PROJECT PART – I

ON
FUEL CELLS

Submitted to
Ujjain Engineering College, Ujjain

In the partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

GUIDED BY SUBMITTED BY
Dr. SANJAY VERMA AKSHIT PATIDAR
 UJJAIN ENGINEERING COLLEGE, UJJAIN
(Established as govt. Engineering college, Ujjain in 1966)

Declared autonomous by govt of M.P

2018-19
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report on

FUEL CELL
Prepared by
Akshit Patidar
Final year student of degree in chemical engineering department (2018-19)

For the fulfilment of project work

Embodiesbonafide work done under my supervision and guidance

Guide Head of Department Principal

Dr. Sanjay Verma Dr. A.K. Dwivedi Dr. Umesh Pendharkar
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In performing my assignment, I had to take the help and guideline of some respected persons,
who deserve my greatest gratitude. The completion of this assignment gives me much Pleasure.
I would like to show my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Sanjay Verma, Ujjain Engineering
College for giving me a good guideline for assignment throughout numerous consultations. I
would also like to expand my deepest gratitude to all those who have directly and indirectly
guided us in writing this assignment.

In addition, a thank you to Professor and Head of the Department Dr, A.K. Dwivedi who
introduced us to the Methodology of work, and whose passion for the “underlying structures”
had lasting effect.

Many people, especially my classmates, have made valuable comment suggestions on this
proposal which gave me an inspiration to improve my assignment. I thank all the people for
their help directly and indirectly to complete my assignment.

iii
 ABSTRACT

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into
electricity through an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen fuel with oxygen or
another oxidizing agent. Fuel cells are different from batteries in requiring a continuous source
of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the
chemical energy comes from chemicals already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce
electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.
The first fuel cells were invented in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came more
than a century later in NASA space programs to generate power for satellites and space
capsules. Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used
for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in
remote or inaccessible areas. They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including forklifts,
automobiles, buses, boats, motorcycles and submarines.
This thesis focuses on design and manufacturing of Fuel cell components using Additive
Manufacturing techniques and then in the later part on design and manufacturing of Membrane
Electrode Assembly (MEA) which is a very important component in fuel cells. Additive
manufacturing methods are fast and efficient manufacturing methods which are additive
building up components layer by layer instead of conventional subtractive manufacturing
techniques. This ensures low cost and faster manufacturing. Additive manufacturing is
important for fuel cell component manufacturing since it is important in fuel cells to minimize
wastage and reduce the cost. MEA is the basis of the cost factor in Proton Exchange Membrane
(PEM) fuel cells. It contributes for more than 50% of the cost in a fuel cell. In order to reduce
the cost of a fuel cell/kW, it is necessary to achieve the maximum performance of the fuel cell
using least amount of the platinum catalyst. The best way to achieve that is to achieve a uniform
loading of the catalyst through the entire area of the MEA. Along with this, it is important to
have an efficient and at the same time a fast manufacturing method for MEA ‘s.

iv
 CONTENT
Page
Acknowledgement……………………………………………...………………………..…...iii
Abstract……………………………………………………...……………………...……...…iv
List of figures…………………………………………………………………………………vi
List of tables………………………………………………………………………………….vii
Nomenclature………………………………………………………………………………..viii
SECTION
1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………… 1
2. Types of fuel cells…………………………………………………………………………...3
3. Manufacturing methods……………………………………………………………………..5
3.1 Fused Deposition Modelling………………………….………………………................8
3.2 3D Inkjet printing………………………………………………………………………11
3.3 Selective laser sintering………………………………………………………………..13
3.3.1 Material selection for bipolar plate………………………………………………13
3.3.2 Setup…………………………………………………………………………….14
3.4 Stereolithography………………………………………………………………………17
3.4.1 Advantages………………………………………………...…………………….18
3.4.2 Disadvantages…………………….…...…………………………………………18
3.5 Laminated object manufacturing…………………………………………………...….19
3.6 Electron beam melting…………………………………………………………………21
3.6.1 Materials………………………………………………………………………... 22
3.6.2 Applications of Electron beam melting…………………………………………. 23
3.6.3 Advantages……………………………………………………………………… 23
3.6.4 Disadvantages…………………………………………………………………... 24
4. Literature review………………………………………………………………………….. 25
5.Reference……………….……………………………………………………………......... 26

v
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page
1. A hydrogen oxygen fuel cell……………………………………………………………….. 1
2. fused deposition modelling (FDM)………………………………………………………… 8
3. Construction of the stack…………………………………………………………………… 9
4. Layout of the stack………………………………………………………………................. 9
5. Shapes of catalyst layer printed with Inkjet Printing……………………………………….11
6. Time illustration of inkjet printing compared to hand painting…………………………… 12
7. Improvement in electrical conductivity with each step…………………………………… 16
8. The Stereolithography Process……………………………………………………………..18
9. Laminated object manufacturing………………………………………………………….. 19
10. A schematic diagram of Electron Beam Melting process…………………………………22

vi
 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Contribution of components to entire cost of fuel cells……………………………………..5
2. Comparison of different methods for fabricating the flow field geometry……………….. 10
3. Usual properties for home/office printer inks……………………………………………....12
4. The parameters for the first stage which is the SLS process………………………………..14
5. Temperature rises and ramp rates…………………………………………………………. 15
6. Properties of the SLS bipolar plates……………………………………………………….. 15
7. Enhancement in electrical conductivity…………………………………………………… 16

