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1
Introduction
• The mobile radio channel places fundamental
limitations on the performance of wireless
communication systems.
• Paths can vary from simple line-of-sight to
ones that are severely obstructed by buildings,
mountains, and foliage.
• Radio channels are extremely random and
difficult to analyze.
• The speed of motion also impacts how rapidly
the signal level fades as a mobile terminals
moves about. 2
Interferences
• Interference from other service providers.
• Interference from other users (same network) :
• Co-channel interference due to frequency
reuse.
• Adjacent channel interference due to
Base/Mobile Station design limitations &
large number of users sharing finite
bandwidth.
3
Propagation Models
Predicting the average received signal strength at
a given distance from the base station +
variability of the signal strength in close proximity
to a particular location.
4
Small-scale and Large-scale Fading
7
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
8
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
• LOS is the direct propagation of radio waves
between antennas that are visible to each other.
• The received signal is directly received at the
receiver the effects such as reflection, diffraction
and scattering doesn‟t affect the signal reception
that much.
• Radio signals can travel through many non-
metallic objects, radio can be picked up through
walls. This is still LOS propagation.
• Examples would include propagation between a
satellite and a ground antenna or reception of
television signals from a local TV transmitter.
9
Free Space Propagation Model
Predict received signal strength when the base
and mobile stations have a clear unobstructed
LOS path between them – e.g. satellite and
microwave line-of-sight radio links.
Friis free space equation:
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 (𝑑) =
4𝜋 2 𝑑2 𝐿
4𝜋𝐴𝑒 𝑐 2𝜋𝑐
𝐺= 2 𝜆= =
𝜆 𝑓 𝜔𝑐 10
Friis Free Space Equation
• Pt = Transmitted power
• Pr(d) = Received power
• Gt = Transmitter antenna gain
• Gr = Receiver antenna gain
• d = transmit-receive separation distance (m)
• L = System loss factor related to propagation system
losses (antennas, transmission lines between equipment
and antennas, atmosphere, etc.)
L = 1 for zero loss
• Ae = Effective antenna aperture
The equation shows that the received power falls off as the
square of transmit-receive separation distance, d2
11
Free Space Propagation Model
• Isotropic radiator = an ideal antenna which radiates
power with unit gain uniformly in all directions –
reference antenna gains in wireless systems.
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)= PtGt
represents max. radiated power available from transmitter
in the direction of maximum antenna gain compared to
isotropic radiator.
• Practically:
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)= PtGt
max. radiated power as compared to half-wave dipole
antenna.
12
Free Space Propagation Model
• Path Loss (PL) – signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB difference (in dB) between
the effective transmitted power and the received power
• With antenna gain, PL =
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log = −10 log
𝑃𝑟 4𝜋 2 𝑑 2
𝑃𝑡 𝜆2
𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log = −10 log
𝑃𝑟 4𝜋 2 𝑑 2
13
Free Space Propagation Model
• In practice, power can be measured at „d0‟ and predicted at
„d‟ using the relation, d ≥ d0 ≥ df .
d0
d
• Where df is Fraunhofer (far-field) distance, which complies:
2
𝑃𝑟 𝑑0 𝑑0
𝑃𝑟 𝑑 dBm = 10 log + 20 log
0.001 W 𝑑
15
Example 1 solution
16
Example 2 solution
19
Basic Propagation Mechanisms
• Reflections arise when the plane waves are
incident upon a surface with dimensions that are
very large compared to the wavelength.
• Diffraction occurs according to Huygens's
principle when there is an obstruction between
the transmitter and receiver antennas, and
secondary waves are generated behind the
obstructing body.
• Scattering occurs when the plane waves are
incident upon an object whose dimensions are on
the order of a wavelength or less, and causes
the energy to be redirected in many directions.
20
Reflection from Smooth Surface
21
Typical Electromagnetic Properties
22
Reflection Coefficients
23
Power-Electric Field Relation
• In free space, power flux density Pd is:
𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐸2 𝐸2
𝑃𝑑 = = = = W/m2
4𝜋𝑑 2 4𝜋𝑑 2 𝑅𝑓𝑠 𝜂
𝐸2 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2 𝐸 2 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 𝑑 = 𝑃𝑑 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴𝑒 = = W
120𝜋 4𝜋 2 𝑑 2 480𝜋2
24
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
Friis free space equation is in most cases inaccurate
when used alone. Hence, the more useful geometric
optics-based propagation model is:
25
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
• Consider both direct and ground reflected
propagation path between base and mobile
stations.
