Mobile Radio Propagation - Path Loss - I - Extended PDF

Mobile Radio Propagation:
Large-Scale Path Loss
1
Re-cap
• The cellular concept and frequency reuse

• Cell capacity and Reuse as N C
• Types of Interference
• Co-channel Interference – calculations
• Adjacent channel interference
• Improving capacity and coverage
• Cell splitting
• Sectoring
• Microcell Zone
• Use of Repeaters
2
Outlines
Propagation Model - Attenuations

- Free Space
- Reflection
- Diffraction
- Scattering
Log-Normal Shadowing
Practical Link Budget Design
3
ECE 8708 Wireless Communications : Propagation – Large-Scale Path Loss
Introduction
• The mobile radio channel places fundamental

limitations on the performance of wireless
communication systems.
• The wireless transmission path may be

• Line of sight (LOS)
• Non Line of Sight (NLOS): Obstructed by buildings,
foliage etc.
• Radio channels are random and often time varying.
• Modeling radio channels have been one of the difficult

parts of the mobile radio system design.
4
Propagation Models
5
Mobile Radio Propagation
• Mobile radio channel is an important controlling factor

in wireless communication systems.
• Transmission path between transmitter and receiver
can vary in complexity.
• Wired channels are stationary and predictable,
whereas radio channels are extremely random and
have complex models.
• Modeling of radio channels is done in statistical
fashion based on measurements for each
individual communication system or frequency
spectrum.
6
Propagation Models
• Large scale propagation models - To predict the average

received signal strength over large T-R separation distances
(several hundreds or thousands of meters).
Typically, the local average received power is computed by
averaging signal measurements over a measurement track of 5 to
40 wavelengths.
• Small scale propagation models (or fading models) - To
characterize the rapid fluctuations of the receiver signal strength
over very short distances ( a few wavelengths) or short time
durations (on the order of seconds).
In small scale fading, the received signal power may vary by as
much as three to four orders of magnitude (30 to 40 dB).
7
Propagation Basics
• When electrons move, they create electromagnetic

waves that can propagate through space.
• By attaching an antenna of the appropriate size to an

electrical circuit, the electromagnetic waves can be
broadcast efficiently and received by a receiver some
distance away.
• The radio, microwave, infrared, and visible light

portions of the electromagnetic spectrum can all be
used to transmit information.
• Information can be sent by modulating the amplitude,

frequency or phase of the waves.
8
Properties of Radio Waves
• Are easy to generate.

• Can travel long distances
• Can penetrate buildings
• May be used for both Indoor and outdoor
communication
• Are omni-direction – can travel in all directions.
• Can be narrowly focused at high frequencies
(greater than 100 MHz) using parabolic
antennas (like satellite dishes)
9
Properties of Radio Waves
• Frequency-dependence.
• Behave more like light at higher frequencies
• Difficulty in passing obstacles
• More direct paths (LOS)
• Absorbed by rain
• Behave more like radio at lower frequencies
• Can pass obstacles
• Power falls off sharply with distance from source.
• Interference
10
Units of Received Signal Strength
The standard unit of power is Watt, but dBm is more commonly

used.
P (dBm) = 10 log10 [ P (mW)]
P (mW) P (dBm)
10 10
1 0
10-1 -10
10-2 -20
Minimum usable signal strength to be received at a base station is

typically between -90 dBm -100 dBm.
11
Electrical Field
Electrical Field
The electric field is expressed as a vector E
E = xE x + yE y + zE z
and its magnitude is given by
E= E = E 2
+ E 2
+ E 2
x y z
The unit of electrical field is volts/meter.
12
Radiating Power to Electric Field
13
Propagation Models
• Free Space Propagation: Transmitter and receiver have a