vii
 NOMENCLATURE
ACRONYMS
1. ABS - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
2. AM – Additive Manufacturing
3. CAD/CAM – Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Modelling
4. CNC – Computer Numerical Control
5. EBM - Electron Beam Melting
6. FDM - Fused Deposition Modelling
7. HIP - Hot Isostatic Pressing
8. LOM - Laminated object manufacturing
9. MCFC – Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
10. MEA – Membrane Electrolyte Assembly
11. MEM - Micro-Electro-Mechanical processes
12. NASA – National Aeronautics and Space Administration
13. PAFC – Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
14. PBF - Powder Bed Fusion
15. PEMFC – Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
16. Pt. – Platinum
17. PTFE – Polytetrafluoroethylene
18. RP – Rapid Prototyping
19. SLA - Stereolithography
20. SLS - Selective Laser Sintering
21. SOFC – Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
22. US DOE – US Department of Energy

viii
 1. INTRODUCTION
Imagine if you could get enough energy to power a car from a bucket of water. Hydrogen fuel
cells make that possible. They’re also one of the cleanest energy sources around because, unlike
gasoline-powered cars, they cause no pollution. A fuel cell combines hydrogen gas with oxygen
to create water and generate electricity. Our fuel cell actually works in reverse as well: it can use
the electric current from a battery to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. In either direction,
the fuel cell works because of the membrane that separates its two sides. As you can see in the
diagram below, the two sides are called the anode and cathode. They’re separated by the
membrane called the electrolyte, which is also known as a proton exchange membrane since it
lets protons travel through it.
Hydrogen gas enters the fuel cell on the anode side, and the protons travel through the membrane
to the cathode side. But hydrogen contains electrons as well as protons, so the electrons (which
can’t travel through the membrane) have to travel through the wire, creating electricity when they
move. We can use this electricity to power our car.
On the cathode side, the protons and electrons are combined with oxygen from the air to produce
water. This means that the only waste product of our car is pure water, so the fuel cell is a very
clean way to produce energy. It’s also very efficient, because it doesn’t have any moving parts,
so there’s no friction and very little heat.

Figure 1 A hydrogen oxygen fuel cell

There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and
an electrolyte that allows positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) to move between the two
sides of the fuel cell. At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that
generate protons (positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The protons flow from the
anode to the cathode through the electrolyte after the reaction. At the same time, electrons are
drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct
current electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen
to react, forming water. Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the
difference in start-up time ranging from 1 second for proton exchange membrane fuel
cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). A related

1
technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging. Individual
fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked",
or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements. In addition
to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small
amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is
generally between 40–60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme,
efficiencies up to 85% can be obtained.

2
 2. TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

Fuel cells are basically electrochemical cells that produce electrical energy from the chemical
energy of the fuel. These are highly efficient because in this process we don’t need to produce
heat or mechanical work as intermediate steps to generate electrical energy. Since there is no
burning in the fuel cells, so there is less production of pollutants. We can use a large variety of
chemicals for oxidation and reduction purpose in the fuel cell, but the most commonly,
hydrogen used as the reductants and ambient air is used as the oxidants.

Fuel cell usually comprises on fuel cell kits and stacks. In fuel cell kit, the chemical reaction
occurs which produce charges on electrodes, while stacks are used to regulate the flow of
charges or electric current from cell kit (Appleby, 1988, Larminie et al., 2003).

In 1839 William Grove demonstrated the basic operation of fuel cell, he electrolyzed water into
hydrogen and oxygen by using platinum electrode in the presence of dilute acid as electrolyte,
and then he replaced the power supply with ammeter. Electrolysis process is reversed and it
produced water and electric current. Choice of electrolyte depend upon operating temperature
conditions. Aqueous electrolyte can be used under 200 oC, high temperature can resulted into
more vapours and more degradation (Appleby, 1988, O’Hayre et al., 2006). Fuel cells are
classified in 5 types on the basis of electrolyte used in fuel cell kit.

1. Polymer Electrolyte fuel cell

2. Alkaline fuel cell
3. Phosphoric acid fuel cell
4. Molten carbonate fuel cell
5. Solid oxide fuel cell

Polymer Electrolyte Fuel cell:

Membrane is used in this cell for transfer of ion, this ion exchange membrane is usually made
from fluorinated sulfonic acid polymer because it is an excellent proton conductor. As their
liquid is only water so there are less chances of corrosion in it. This electrolyte perform under
the wet condition of membrane and this type of fuel cell can be used when the temperature is
below than 80 oC. If the temperature is increased from 80 oC, it will dehydrate the membrane
which will decrease the efficiency of the cell (Borup et al., 2007, Amphlett et al., 1995).
Due to solid electrolyte it is easy to handle and it gives high resistance to gas crossover.
Polymer electrolyte fuel cells are capable of high current duties that’s why it used in large
variety of applications, especially in fuel cell powered vehicles. The cell is quite sensitive to a
little amount of carbon monoxide, sulphur and ammonia, even a little trace can poison to the
cell (Borup et al., 2007, Steele and Heinzel, 2001).

