto Formation these traces are generally
small (tubes 2–5 mm in diameter; traces 9–16 mm in width). The
back-fill laminae reflect movement of the entire burrow upwards
or downwards in the substrate. This may occur in response to either
infaunal feeding and concomitant extension of the burrow in a
downwards direction or in response to dynamic sediment condi-
tions (burial or erosional exhumation) and concomitant shifting of
the burrow either upwards or downwards (Fürsich, 1974). Like Are-
nicolites, Diplocraterion reflect the activities of suspension feeding
organisms, including both vermiform organisms and diminutive
arthropods (typically decapods or amphipods) (Goldring, 1964;
Fürsich, 1974; Gingras et al., 1999).
Planolites are simple, unlined, horizontal tubes (Fig. 4A). The fill is
structureless and differs in color and composition from the sur-
rounding sediment (Pemberton and Frey, 1982). The fill represents
sediment processed by an infaunal deposit feeder. Within the Saw-
ahlunto Formation Planolites occur as isolated examples of moderate
size (3–5 mm in width). Planolites are constructed by a variety of ver-
miform organisms (Pemberton and Frey, 1982).
Skolithos are simple, vertical tubes. In bedding plane aspect they
comprise solitary circular traces (Figs. 4A and 5B). In the Sawahl-
unto Formation Skolithos trace diameters exhibit a bimodal distri-
bution. Many of the Skolithos range in size from 0.5 to 1.0 mm in
diameter. Others range in size from 3 to 5 mm in diameter. A lack
of gradation between the two groupings may indicate that the
traces reflect the activities of two distinct tracemakers, however,
this is uncertain. Monocraterion are similar in basic morphology
to Skolithos, with the addition of a simple funnel opening at the
top. This funnel is preserved in bedding plane aspect as a concen-
tric, circular trace, 4–6 mm in diameter (Figs. 4A and 5B). Skolithos
and Monocraterion are simple traces that have been reported to
represent the activities of a wide variety of organisms, from fish
to worms, insects, and anemones (Mangum, 1970; Fricke, 1973;
Ratcliffe and Fagerstrom, 1980; Gingras et al., 1999).
Coenobichnus are horizontal, asymmetrical trackways consisting
of a central groove fringed first by ridges and distal to this asymmet-
rically distributed divots (Figs. 4B and 5B). A single specimen of Coe-
nobichnus was observed in the Sawahlunto Formation (Figs. 4B and
5B). This specimen is approximately 8 mm in maximum width and
approximately 7 cm in total length. Coenobichnus are interpreted
as the trackways of hermit crabs (Walker et al., 2003). The asymmet-
rical, paired tracks are interpreted as cheliped impressions created
as the organism walked on the substrate surface (Walker et al.,
2003). The central ridged groove of Coenobichnus is interpreted to
represent the drag mark of the shell as it is pulled along the substrate
(Walker et al., 2003). In areas of the Sawahlunto specimen with well-
preserved cheliped markings, the central ridged groove is faint,
whereas in areas devoid of perceptible cheliped markings the central
ridged groove is clear and pronounced (Figs. 4B and 5B). This sug-
gests a probable direction of motion for the trace fossil and indicates
110 J.-P. Zonneveld et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 45 (2012) 106–113

Fig. 5. Trace fossils from the Sawahlunto Formation, Kandi, west-central Sumatra. A. Trackways of Aquatilavipes ichnospecies A. Clear part of pen is 8 mm thick. Note the two
clear footprints and the other obscured footprints to the right. Note also the presence of small circular traces on the bedding plate indicating the presence of Skolithos,
Arenicolites and Planolites. B. A moderately diverse trace fossil assemblage that includes Aquatilavipes ichnospecies B, Coenobichnus isp., Monocraterion isp., Skolithos, isp.,
Arenicolites isp., and Diplocraterion isp.

that the cheliped markings may have been removed in part of the
specimen by shell drag.
Two distinct types of bird footprints were identified in the
Sawahlunto Formation, both tentatively assigned to the ichnoge-
nus Aquatilavipes (Zonneveld et al., in press) (Figs. 4C and D, 5A
and B). Aquatilavipes ichnospecies A are the footprints of a small
shorebird (Figs. 4D and 5B). Those within the study interval pos-
sess divarication angles of 98–109° between digits II and IV, are
small, and probably represents a gruiform such as a Rail. Aquati-
lavipes ichnospecies B are also the footprints of a small shorebird
(Fig. 4C and 5A). Those within the study interval possess divarica-
tion angles of 126–148° between digits II and IV, are small, and
probably represents a charadriid (e.g. plover) or scolopacid (e.g.
sandpiper).
 J.-P. Zonneveld et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 45 (2012) 106–113
5. Discussion
Trace fossils analyzed within the Sawahlunto Formation com-
prise a low diversity assemblage consisting of a mix of suspension
feeders (Arenicolites, Diplocraterion and Skolithos/Monocraterion),
infaunal deposit feeders (Planolites), surficial detritivores (Coenob-
ichnus) and omnivorous birds. Although no single ichnogenus is
diagnostic of a specific depositional environment, most exhibit
clear environmental affinities and, considered as an assemblage,
have clear implications for the depositional environment for this
part of the Sawahlunto Formation.