clear, unobstructed LOS path between them.
• Reflection: From the surface of the earth and from buildings
and walls. Usually dimensions of reflecting object are much
greater than wavelength.
• Diffraction: Bending of electromagnetic waves around sharp
edges such as, sharp towers or peaks.
• Scattering: Due to objects in the medium that are small
compared to wavelength and the number of objects is many
(e.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts, rain, shower).
14
Radio Propagation Effects
Building
Direct Signal
hb Reflected Signal
Diffracted
Signal hm
d
Transmitter Receiver
Antenna Basics: Free Space Propagation
T d R
Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr (d ) = Pd Ae =
(4) 2 d 2 L
Gr 2
Ae = : effective aperture (of the receiver antenna)
4
Pr : Received power
D : Max dimension of transmitting antenna
Gr : Receiver antenna gain
L : System loss factor (L >= 1 , transmission lines etc,
but not due to propagation)
= c / f = 3 • 108 / f : Wavelength
(units – f : Hz, c = 3 • 108 : meters/sec, : meters)
16
Radiating Power
An Isotropic Radiator is an ideal antenna that radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all directions. (reference antenna in wireless)
Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)
EIRP = Pt Gt
where Pt : Transmitter power
Gt : Transmitter antenna gain
EIRP represents the maximum radiated
power available from a transmitter in the
direction of maximum antenna gain, half-wave dipole antenna
compared to an isotropic radiator. radiation pattern
In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is more commonly used
ERP = EIRP /1.64 or ERP (dB) = EIRP (dB) – 2.15
ERP represents the maximum radiated power available from a
transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain, compared to a
half-wave dipole antenna.
17
Free Space Propagation
Path loss: signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB, is

defined as the difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and
the received power, and may or may not include the effect of antenna gains.
(when antenna gains are included)
(when antenna gains are excluded)
18
Free space propagation
The Friis free space model is valid in the far field or the
Fraunhofer region
Far field regions: regions far away from the transmitter satisfying
d >> df = 2D2/ (df is called the Fraunhofer distance)
D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.

Additionally, to be in the far-field region, df must also satisfy
df >>  and df >> D
Hereafter, we only consider propagation at far-field regions.
19
For free space propagation, the path loss exponent is 2.
For simplicity of computations, the reference distance d0 for practical

system using low-gain antennas in the 1-2 GHz region is typically
chosen to be 1 m in indoor environment and 100 m or 1 km in
outdoor environments.
20
Example
Program:
Program: Given
Given aa transmitter
transmitter produces
produces 50W
50W ofof power.
power. IfIf this
this power
power isis
applied
appliedtoto aa unity
unity gain
gain antenna
antenna with
with 900
900 MHz
MHz carrier
carrier frequency,
frequency, find
find the
the
received
receivedpower
poweratataafree
freespace
spacedistance
distanceofof100
100mmfrom
fromthe
theantenna.
antenna.
What
What isis the
the received
received power
power atat 10
10 km?
km? Assume
Assume unity
unity gain
gain for
for the
the
receiver
receiverantenna.
antenna.
Solution: MHz � �  ==(3(3• •10 (900• •10
8 6
Solution: fcfc==900
900MHz 10)8)/ /(900 10)6)==0.333
0.333m;
m;
PPt t==50
50W;
W; GGt t==1;1; GGr r==1;1; LL==1;1;
At
Atdd==100
100mm
Pt Gt Gr 2 50 1 1 0.3332
Pr = = = 3.5 10 -6
(W) = 3.5 10 -3
(mW)
(4 ) d L (4 )  100  1
2 2 2 2
or
or Pr (dBm) = 10 log(Pr (mW)) = -24.5 (dBm)
At
Atdd==10
10km
km
Pr = 3.5 10 -10 (W) = 3.5 10 -7 (mW) Pr (dBm) = -64.5 (dBm)
21
Power flux density:
22
It the receiver antenna is modeled as a matched resistive load to the

receiver, then the receiver antenna will induce an voltage into the
receiver which is half of the open circuit voltage at the antenna.
(Vant / 2) 2 V 2
Pr (d ) = = ant
Rant 4Rant
23
Propagation Models
• Free Space Propagation: Transmitter and receiver have a

clear, unobstructed LOS path between them.
• Reflection: From the surface of the earth and from buildings
and walls. Usually dimensions of reflecting object are much
greater than wavelength.
• Diffraction: Bending of electromagnetic waves around sharp
edges such as, sharp towers or peaks.
• Scattering: Due to objects in the medium that are small
compared to wavelength and the number of objects is many
(e.g., foliage, street signs, lamp posts, rain, shower).
24
Reflection
Electric Properties of Material Bodies
25
Reflection
Reflection
When a radio wave propagating in

one medium impinges upon another
medium having different electric
properties, this wave is partially
reflected and partially transmitted.
If the second medium is a perfect
conductor, then all incident energy is
reflected back into the first medium
without loss of energy.
Speed of propagation (at

free space 3x108m/s)
Intrinsic impedance
(at free space Ω)
27
Reflection - Polarizations
(vertical polarization) (horizontal polarization)
28
Reflection – Angle Relationships
29
– Magnitude Relationships
Reflection
30
Reflection
31
Reflection
32
Reflection
33
Reflection from Perfect Conductor
34
Reflection – Two-Ray Model
Ground
T (transmitter) ETOT = ELOS +Eg