3
Alkaline Fuel Cell:

The first alkaline fuel cell was developed in early 1960 and the same type of cell is used in
Apollo mission to empower the space vehicle. The electrolyte of this cell is consisting of
concentrated potassium hydroxide, for high operating temperature like 350 oC the
concentration of KOH is increased to 80 percent by weight and when the operating temperature
is lowered (120 oC), dilute KOH (50 % by weight) is used to maintain the efficiency of the cell
(Coutanceau et al., 2006).
Since the drawback of this type of cell also same like in polymer electrolyte fuel cell, a little
concentration of CO and CO2 can poison the cell, so ambient air is treated before it allows to
enter in the cell, which makes it costly (Lee et al., 1997, Saari and Lampinen, 1990, McLean
et al., 2002).

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell:

Phosphoric acid termed as PAFC, high concentrated phosphoric (100%) used as the electrolyte
in this cell, due to concentrated electrolyte this cell can be used at relatively high-temperature
ranges from 150 oC to 220 oC. At lower temperature phosphoric acid become a poor conductor,
and the chances of carbon monoxide poisoning increased on Pt electrolyte, but still lower than
other type of fuel cells (Stonehart, 1984, Bagotsky, 2012). Oxygen reduction is slower on
cathode so, Pt catalyst used in this cell to increase the reduction rate. Extensive fuel processing
and the expensive material is used to avoid corrosion make it costlier than another type of cells
(Steele and Heinzel, 2001).

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell:

A molten carbonate fuel cell is typically made for high operating temperature, it operates at
600 oC to 700 oC. Different combination alkali and carbonate are used as the electrolyte in the
ceramic matrix of lithium aluminium oxide. Nickel anode and nickel oxide cathode are used to
promote the rate of reaction at high temperature. Several types of hydrocarbons can be used
as fuel. MCFCs slower in start-up and bigger in size, are used in that kind of application where
start-up time is not an issue, they are usually used in marine and stationary applications (Dicks,
2004, Kaun and Smith, 1987).
High operating temperature and less expensive electrolyte make it more economical than other
type fuel cell.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell:

Solid and nonporous metal oxide with ZrO2 stabilizer is used as an electrolyte in this type of
cell. Cupper zirconium can be used as the anode with LaMnO3 cathode (Bagger et al., 1997).
At in early stages it operates only at high temperature like 1000 oC, but later on, with little
modification of electrolyte (thin layer electrolyte) this can be used for lower temperature as
650 oC. In the last decade, a lot work done on the Solid oxide fuel cell to decrease down its
operating temperature so it can be used as the power source in vehicles. Due to the solid
electrolyte, it can be shaped into tubular and planner shape which are easy to handle.
The only drawback of this cell is its high operating temperature, it will be costly practice to
achieve high temperature and then maintain it, high temperature also causes thermal expansion
(Singhal, 2007, Ormerod, 2003).

4
 3. MANUFACTURING METHODS

Fuel cells are electrochemical devices similar to batteries which convert energy from chemical
state to electricity. There is an anode side and a cathode side in it. Fuel enters the cell from the
anode side and oxidant flows into it from the cathode side. The reactants react inside the cell
and the reaction products or the waste products flow out of it. The basic difference between
batteries and a fuel cell is that fuel cell is only an energy conversion device and not energy
storage device. Fuel cells consume reactant (fuel) from an external source which must be
replenished. Hence, fuel cells represent a thermodynamically open system. However, batteries
are both energy storage and conversion devices and hence they represent a thermodynamically
closed system. The advantage of separating the storage and conversion functions is that power
and energy capacity can be sized independently of each other. Also, many different fuels can
be used as the primary energy source of the fuel cell setup depending on the types of fuels
compatible with the type of fuel cell being employed [Spiegel 2006].
This paper primarily discusses Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells because most of
the research regarding fuel cells has been undertaken with regards to PEM fuel cells, due to its
many advantages such as versatility. PEM fuel cells can be employed for various uses starting
from portable power to automotive power to stationary residential power. The by-product of a
PEM fuel cell is water, which is not only non-polluting but can be used as a potable water
supply.

Anode: H2 (g)  2H+ (aq) + 2e-

Cathode: 1/2 O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e-  H2O (l)
Overall Reaction: H2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g)  H2O (l)
The components in a fuel cell are:
1. Bipolar Plates.
2. Membrane Electrolyte Assemblies (MEA ‘s).
3. Gas diffusion electrode layers.
Apart from this there are various auxiliary components such as gas flow pipes, the
gaskets(seals), the connectors, end plates and cooling plates (required in fuel cell stack). The
cost of these auxiliary components is relatively insignificant as compared to the cost of the
major components. The percentage cost of components is illustrated in Table below.
Table 1 Contribution of components to entire cost of fuel cells.
Membrane 35-40 %
Catalyst 15-20 %
Bipolar Plates 10-15 %
MEA’ S 30-35 %