Although not restricted solely to any one depositional environ-
ment, Arenicolites is most common in shallow and marginal mar-
ine depositional settings (Pemberton and Wightman, 1992;
Gingras et al., 1999; Mángano and Buatois; 2004). The tolerance
of Arenicolites tracemakers to brackish conditions renders this
trace a useful salinometre in marginal marine successions (Ging-
ras et al., 1999; Buatois et al., 2005; Virtasalo et al., 2006). In a
Holocene coastal succession in the northern Baltic Sea area, in
which post-glacial lacustrine strata segue up-section into brackish
deposits, the first evidence of marine influence is heralded by the
appearance of low-diversity trace fossil assemblages that include
Arenicolites (Virtasalo et al., 2006).
Diplocraterion exhibit a broad environmental distribution, but
in general are most common in marine, subtidal to intertidal,
wave-influenced settings (Goldring, 1964; Fürsich, 1974; Gingras
et al., 1999; Mángano and Buatois, 2004). In general, Diplocrateri-
on (sensu stricto) is indicative of brackish to marine environments
(Goldring et al., 2006). Although some reports have identified
Diplocraterion in lacustrine successions (i.e. Zhang et al., 1998;
Goldring et al., 2006; Buatois and Mángano, 2009) these invari-
ably occur in coast-proximal settings and may have been sub-
jected to marine influences (Goldring et al., 2006). Possible
Diplocraterion has also been reported from ephemeral lacustrine
deposits in interlunar-type settings wherein it has been attrib-
uted to the activities of insects or insect larvae (Gradzinski and
Uchman, 1994; Ekdale et al., 2007). These Diplocraterion are
poorly illustrated, however, their descriptions differ from Diploc-
raterion sensu stricto (i.e. they are more akin to the Corophoides/
Polyupsilon group) (Gradzinski and Uchman, 1994). Lightly-lined
Diplocraterion, possessing protrusive and retrusive spreite, such
as those in the study interval, are diagnostic components of sub-
tidal and intertidal marine and brackish successions (Gingras
et al., 1999; Buatois et al., 2005). Their presence in the study
interval in association with Arenicolites provides very strong evi-
dence for marine influence in the Sawahlunto Formation.
Skolithos/Moncraterion and Planolites are ubiquitous in many
depositional settings, including marine, marginal marine and con-
tinental settings (i.e. Pemberton and Frey, 1982; Gingras et al.,
1999; Mángano and Buatois, 2004; Buatois et al., 2005; Hasiotis
et al., 2007). The co-occurrence of several ichnogenera attribut-
able to infaunal suspension feeders and a single ichnogenus
attributable to an infaunal deposit feeder is indicative of deposi-
tion in a shallow marine or brackish depositional setting. In clean,
well-sorted sandstone these traces are common components of
the Skolithos ichnofacies, which is indicative of high levels of cur-
rent or wave energy (MacEachern et al., 2007). In the study inter-
val however these traces occur in heterolithic, silty very fine-
grained to fine-grained sandstone with abundant organic detritus
on bedding planes. This is strongly similar to biogenic structures
identified on Modern estuarine intertidal sand flat successions in
Willapa Bay, Washington (Gingras et al., 1999).
Trace fossils constructed by hermit crabs (including Coenobich-
nus) may occur in a broad range of environments, from subtidal
and intertidal to supratidal settings (Walker, 1989; Walker
111
et al., 2003). The type material of Coenobichnus was discovered
in a lithified eolianite on the northern coast of San Salvador,
Bahamas (Walker et al., 2003). Although obliged to return to
the sea to mate, some groups of hermit crabs may spend the bulk
of their lives on land in coastal settings (de Wilde, 1973; Burg-
gren and McMahon, 1988; Walker, 1989). The presence of this
ichnogenus in the Sawahlunto Formation provides clear evidence
of proximity to a marine coastal setting. Although hermit crabs
can travel several 100 m in a day, it is rare that they travel more
than a few 100 m to a few kilometers from the coastline (de
Wilde, 1973; Burggren and McMahon, 1988). Likewise, traces em-
placed by shorebirds occur most likely in environments either
within or adjacent to aqueous settings. Bird footprints within
the Sawahlunto Formation are sharply defined and occur within
a sand-dominated substratum. This implies a level of cohesive-
ness impossible in dry unconsolidated sand and unlikely to be
preserved in subaqueous settings. Thus moist or wet (but not sat-
urated) conditions are interpolated during the interval of track
emplacement.