ELOS
Ei R (receiver)
ht Er=Eg
hr
θi θ0
d
35
Ground
36
Ground
General E-field expression in free space
37
Ground
38
Ground
39
Ground
40
Ground
41
Ground
http://home.earthlink.net/~loganscott53/Two_Ray_Propagation.htm
42
Example
43
Example
44
Fresnel Zone Geometry
T h
R
d1 d2
When d1 , d2 >> h, h >>   the excess path length (difference between
the direct path and the diffracted path) is
h 2 d1 + d 2

2 d1d 2
The corresponding phase difference is

2 2 h 2 d1 + d 2
 
=   2 d1d 2
45
n d1d 2
rn = is the radius corresponding to the nth Fresnel zone,
d1 + d 2
which has n /2 path difference, or n phase difference to the LOS.
A rule of thumb is that as long as 55% (many materials say 60%) of the
first Fresnel zone is kept clear, the diffraction loss will be minimal.
46
http://gbppr.dyndns.org:8080/fresnel.main.cgi
47
Observations:
n d1d 2
rn =
d1 + d 2
• rn is dependent of
the wavelength (or
frequency).
• If d1 + d2 is fixed, rn
takes smaller value
when the position is
closer to either end.
48
Knife-Edge Diffraction Geometry
• Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved

surface or propagate behind obstructions.
• Based on Huygen’s principle of wave propagation.
49
50
51
52
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry
The field strength at point R

is a vector sum of the fields
due to all of the secondary
Huygen’s sources in the
plane above the knife edge.
53
Approximate diffraction gain expressions 2(d1 + d 2 )

v=h
 d1d 2
54
2(d1 + d 2 )
v=h
 d1d 2
55
• When there are multiple obstructions, the problem becomes much

more complicated.
• A simple approach is to use a single equivalent obstacle.
56
Example
57
Example
58
Example
59
Scattering
• When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy

is spread out or diffused in all directions. (e.g., foliage).
• A surface is considered smooth if its minimum to maximum
protuberance h is less than the critical height.
hc = 
8sinθ i
• The surface is considered rough if the protuberance is greater than hc.
rough surface
hc
Smooth
smoothSurface
surface
hc
60
Scattering
• Modified reflection coefficient for rough surface

Γ rough = ρs Γ
• Scattering loss
factor by Ament σh :: standard deviation
h standard deviation of
ofththe surface
e surfa height
ce height
II0: : Bessel function of the
0 Bessel function of the
first
first kind
kind and
and zero
zero
order
order
modified by Boithias
61
Scattering
62
Scattering
63
Radar Cross Section (RCS) Model
Power density of scattered wave in direction of receiver

RCS =
Power density of radio wave incident on the scattering object
For a medium and

large size building
located 5-10 km
away, RCS values
is in the range of
14.1 to 55.7 dBm2.
64
Radar Cross Section (RCS) Model
PT = Transmitted power (mW)

GT = Gain of transmitting antenna
dT = Distance of scattering object from transmitter
dR = Distance of scattering object from receiver
65
Practical Link Budget
• Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of

analytical and empirical models.
• Empirical approach is based on fitting curves or analytical
expressions that recreate a set of measured data.
• Advantages:
Takes into account all propagation factors, both known and unknown.
• Disadvantages:
New models need to be measured for different environment or
frequency.
66
Long-Distance Path Model
• Over many years, some classical propagation models have been

developed, which are used to predict large-scale coverage for
mobile communication system design.
Path loss at d 0 = PT / P(d 0 ) = PL(d 0 )
Path loss at d = PT / P(d ) = PL(d )
67
Long-Distance Path Model
68
• Long-distance path loss gives only the average value of path loss.
• Surrounding environment may be vastly different at two locations
having the same T–R separation d.
• More accurate model includes a random variable to account for
change in environment.
Pr (d )[dBm] = Pt (d )[dBm]- PL(d )[dB]
Xσ : Zero mean Gaussian random variable (dB)