5
MEA is the heart of the fuel cell; rather it is the distinguishing criteria for different types of
fuel cells. An MEA, as the name suggests, is the assembly of the 5 membrane and two
electrodes on either side of the membrane. An electrode is a carbon cloth which is fabricated
in a particular pattern depending on the mesh size required. Also, it needs to have specific
properties to facilitate proper water management throughout the cell. As for the membrane, it
is the electrolyte which is being employed for that particular fuel cell. The most common
electrolyte used for a PEM fuel cell has been Nafion. Nafion is a generic brand name given by
its developer DuPont. Its chemical name is sulfonated Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).
Although Nafion is the most common polymer membrane employed in PEMFC, extensive
research is being carried out to find a cost-effective alternative which is as mechanically and
chemically stable as Nafion [Payne 2009].
The most common catalyst used for the PEMFC is Platinum due to its stability in highly
corrosive atmospheres as well as its performance characteristics. The methods used for
applying the catalyst are screen printing and hand painting. However, the uniformity of the
catalyst deposited is not easily controlled. Also, these processes are time consuming, and
require iterations of painting, drying and massing to achieve the required loading of the
catalyst. The reproducibility of these methods is poor. There is considerable amount of catalyst
wasted in the feed lines due to clogging which results in an increase in the production cost
[Taylor 2007].
The aforementioned commercial methods of producing major components of fuel cells are not
in accordance with the economic threshold value as required by the US Department of Energy.
These processes combine costly materials and processes that result in increased costs of
fabrication of fuel cells.
To achieve the target of production cost of $30/kw by 2015 as set by the US DOE [DOE 2005],
there is a need to achieve low cost fabrication of fuel cells and use alternate cheaper materials
in the manufacturing processes. Based on the Results of the Workshop on Manufacturing R&D
for the Hydrogen Economy, several challenges confront the transformation of the U.S.
manufacturing sector to support the hydrogen energy economy such as:
 Develop innovative, low-cost manufacturing technologies for new materials and material
applications.
 Adapt laboratory fabrication methods to low-cost, high-volume production.
Rapid manufacturing is an innovative manufacturing technique which can be used for the
fabrication of fuel cells which goes hand-in-hand with the aim of US DOE. Rapid prototyping
is defined as a machine technology which is used to fabricate 3-dimensional models and
prototype parts from a numerical description (typically a CAD model) using an additive
approach to form physical models. That is why Rapid prototyping is also referred to as Additive
Manufacturing ‘. Additive Manufacturing (AM), as the name suggests is the process of
fabrication of physical models or prototypes by addition of materials. This addition takes place
layer by layer incrementally. By this process, the problems of form generation and material
composition are addressed. The smaller the incremental volume of material better is the
accuracy of the form generated and also the control over system parameters. AM doesn’t
require any external tooling for the manufacturing of 3D freeform objects.

6
There are various kinds of Additive Manufacturing techniques such as:

1. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

2. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
3. Stereolithography (SLA)
4. 3D printing
5. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
6. Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Variations of these processes also exist but it is not important to be listed above since a small
variation of some system parameters might lead to an entirely different process. For the
manufacturing of PEM fuel cells, more importance has been given to a few processes such as
Fused Deposition modelling (FDM), 3D Printing and Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) which
are discussed in detail in this paper.
The advantages of AM itself make it an attractive way to build fuel cells. With additive
manufacturing technologies, you have the flexibility to change the design of the fuel cells
without the need to change the entire setup as would be required with regards to conventional
manufacturing technologies. In this paper, there is an example of a planar array fuel cell with
a mono polar plate design. It gives a good proof of the flexibility of additive manufacturing
technology. This feature of AM enhances the prospects of further cost reduction. Inkjet printing
aids the process of precision manufacturing since we can deposit materials with micro meter
precision thereby again reducing material waste. Impressive results from the three processes as
described in this paper maximize the scope of AM for building fuel cells. It might happen that,
under a single roof, we see multiple AM techniques used to build an entire fuel cell.

7
 3.1 FDM (FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING)
Fused Deposition Modelling is an additive fabrication technology which constructs superior
rapid prototypes from 3D CAD data where in a thermo plastic material is extruded in the form
of beads layer by layer using a temperature-controlled head which is actually controlled by
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) software [Zhong 2000].

A plastic filament supplies material to an extrusion nozzle which is heated so as to melt the
material and deposit the required amount of material in horizontal and vertical directions (i.e.,
wherever it is necessary). The material hardens as soon as it is extruded from the nozzle.

The thermoplastic materials used in the FDM process have good stability and durability of the
mechanical properties over time; they have high heat resistance and also produce smooth parts
with all the finest details intact. The commonly used materials with this process are
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) polymer, elastomers, investment casting wax and some
of the water-soluble materials are used in this process which acts as support structures during
the manufacturing process [Masood 2004].

Figure 2 fused deposition method.

FDM has been used for the fabrication of miniature fuel cell stack in a planar array form [Chen
2008]. For the development of miniature fuel cells, it is required to have pin-point precision,
since the aim of this type of fuel cell is to have high power density in a small stack. A study
has been made to develop a 10-cell planar array air breathing fuel cell using FDM as the RP
(Rapid Prototyping) process [Chen 2008]. Figure 2 shows the construction of the stack using
components manufactured by FDM process and Figure 3 shows the layout of the 10 cells for
the analysis of the configurations in series and parallel.