𝐸0 𝑑0 𝑑
𝐸 𝑑, 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 −
𝑑 𝑐
27
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
3. The direct wave that travels a distance d‟:
𝐸0 𝑑0 𝑑′
𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑆 𝑑′, 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 −
𝑑′ 𝑐
4. The reflected wave that travels a distance d‟‟:
𝐸0 𝑑0 𝑑′′
𝐸𝑔 𝑑′′, 𝑡 = Γ cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 −
𝑑′′ 𝑐
5. Laws of reflection in dielectrics
𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃0 𝐸𝑔 = Γ𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑡 = 1 + Γ 𝐸𝑖
28
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
6. The resultant electric field, is the vector sum of
ELOS and Eg. (Note: Assume perfect horizontal E-
field polarization and ground reflection, i.e. Γ┴= -
1 and Et = 0.)
𝐸𝑇𝑂𝑇 = 𝐸𝐿𝑂𝑆 + 𝐸𝑔
𝐸0 𝑑0 𝑑′ 𝐸0 𝑑0 𝑑′′
𝐸𝑇𝑂𝑇 𝑑, 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 − + (−1) cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 −
𝑑′ 𝑐 𝑑′′ 𝑐
29
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
7. By image method, the path difference between
the LOS and the ground reflected paths:
Δ = 𝑑 ′′ − 𝑑′ = ℎ𝑡 + ℎ𝑟 2 + 𝑑2 − ℎ𝑡 − ℎ𝑟 2 + 𝑑2
11. If it satisfies:
20𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟 20ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟
𝑑> ≈
3𝜆 𝜆
Then, the received E-field is:
2𝐸0 𝑑0 2𝜋ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑟 𝑘
𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑑) = ≈ 2 V/m
𝑑 𝜆𝑑 𝑑 32
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
13. The received power at a distance d from the
transmitter for the two-ray ground bounce model :
ℎ𝑟 2 ℎ𝑡 2
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟
𝑑4
14. The path loss for the two-ray model (with antenna
gains):
33
Example 3 solution
34
Example 4 solution
35
Diffraction
• Occurs when the radio path between sender
and receiver is obstructed by an impenetrable
body and by a surface with sharp irregularities
(edges).
• The received field strength decreases rapidly
as a receiver moves deeper into the
obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction
field still exists and often has sufficient strength
to produce a useful signal.
• Diffraction explains how radio signals can
travel in urban and rural environments without
a LOS path. 36
Diffraction
• The phenomenon of diffraction from Huygen's principle
- all points on a wave front can be considered as point
sources for the production of secondary wavelets, and
that these wavelets combine to produce a new wave
front in the direction of propagation.
37
Diffraction
• Due to diffraction:
• Difference between direct and diffracted path exist
the excess path length:
ℎ2 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
Δ ≈
2 𝑑1 𝑑2
• The corresponding phase difference:
2𝜋Δ 2𝜋 ℎ2 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝜙= ≈
𝜆 𝜆 2 𝑑1 𝑑2
2 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 𝜋 2
𝑣=ℎ , which allows 𝜙 = 𝑣
𝜆𝑑1 𝑑2 2 38
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry
39
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry
𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝛼=ℎ
𝑑1 𝑑2 40
Fresnel Zone Geometry
• The concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path
difference around an obstruction is explained by
Fresnel zones.
• Fresnel zone successive regions where secondary
waves have a path length from the transmitter to
receiver which are nλ/2 greater than the total path
length of a LOS.
41
Fresnel Zone Geometry
• Fresnel zones concentric circles on the plane with
loci of the origins of secondary wavelets which
propagate to the receiver, such that the total path
length increases by λ/2 for successive circles.
• Alternately constructive and destructive interference to
the total received signal.
• The radius of the n-th Fresnel zone circle is:
𝑛𝜆𝑑1 𝑑2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝑑1 + 𝑑2
43
Fresnel Zone Considerations
• In mobile communication systems, diffraction loss
occurs from the blockage of secondary waves, such
that only a portion of the energy is diffracted around the
obstacle blockage of energy from some of Fresnel
zones only allows some energy to reach the
receiver.
• Depending on geometry of obstruction, the received
energy is vector sum of the energy contributions from
all unobstructed Fresnel zones.
• If an obstruction does not block the volume contained
within the first Fresnel zone diffraction loss is
minimal, and diffraction effects can be neglected.
• E.g. for the design of LOS microwave link, 55% of the
first Fresnel zone is kept clear. 44
Fresnel Zones for Different Knife-
edge Diffraction
Figure 4.12 Illustration of Fresnel zones for different knife-edge diffraction scenarios.