σ : Standard deviation (dB)
69
70
Yimin Zhang,
• Values of n and σ
are computed from
measured data,
using linear
regression such that
the difference
between measured
and estimated path
losses is minimized
in a mean square
error sense over a
wide range of
measurement
locations and T–R
separations.
71
Q Function
Q function or error function (erf) can be used to determine the

probability that the received signal will exceed (or fall below) a
particular level.
Q(-z) = 1-Q(z)
Q(0) = 0.5
Some results of Q(z) and erf are listed in pages 647 and 649.
Matlab has erf function.
72
Log-Normal Shadowing Model
The probability that the received signal level (in dB power unit) will exceed
a certain value γ can be calculated from the cumulative density function as
The probability that the received signal level will be below γ can be
calculated from
73
Gaussian Probability Density Function
1 (x  m) 2
P(x) = exp −
σ2 2σ 2
Pr (x ≥ x0)
m x0 x
74
Gaussian pdf-Q Function Relation
75
Percentage of Coverage Area

• Given a circular coverage area of
radius R...
• There is a desired received signal r R
level γ
• We are interested in computing Area A
U(γ), the percentage of useful
service area (i.e., the percentage of
area with a received power
PR >= γ)
76
77
78
Example
79
Example
Example
80
Example
Example
81
Outdoor Propagation Models
Radio transmission in a mobile communications system often takes

place over irregular terrain.
The terrain profile of a particular area needs to be taken into account
for estimating the path loss.
Most of the models are based on systematic interpretation of
measurement data obtained in the service area.
Commonly used outdoor propagation models:

• Longley Rice model:
point-to-point communication systems (40MHz–100MHz)
• Okumara model:
widely used in urban areas (150 MHz – 300 MHz)
• Hata model:
graphical path loss (150 MHz – 1500 MHz)
82
Outlines
Propagation Model - Attenuations

-Free Space
- Near-Field vs. Far-Field
- Reflection
- Two-Ray Model
- Diffraction
- Fresnel Zone
- Scattering
Practical Link Budget Design
- Outdoor Propagation Models
83

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Mobile Radio Propagation:

Large-Scale Path Loss

• The cellular concept and frequency reuse

Propagation Model - Attenuations

Practical Link Budget Design

• The mobile radio channel places fundamental

• The wireless transmission path may be

• Radio channels are random and often time varying.

• Modeling radio channels have been one of the difficult

• Mobile radio channel is an important controlling factor

• Large scale propagation models - To predict the average

• When electrons move, they create electromagnetic

• By attaching an antenna of the appropriate size to an

• The radio, microwave, infrared, and visible light

• Information can be sent by modulating the amplitude,

• Are easy to generate.

The standard unit of power is Watt, but dBm is more commonly

P (dBm) = 10 log10 [ P (mW)]

Minimum usable signal strength to be received at a base station is

The unit of electrical field is volts/meter.

• Free Space Propagation: Transmitter and receiver have a

Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)

Path loss: signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB, is

(when antenna gains are excluded)

D is the largest physical linear dimension of the antenna.

For free space propagation, the path loss exponent is 2.

For simplicity of computations, the reference distance d0 for practical

Power flux density:

It the receiver antenna is modeled as a matched resistive load to the

• Free Space Propagation: Transmitter and receiver have a

Electric Properties of Material Bodies

When a radio wave propagating in

Speed of propagation (at

(vertical polarization) (horizontal polarization)

T (transmitter) ETOT = ELOS +Eg

General E-field expression in free space

The corresponding phase difference is

• Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved

The field strength at point R

Approximate diffraction gain expressions 2(d1 + d 2 )

• When there are multiple obstructions, the problem becomes much

• When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected energy

• Modified reflection coefficient for rough surface

Power density of scattered wave in direction of receiver

For a medium and

PT = Transmitted power (mW)

• Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of

• Over many years, some classical propagation models have been

Path loss at d 0 = PT / P(d 0 ) = PL(d 0 )

Path loss at d = PT / P(d ) = PL(d )

Pr (d )[dBm] = Pt (d )[dBm]- PL(d )[dB]

Xσ : Zero mean Gaussian random variable (dB)

Q function or error function (erf) can be used to determine the

Matlab has erf function.

Percentage of Coverage Area

Radio transmission in a mobile communications system often takes

Commonly used outdoor propagation models:

Propagation Model - Attenuations

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