8
Figure 3 construction of the stacks

Figure 4 layout of the stacks

9
The alternative processes for the development of such miniature fuel cell are the Micro-Electro-
Mechanical processes (MEMS) and the conventional CNC machining processes. The flow field
plates were the parts which were fabricated using RP, more specifically Fused Deposition
Modelling (FDM). Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) was the material used for the
fabrication of flow field plates since it has high mechanical strength, low cost and easy to
fabricate by RP. Table 2 gives a comparison of the manufacturing time required for the
geometry of flow field plates by different processes [Chen 2008].

Table 2 Comparison of different methods for fabricating the flow field geometry

It is noted that RP is faster than the rest of the methods. Also, if the flow field plate is designed
more and more complicated, CNC machining may not be possible at all. This kind of miniature
PEM planar array FC stack is a first try in both academic as well as industrial world. The FDM
process used for planar array fuel cell fabrication is described next with respect to the design
and performance of the PEMFC.

The parallel connection stack had higher power density than the serial connected stack since
some cells performing badly will affect serial connection where parallel connection won ‘t be
affected a lot. [Chen 2008]. The performance of the stack reached power density of the state-
of-the-art planar array fuel cells (100-120 mW/cm2) [Chen 2008]. Clearly, fuel cell components
made by RP (FDM) instead of conventional CNC machining or more costly MEM processes
do deliver performances as required which does speak about the reliability of the process. So,
we infer that RP is a successful procedure in prototyping the components. In the future, we
might even see RP being applied for larger scale production.

10
 3.2 3D INKJET PRINTING
3D Inkjet printing (3D IJP) is yet another form of Additive Manufacturing. What differentiates
3D printing from other forms of additive manufacturing is that it is much more affordable than
other processes existing till date. Inkjet printers are plug and play devices that require little
setup, training or maintenance.
Inkjet printing utilizes drop-on-demand technology to deposit various materials in a colloidal
ink form. Also, there is no contact between the printer head and the substrate on which it is
going to be deposited. There are two types of inkjet printers- one which use piezoelectric
transducers and one which use thermal resistors to expel droplets through the nozzles.
Development of inkjet printers will result in smaller nozzle sizes and hence ink droplets, which
will result in higher resolution (dots per inch) as well as in printing intricate features, patterns
which is advantageous in the development of fuel cell components.
Inkjet printing can be employed in printing different MEA ‘s since the composition is not very
different from each other. Inkjet printing can be considered as an efficient method used for the
deposition of catalyst layers because of the performance it gives in terms of controlled catalyst
deposition for ultra-loadings of Platinum which results in a better utilization of Pt as compared
to conventional catalyst deposition methods like Screen Printing and Hand Painting. Inkjet
printing will also help in optimizing the Pt loading which will result in reduction of costs. The
reproducibility produced in the catalyst printing is incredible and this will in turn lead to lesser
cell failure rates. Figure 4 shows some of the shapes of catalyst layers printed with 3D IJP.

Figure 5 shapes of catalyst layer printed with Inkjet Printing

IJP as compared to other printing techniques proves to be more advantageous as it allows for a
uniform distribution of catalyst material onto the surface of GDL and provides picolitre
precision and control of the deposition of each print and thus paves a way for ultra-low
loadings. IJP is also found to be reproducible due to the elimination of some of the intermediate
steps of drying and massing which are two important steps in Hand painting and screen printing
[Taylor 2007]. The comparison of the Hand painting method which is the conventional method
for catalyst layer printing and that of 3D Inkjet Printing is shown in Figure 5.

11
 Figure 6 Time illustration of inkjet printing compared to hand painting

Catalyst inks should be similar to the OEM inks as specified by the manufacturer
so that the printing can be executed smoothly. These properties are specified in table 3.

Table 3 Usual properties for home/office printer inks [Towne 2007]

Catalyst formation takes place by thoroughly mixing a carbon supported catalyst with Nafion®
solution and de-ionized water. Water, ethylene glycol and isopropanol are added to achieve the
required properties of surface tension and viscosity. The Nafion® membrane is prepared by
washing in 3% wt. H2O2 for 1 hour, rinsed and boiled in deionized water for 1 hour and stored
in Milli-Q grade de-ionized water. The printers considered for this experiment were simply off
the shelf printers whose cartridges were cleaned of the original ink and replaced with the
catalyst ink with the help of a syringe. Illustrator software is used for making different size and
shape electrodes and for different amounts of platinum loading by changing the hue, saturation
and luminescence [Towne 2007].

12
 3.3 SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING
The functions of bipolar plate are:
 To provide electrical contact between two adjacent MEA ‘s.

 Uniformly distribute hydrogen gas and oxygen gas/air to the anode and the cathode side of
the MEA respectively.
 To serve as a platform to support the soft MEA.
 To act as an outlet medium for heat and water vapor generated from the net reaction.
Hence, the requirements for a bipolar plate accordingly are:
 High electrical conductivity
 Plate material electrically compatible with the electrode
 Very low gas permeability for reactant gases.
 High thermal conductivity to make use of the waste heat.
 Chemical stability i.e. corrosion resistant.
 Low density plate material to keep the stack weight low.
 Inexpensive plate material.

3.3.1 MATERIAL SELECTION FOR BIPOLAR PLATE

There are three types of materials identified for the manufacture of fuel cell bipolar plates
which are: pure graphite, metallic materials, and carbon-polymer composites.