45
Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction
46
Example 5 solution
47
Scattering
• The medium which the wave travels consists of objects
with dimensions smaller or comparable to the
wavelength and where the number of obstacles per
unit volume is large – rough surfaces, small objects,
foliage, street signs, lamp posts.
• The actual received signal in a mobile radio
environment is often stronger than what is predicted by
reflection and diffraction models alone. This is because
when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the
reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all
directions due to scattering.
• Objects such as lamp posts and trees tend to scatter
energy in all directions, thereby providing additional
radio energy at a receiver. 48
Scattering
50
Log-distance Path Loss Model
• The average path loss for an arbitrary transmit-
receive separation is expressed by:
𝑛
𝑑 𝑑
𝑃𝐿(𝑑) ∝ or 𝑃𝐿(dB) ∝ 𝑃𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛 log 𝑑0
𝑑0
51
Log-normal Shadowing Model
• Previous model does not consider the fact that the
surrounding environmental clutter may be vastly
different at two different locations having the same
transmit-receive separation.
• PL at a particular location is random and distributed
log-normally about the mean distance-dependent
value, i.e.
𝑑
𝑃𝐿(𝑑)[dB] = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑0 + 𝑋𝜎 = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛 log 𝑑0
+ 𝑋𝜎
53
Log-normal Shadowing Model
54
Outdoor Propagation Models
• Radio transmission in mobile communication system
often takes place over irregular terrains:
• Simple curved earth profile?
• Highly mountainous profile?
• Presence of trees, buildings, and other
obstacles?
• Several models used for prediction – vary in terms of
approach, complexity and accuracy.
55
Outdoor Propagation Models
• The Longley-Rice model:
• Point to point communication systems (40 MHz to 100
GHz).
• Use models of two-ray ground reflection, Fresnel-Kirchoff
knife-edge, forward scatterer, far-field diffraction loss.
• Two modes – with or without terrain path profile.
• No corrections for environmental factors in the immediate
vicinity of the receiver, and multipath is not considered.
• Durkin‟s model:
• Reads digital elevation map and perform site-specific
propagation computation.
• Produces signal strength contour.
• Cannot predict propagation effects due to foliage, buildings,
man-made structures.
• Not account for multipath other than ground reflection.
56
Okumura Model
• One of the most widely used models for signal
prediction in urban areas.
• Applicable for:
• frequencies ranging from 150MHz to 1920MHz.
• frequencies can be extrapolated to 3GHz.
• distances from 1km to 100km.
• base station antenna heights from 30m-1000m.
• Wholly based on measured data - no analytical
explanation
• Among the simplest & best for in terms of path loss
accuracy in cluttered mobile environment.
• Disadvantage: slow response to rapid terrain changes
• Common standard deviations between predicted and
measured path loss 10dB - 14dB.
57
Okumura Model
• Okumura developed a set of curves in urban areas
with quasi-smooth terrain.
• Developed from extensive measurements using
vertical omni- directional antennas at base and
mobile stations.
• It gives median attenuation relative to free space
(Amu).
• The model can be expressed as:
58
Okumura Model
• L50 = 50th percentile (median) value of propagation loss.
• LF = free space propagation loss.
• Amu = median attenuation relative to free space
• G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor.
• G(hre) = mobile station antenna height gain factor.
• GAREA = gain due to the type of environment.
hte
G(hte) = 20 log 1000 m > hte > 30m
200
hre
G(hre) = 10 log hre 3m
3
hre
G(hre) = 20 log 10m ≥ hre ≥ 3m
3 59
Okumura Model – Amu(f,d)
60
Figure 4.23 Median attenuation relative to free space (A mu(f,d)), over a quasi-smooth terrain
Okumura Model - GAREA
61
Okumura Model Calculation
a) calculate free-space path loss at the considered
distance and carrier frequency.
b) add median attenuation at the considered distance
and carrier frequency.
c) subtract the base and mobile station antenna gains
(see previous antenna gains formula – page 59).
d) subtract the gain due to the specific environment. The
values of Amu(fc,d) and GAREA are obtained from Okumura
empirical plots.
62
Example 6 solution
63
Hata Model
• Empirical formulation of the graphical path loss
data provided by Okumura, and valid from 150
MHz to 1500 MHz.
• Standard formula for urban environment:
𝐿50 (𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛)[dB
= 69.55 + 26.16 log 𝑓𝑐
− 13.82 log ℎ𝑡𝑒 − 𝑎 ℎ𝑟𝑒 + (44.9 − 6.55 log ℎ𝑡𝑒 ) log 𝑑
65
Other Outdoor Propagation Models
• PCS extension to Hata Model :-
• Extended version of Hata Model to 2 GHz.