Considered as a whole, the Sawahlunto Formation trace fossil
assemblage provides clear and convincing evidence for deposition on
a sandy intertidal flat succession. Common traces of suspension feeders
(Arenicolites, Diplocraterion and Skolithos/Monocraterion) indicate
deposition within an environmental setting subjected to aqueous
inundation. Detailed preservation of avian tracks (two distinct species
of Aquatilavipes) and hermit crab crawling traces (Coenobichnus) indi-
cates that these beds were also periodically subaerially exposed. The
Sawahlunto Formation outcrop section that is the focus of this study
also consists of heterolithic very fine- to fine-grained sandstone char-
acterized by low-relief, mud-draped ripples and abundant carbona-
ceous detritus, consistent with deposition in an intertidal flat
succession. Similar deposits, characterized by comparable infaunal
and epifaunal assemblages, occur in Modern intertidal sand flat succes-
sions in many parts of the world including the Baram River Delta in Bor-
neo (Lambiase et al., 2003); the Willapa Bay estuarine succession in the
western United States (Gingras et al., 1999), the Shepody River estua-
rine succession, New Brunswick, Canada (Pearson and Gingras, 2006)
and the wave-protected lower foreshore in Craig Bay, Vancouver Is-
land, Canada (JPZ, personal observations). Although the Sawahlunto
Formation clearly indicates deposition within a marginal marine inter-
tidal flat succession, additional data are needed before it can be estab-
lished what setting these intertidal flats occurred within (i.e. deltaic,
estuarine or sheltered shoreface/foreshore).
This environmental interpretation has far-reaching implications
for the stratigraphic and structural evolution of the Ombilin Basin.
The Ombilin Basin formed in the Lower Eocene as a result of strike-
slip motion in the Great Sumatran fault zone (Koning, 1985; Fati-
mah and Ward, 2009). The earliest sedimentary deposits related
to the development of this basin consist of marginal alluvial fans
and fan deltaic successions that intercalate with organic-rich
lacustrine shale and siltstone (Koesoemadinata and Matasak,
1981; Howells, 1992, 1997). Sediment input into the basin was de-
rived from lateral input from the basin margins with a clear tran-
sition from coarse clastics to fine clastics towards the center of
the basin (Howells, 1992).
A tectonic event at the end of the Eocene signaled termination
of the lacustrine phase and a shift to meandering river which grade
upwards into braided river deposits (Koesoemadinata and Mata-
sak, 1981; Howells, 1992, 1997). This event resulted in a change
to a dominantly axial drainage system. This Oligocene ‘meandering
river’ succession includes both the study interval and the dominant
coal-bearing interval in the Sawahlunto Formation. It is herein con-
sidered likely that at least part of the lower Sawahlunto represents
upper estuarine deposition. In this scenario, the study interval
would likely represent intertidal sand flats associated with
112 J.-P. Zonneveld et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 45 (2012) 106–113
estuarine point bars. This scenario is favored as it compliments
previous interpretations of meandering river deposition in the
Sawahlunto Formation. Another tectonic pulse at the end of the
Oligocene (cf. Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981; Howells,
1992, 1997) terminated deposition of the Sawahlunto fluvial and
estuarine phase and heralded a shift to dominantly shallow marine
and marine offshore deposition.
6. Conclusions
The Cenozoic fill of the Ombilin Basin comprises a complex suc-
cession of coarse and fine-grained clastic sediment. Previous inter-
pretations have suggested that the Ombilin Basin was restricted to
nonmarine (alluvial and lacustrine) sedimentation during the Eo-
cene and Oligocene with a terminal Oligocene tectonic event result-
ing in marine deposition during the Early Miocene. Analysis of trace
fossil assemblages in the Sawahlunto Formation indicate that mar-
ine influences within the Ombilin Basin occurred much earlier than
previously supposed.
Outcrops of the Sawahlunto Formation at Kandi are character-
ized by an overall low-diversity trace fossil assemblage that in-
cludes forms constructed by both invertebrates and vertebrates.
Invertebrate forms include Arenicolites, Diplocraterion, Planolites,
Monocraterion/Skolithos and Coenobichnus. These forms represent
a variety of behaviors including suspension feeding, infaunal de-
posit feeding and surficial detritus scavenging. Most significantly
the co-occurrence of several of these forms, particularly Arenico-
lites, Diplocraterion and Coenobichnus provides clear evidence of
marine influence in deposition of this part of the Sawahlunto
Formation.
The presence of traces attributable to suspension feeders im-
plies deposition in a subaqueous setting. The presence of well-pre-
served avian footprints (Aquatilavipes) in the same beds further
implies subaerial exposure within this interval. Taken together,
the only viable environmental interpretation for this assemblage
is an intertidal flat succession. Definitive evidence of marine influ-
ences in the Oligocene interval of the Ombilin Basin implies a more
complex tectono-stratigraphic history than has previously been
implied.
Acknowledgements
Travel and field expenses for GFG, AEB and RLC were provided by
a Grant from National Geographic Society. Additional funding for
Sumatra field project came from the Human Evolution Research
Fund at the University of Iowa Foundation. We are grateful to Tho-
mas Stidham for discussion on the paleontology and ichnology of
birds and to Thomas P. Eiting and Alison M. Murray for assistance
in the field. We thank the editorial staff at the Journal of Asian Earth
Sciences and reviewers Mike Crow and A.J. Barber for their efforts on
our behalf.
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