Pure graphite, with peak conductivity of 1.44x103 S/cm is suitable for Bipolar Plates because
they need to be highly conductive. Graphite is very difficult to machine when it comes to the
machining of the flow field channels because of its flaky microstructure and irregular
geometry. This also reduces its mechanical strength [Chen 2006].

Metals such as stainless steel, titanium, gold, aluminium, have good machining characteristics
as compared to graphite. However, gold and titanium are very costly. Aluminium can be used
with a gold coating. However, there is large difference in coefficient of thermal expansion
which leads to micro-cracks in the coating. Stainless steel has corrosion issues [Maeda 2004,
Chen 2006].
Composite materials suitable for the application of bipolar plates are a combination of porous
graphite along with polycarbonate plastic. Graphite is an allotrope of carbon and a semimetal.
The carbon-based materials suitable are resins such as polyethylene, phenolic, Vinyl ester etc.
with filler materials like carbon black and carbon/graphite powders. These composite systems
provide electrical conductivity as well as corrosion resistance and mechanical strength [Chen
2006].

13
3.3.2 SETUP

There are two kinds of SLS procedures namely, Direct and Indirect. Direct SLS means parts
are produced by just laser sintering of the powder without any post processing measures.
Indirect SLS involved production of a porous green part held together by a certain polymer
binder followed by some post processing measures.

According to the research conducted by Chen, indirect SLS of carbon-based composite material
accommodates the material and procedure selection criteria for the PEM fuel cell bipolar plate
fabrication [Chen 2006]. This Indirect SLS proceeded in 3 stages to meet all the plate
requirements:

1. SLS of bipolar plates

2. Carbonization of the binder
3. Epoxy infiltration

In Table 4, the parameters for the first stage which is the SLS process are shown.

After the SLS process, post processing of the bipolar plates was further carried out. The post
processing basically consisted of two steps of binder carbonization and epoxy infiltration.

Carbonization process
A vacuum furnace was used for this purpose. The maximum heating capacity of the vacuum
furnace being 2000˚C. Argon gas was filled into the chamber to prevent oxidation of
carbonized phenolic resins which reduce the glassy carbon yields. The temperature rises and
the ramp rates for this process are tabulated in Table 5.

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 Table 5 Temperature rises and ramp rates [Chen 2006]

At 800˚C, the dwell time was 1 hour. During this process the phenolic binders are burned off
and a part of it was converted into glassy carbon. This resulted in good interconnected pores
which increased the electrical conductivity.

Epoxy infiltration for final sealing

After the carbonization process, the structure was still found to be porous. Epoxy resin was
chosen as the infiltrate to seal these pores because of its good mechanical strength, chemical
stability and ability to wet most substrate materials. Clear coat resin which is a mixture of more
than 70% diglyceryl ether of bisphenol A and less than 30% alkyl glycidyl ether was used for
this purpose. The resin was initially cured with the help of a hardener and then diluted with
solvents like toluene, xylene etc., this was done in order to reduce the viscosity of the resin so
that it can easily penetrate through the cured pore structure.
The epoxy, hardener and the solvent should be mixed in proper ratios (2:1:1) to avoid the
formation of un-reacted epoxy and hardener which affect the final part properties. So as to form
a gas tight plate structure the brown part was immersed in the infiltrate at least twice. The parts
were then oven dried at 60˚C for several hours to remove residual moisture. The electrical
conductivity of the infiltrated parts was found to be better than the brown parts. The final
properties of the bipolar plates are shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Properties of the SLS bipolar plates [Chen 2006]

15
All the above properties were found to be satisfactory but the electrical conductivity of these
bipolar plates could be enhanced to meet the target set by the DOE [DOE 2005].

The following methods were followed to improve the electrical conductivity [Chen 2006]:

1. Infiltration of brown parts with conductive polymer

2. Addition of a liquid phenolic infiltration/re-curing step prior to final sealing
3. Reduction of glassy carbon resistivity by curing process parameter control

These processes showed results which are quantified as below in Table 7 and the improvements
in electrical conductivity are illustrated in Figure 6.

Table 7 Enhancement in electrical conductivity

Figure 7 Improvement in electrical conductivity with each step [Chen 2006]