67
Partition Losses (same floor)
68
Partition Losses (between floors)
After about five or six floor separations, very little additional path
loss is experienced.
70
Log-distance Path Loss Model
𝑑
𝑃𝐿[dB] = 𝑃𝐿 𝑑0 + 10𝑛 log + 𝑋𝜎
𝑑0
„n‟ depends on the surroundings and building types. 71
Ericsson Multiple Breakdown Model
• Measurements in a multiple floor office building.
• Four breakpoints – also gives upper and lower bound
on the path loss.
72
Signal Penetration into Buildings
• Limited number of experiments – difficult to examine exact
models for penetration and difficult to compare.
• Generalizations have been made:
• Signal strength received inside a building increases
with height.
• At lower floor, the urban clutter induces high great
attenuation and reduces the level of penetration.
• At higher floor, a LOS path may exist, causing stronger
incident signal at the exterior wall of the building.
• RF penetration changes as a function of frequency and
height within the building.
• Antenna elevation pattern is also important for signal
penetration from outside the building.
• Amount of windows compared to building surface area,
presence of tinted metal in windows and angle of
incidence have strong impact on penetration loss. 73
Ray Tracing and Site Specific
Modeling
New methods of predicting radio signal coverage:
• Site Specific propagation models :
• Deterministically modelling any indoor or
outdoor propagation environment.
• Graphical Information System database :
• Building database can be drawn or digitized
using graphical software packages – able to
include accurate representation of building
and terrain features. 74
Small-Scale Fading and Multipath
Power
PT
d (Km) Frequency
77
Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
Power
PT
PT+PL(d)
d (Km) Frequency
78
Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing
Power
PT
PT+PL(d)
d (Km) Frequency
79
Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing
Power
PT
PT+PL(d)
d (Km) Frequency
80
Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing
Power
PT
PT+PL(d)
d (Km) Frequency
81
Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing
Power
PT
PT+PL(d)
PT+PL(d)+X
d (Km) Frequency
82
Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing
Small-Scale Parameters
• Multi-Path Fading
Power
PT
PT+PL(d)
PT+PL(d)+X
d (Km) Frequency
83
100
100
90
90
80
Distance Pathloss 80
70
70
Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr 60
60
PL=137.744+
50 50
35.225log10(DKM)
40 40
20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21
30
0 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 d
15
0
Lognormal 10
-10
Rapid changes in
Shadowing 5
-20
signal strength over a
Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr 0
small traveling
-30
ARMA Correlated -5
-40
-15
0 10 10 20 30 40 50 60
d
20
0
10
-10
0
-20
-20
84 -60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
d
Multipath Propagation Modeling
Power
Multi-Path
Components
τ0 τ1 τ2 Time
Multi-Path
Components
τ0 τ1 τ2 Time
As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the strength
of each multi-path component varies
86
Multipath Propagation Modeling
Power
Multi-Path
Components
τ0 τ1 τ2 Time
As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the strength
of each multi-path component varies
87
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
Fading signals occur due to reflections from
ground & surrounding buildings (clutter) as well
as scattered signals from trees, people, towers,
etc.
• often an LOS path is not available so the
first multipath signal arrival is probably the
desired signal (the one which traveled the
shortest distance)
• allows service even when Rx is severely
obstructed by surrounding clutter
88
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
• Even stationary Tx/Rx wireless links can
experience fading due to the motion of
objects (cars, people, trees, etc.) in
surrounding environment off of which come
the reflections.
• Multipath signals have randomly distributed
amplitudes, phases, & direction of arrival
• vector summation of (A∠θ) at Rx of
multipath leads to constructive/destructive
interference as mobile Rx moves in space
with respect to time
89
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
• Received signal strength can vary by small-scale
fading over distances of a few meter (about 7 cm at
1 GHz)!
• This is a variation between, say, 1 mW and 10-6
mW.
• If a user stops at a deeply faded point, the signal
quality can be quite bad.
• However, even if a user stops, others around
may still be moving and can change the fading
characteristics.
• And if we have another antenna, say only 7 to 10
cm separated from the other antenna, that signal
could be good.
90
Factors influencing Small-Scale
Fading
1) Multipath Propagation
• # and strength of multipath signals.
• time delay of signal arrival :
• large path length differences → large
differences in delay between signals.
• urban area with many buildings distributed over
large spatial scale :
• large # of strong multipath signals with only a
few having a large time delay.
• suburb with nearby office park or shopping mall
• moderate # of strong multipath signals with
small to moderate delay times.
• rural → few multipath signals (LOS + ground
reflection).