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 3.4 STEREOLITHOGRAPY
Stereolithography (SLA or SL; also known as stereolithography apparatus, optical
fabrication, photo-solidification, or resin printing) is a form of 3D printing technology used for
creating models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts in a layer by layer fashion
using photopolymerization, a process by which light causes chains of molecules to link,
forming polymers. Those polymers then make up the body of a three-dimensional solid.
This process, patented as a means of rapid prototyping in 1986 by Charles Hull, co-founder of
3D Systems, Inc., initiated the rapid prototyping revolution. In this process, a uniquely
designed 3D printing machine called a stereo lithograph apparatus (SLA) converts liquid
plastic into solid objects. SLAs have four main parts: a tank filled with liquid photopolymer, a
perforated platform that is lowered into the tank, an ultraviolet laser, and a computer controlling
the platform and the laser.
The model is built on a platform located under the surface in a liquid photopolymer. A low-
power laser traces the first layer, solidifying the first cross section of the model. Once the initial
layer has hardened, the platform is lowered, exposing a new surface layer of liquid polymer.
The laser traces the next cross section of the object being printed, which instantly bonds to the
hardened section beneath it. This process is repeated again and again until the entire object has
been formed and is fully submerged in the tank. The platform is then raised to expose a three-
dimensional object. After being rinsed with a liquid solvent to free it of excess resin, the object
is baked in an ultraviolet oven to further cure the plastic; subsequently, any supports are broken
away. Currently available photocurable materials include acrylic and epoxy resins. Researchers
are investigating the possibility of manufacturing parts reinforced with carbon fibres.
Additionally, ceramic powders can be added to UV curable resins so as to form a so-called
‘green’ part, and then thermally treated to eliminate the resin and sinter the part. Objects made
using stereolithography are generally characterised by smooth surfaces, but the quality of the
object depends on that of the SLA machine used to print it.
It is also possible to print objects "bottom up" by using a vat with a transparent bottom and
focusing the UV or deep-blue polymerization laser upward through the bottom of the vat. An
inverted stereolithography machine starts a print by lowering the build platform to touch the
bottom of the resin-filled vat, then moving upward the height of one layer. The UV laser then
writes the bottom-most layer of the desired part through the transparent vat bottom. Then the
vat is "rocked", flexing and peeling the bottom of the vat away from the hardened
photopolymer; the hardened material detaches from the bottom of the vat and stays attached to
the rising build platform, and new liquid photopolymer flows in from the edges of the partially
built part. The UV laser then writes the second-from-bottom layer and repeats the process. An
advantage of this bottom-up mode is that the build volume can be much bigger than the vat
itself, and only enough photopolymer is needed to keep the bottom of the build vat continuously
full of photopolymer. This approach is typical of desktop SLA printers, while the right-side-up
approach is more common in industrial systems.
Stereolithography requires the use of supporting structures which attach to the elevator
platform to prevent deflection due to gravity, resist lateral pressure from the resin-filled blade,
or retain newly created sections during the "vat rocking" of bottom up printing. Supports are

17
typically created automatically during the preparation of CAD models and can also be made
manually. In either situation, the supports must be removed manually after printing.

Figure 8 The Stereolithography Process

3.4.1 ADVANTAGES
One of the advantages of stereolithography is its speed; functional parts can be manufactured
within a day. The length of time it takes to produce a single part depends upon the complexity
of the design and the size. Printing time can last anywhere from hours to more than a
day. Prototypes and designs made with stereolithography are strong enough to
be machined and can also be used to make master patterns for injection moulding or
various metal casting processes.

3.4.2 DISADVANTAGES
Although stereolithography can be used to produce virtually any synthetic design, it is often
costly, though the price is coming down. Common photopolymers that once cost
about US$200 per litre, are now US$60 per litre, and professional SLA machines can
cost US$250,000. Since 2012, however, public interest in 3D printing has inspired the design
of several consumer SLA machines which can cost between US$3,500 to as little as US$499,
such as the Form 2 by Formlabs or the Anycubic Photon. Another disadvantage is that the
photopolymers are sticky, messy, and need to be handled. Newly-made parts need to be
washed, further cured, and dried.

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 3.5 LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING
Laminated object manufacturing is a lesser known additive manufacturing process where an
object is created by successively layering sheets of build material, bonding them through heat
and pressure and then cutting them into the desired shape using either a blade or a carbon laser.
Mcor Technologies offers a newer form of the process known as Selective Deposition
Lamination. In this process, sheets of standard A4 or letter-sized paper are cut into shape using
a tungsten carbide blade and then bonded by selectively placed droplets of a water-based
adhesive. Areas that will make up the final part receive a high concentration of the adhesive,
while areas used for support receive less.
Originally developed by Helisys (now Cubic Technologies), the LOM process uses a system
where a continuous sheet of build material is drawn across the build platform by a system of
feed rollers. For paper and plastic build material, the sheet may be coated in an adhesive. A
heated roller then passes over the material, melting the adhesive and pressing the material down
onto the platform. A blade or laser then cuts the desired pattern into the material and
crosshatches the unused material so it can be removed later. A take-up roll winds up the
remaining material. Finally, the build platform drops down the thickness of one-layer, new
material is pulled across the platform and the process are repeated.
The rigidity of the build material means that no support material is needed during the build
process. Interior voids within the object are heavily crosshatched during the cutting process,
thus allowing the material to be removed easily. The nature of the process means no enclosed
chamber is needed, though some environmental conditions must be maintained for the layers
to properly fuse.

Figure 9 Laminated object manufacturing 1. Foil supply 2. Heated roller 3. Laser beam 4. Scanning
prism 5. Laser unit 6. Layers 7. Moving platform 8. Waste

Some advantages of the LOM process are that the materials being used are consistent, readily
available and well understood. Depending on the type of binding resin used, LOM provides
one of the largest operating temperature windows.

19
On the downside, this process has more limited 3D geometries than other AM processes. The
solidity of the object is also highly dependent on the resins and curing process used. The resins
are limited to those objects made using paper or plastic. Metal sheets are welded (either thermal
brazing or ultrasonic welding) or bolted together to form the part. The use of metal in the LOM
process is rare.
Cubic Technologies is another company that uses the LOM process. It works with paper, plastic
and metal. In its process, objects made using paper take on a wood-like texture and can be
shaped in a similar way.