91
Factors influencing Small-Scale
Fading
2) Speed of Mobile
• relative motion between base station & mobile
causes random frequency modulation due to
Doppler shift (fd)
• Different multipath components may have different
frequency shifts.
97
Parameters of Mobile Multipath
Channels
• Many multipath channel parameters are derived
from power delay profiles (Eq. 5-18) :
• P (τk) : relative power amplitudes of multipath
signals (absolute measurements are not
needed)
• Relative to the first detectable signal
arriving at the Rx at τ0
• use ensemble average of many profiles in a
small localized area → typically 2 − 6 m
spacing of measurements → to obtain average
small-scale response.
98
Power Delay Profile
The power delay profile depicts the spatial average of
received power within the multi-path channel over a
radius that is comparable to the signal wavelength.
99
Parameters of Mobile Multipath
Channels
• The power delay profile is used to derive some
parameters that can help characterize the effect of
the wireless channel on signal communication
• Time dispersion parameters:
• Mean excess delay
• RMS delay spread
• Excess delay spread (X dB)
• Coherence bandwidth
• Frequency dispersion parameters:
• Doppler spread
• Coherence time
100
Time Dispersion Parameters
Mean Excess Delay
P(t)
Pτ τ k k
τ k
Pτ k
k
2
στ τ τ 2
τ0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τN t
P τk τ 2
k
τ2 k
Pτ
k
k
Power Delay Profile
Note: These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal (multi-path
component) arriving at the receiver at τ0=0
102
Time Dispersion Parameters
τ and στ provide a measure of propagation delay of
interfering signals:
• Then give an indication of how time smearing might
occur for the signal.
• A small στ is desired.
• The noise threshold is used to differentiate
between received multipath components and
thermal noise.
103
Time Dispersion Parameters
104
Coherence Bandwidth
• Analogous to the delay spread parameters in the time domain,
coherence bandwidth is used to characterize the channel in the
frequency domain.
• The RMS delay spread and coherence bandwidth are inversely
proportional to each other.
• A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the
channel is can be considered to be “flat” (i.e., a channel which
passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and
linear phase)
Coherence Bandwidth over Coherence Bandwidth over
which the frequency which the frequency
correlation function is 0.9 correlation function is 0.5
1 1
BC BC
50σ τ 5σ τ
105
Coherence Bandwidth
• Amplitude correlation → multipath signals have close
to the same amplitude → if they are then out-of-phase
they have significant destructive interference with each
other (deep fades).
• A flat fading channel is both “good” and “bad” :
• Good: The mobile radio channel is like a band-pass
filter and passes signals without major attenuation
from the channel.
• Bad: Deep fading can occur.
• So, the coherence bandwidth is “the range of
frequencies over which two frequency components
have a strong potential for amplitude correlation.”
106
Example 8 solution
0 dB -
-10 dB -
-20 dB -
-30 dB -
τ (μs)
0 1 2 5 107
Frequency Dispersion Parameters
• Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which
describe the time varying nature of the channel.
• Doppler spread BD is a measure of spectral broadening due to
the Doppler shift associated with mobile motion.
• Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time duration over
which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant.
110
Flat fading vs Freq. Selective fading
P(t)
Flat Fading Power Delay Profile
BS BC TS σ τ
A Common Rule of Thumb: τ0 τ1 τN t
1 0 1 + Minimal
Wireless
Channel ISI
+
τ0
τa
τN
111
Flat fading
Flat fading vs Freq. Selective fading
Frequency P(t)
Power Delay Profile
Selective
BS Fading
BC TS σ τ
A Common Rule of Thumb: τ0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τN t
1 0 1 + Significant
Wireless
Channel ISI
+
τ0 τa τN
113
Frequency Selective fading
Flat fading vs Freq. Selective fading
• A channel is called frequency selective fading
because different frequencies within a signal are
attenuated differently by the mobile radio channel.
– Note: The definition of flat or frequency selective
fading is defined with respect to the bandwidth of
the signal that is being transmitted.
• Bc and στ are related quantities that characterize
time-varying nature of the mobile radio channel for
multipath interference from frequency and time
domain perspectives.
• However, Bc and στ do NOT characterize the time-
varying nature of the mobile radio channel due to the
mobility of the mobile and/or surrounding objects.
115
Fading Effects due to Doppler
Spread
• Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband
signal changes as compared to the rate of change of
the channel.
116
Slow fading vs Fast fading
Power Delay Profile P(τ0,t)
P(t) P(τ0,TC)
P(τ0,2TC)
P(τ0,3TC)
P(τ0,KTC)
τ0 t
0 TC 2TC 3TC KTC t
117
Two Independent Fading Issues
118