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 3.6 ELECTRON BEAM MELTING
Electron beam melting (EBM) is an innovative additive manufacturing (AM) process in which
metal powder or filament is completely melted by a concentrated beam of electrons. Production
in a vacuum chamber ensures that oxidation will not compromise highly reactive materials like
titanium. Vacuum production is also required so electrons don’t collide with gas molecules.

Not long ago, most EBM projects merely illustrated the considerable possibilities of the AM
process. Today, the potential of electron beam melting technology is more fully realized as it
is used to print components used in demanding aerospace, automotive, defense, petrochemical
and medical applications.

Electron-beam additive manufacturing, or electron-beam melting (EBM) is a type of additive

manufacturing, or 3D printing, for metal parts. The raw material (metal powder or wire) is
placed under a vacuum and fused together from heating by an electron beam. This technique
is distinct from selective laser sintering as the raw material fuses having completely melted.
Metal powders can be consolidated into a solid mass using an electron beam as the heat source.
Parts are manufactured by melting metal powder, layer by layer, with an electron beam in a
high vacuum.
A tungsten filament in the electron beam gun is superheated to create a cloud of electrons that
accelerate to approximately one-half the speed of light. A magnetic field focuses the beam to
the desired diameter. A second magnetic field directs the beam of electrons to the desired spot
on the print bed.

Electron beam melting is a high-energy, high-temperature process. This was illustrated

by researchers at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Centre when they measured temperatures as
high as 2,000 degrees C in the electron beam melting process.

Once a component or prototype has been printed, the build envelope is removed and the build
platform and attached object are removed from the loose powder. Powder clinging to the object
or remaining in internal cavities is blown or blasted away. Post-processing methods, including
hot isostatic pressing (HIP), heat treatment in inert gas or vacuum heat treatment may be
employed to release residual stresses and improve mechanical properties.

In some instances, machining may be used to deliver parts with required critical tolerances.
CNC machining, sandblasting and shot peening, plating and electropolishing are available to
refine the slightly bumpy finish of an EBM-produced part as required.

Electron beam melting technology builds high-strength parts that take advantage of the inherent
properties of the metals processed. EBM virtually eliminates impurities that may otherwise
intrude when using traditional methods of fabrication.

Electron beam melting includes two technologies -- powder bed fusion (PBF) and fused
deposition. The former uses powdered metal to build objects while the latter uses wire filament.

21
 Figure 10 A schematic diagram of Electron Beam Melting process

3.6.1 MATERIALS
Titanium’s lightweight, superior strength and corrosion resistance have long attracted
designers and engineers in the aerospace and defense industries. Lightweight 3D-printed
titanium parts retain required strength and durability, a critical advantage in applications where
weight considerations are critical.

Titanium’s biocompatibility makes it attractive for producing components for the medical field.
For example, many orthopaedic implants are often printed from titanium-6aluminium-
4vanadium (Ti6Al4V).

Cobalt chrome is a superalloy with excellent mechanical properties. It is a very hard metal
highly resistant to high temperatures, pressure and corrosion. Cobalt chrome is used in
aerospace and auto racing where parts operate at very high temperatures. In the medical field,
it used to fabricate orthopaedic implants and instruments requiring sterilization.

Steel powders offer an attractive combination of value, strength and mechanical properties.
The 316L stainless steel is known for its excellent corrosion resistance, which is why it is often
used to produce automotive parts, medical instruments and industrial spare parts. Maraging
steel (MS1) is a high-strength alloy used in the tooling industry. Designers take advantage of
the AM process to produce objects with conformal cooling channels in a manner not possible
with traditional manufacturing methods.

Inconel 718 is another superalloy with excellent mechanical properties, corrosion resistance
and top performance at high temperatures. EBM-printed parts fabricated from Inconel 718 are
22
used in racing and aerospace applications. Valves fabricated from this nickel alloy are used in
the petrochemical industry where durability and corrosion resistance are important
characteristics.

3.6.2 APPLICATION OF ELECTRON BEAM MELTING

In the right applications, EBM is a cost-efficient way to produce prototypes and low-run
production parts. Electron beam melting prints sophisticated and intricate designs. Object
dimensions are highly accurate -- similar to those of cast parts.

EBM parts often feature complex geometries offering substantial weight savings, something
that is of utmost importance in weight-critical aerospace applications. Launching payloads into
low earth orbit (LEO) is expensive, with payload costs at approximately $1000 to $2000 per
pound. EBM parts also reduce the weight of satellites launched into geosynchronous orbit.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration first cleared orthopaedic implants created with
electron beam melting technology in 2012. Several years later, the FDA approved craniofacial
implants printed by EBM machines.

The unmachined rough surface promotes bone growth, making it popular for fabricating hip
and knee implants. One study investigated the responses of osteoblasts (cells that secretes the
matrix for bone formation) to the surface of EBM implants. When Ra (surface roughness) is
below 24.9 µm, researchers identified benefits for the proliferation of osteoblasts.

3.6.3 ADVANTAGES
By improving access to emerging high-growth submarkets, electron beam melting technology
offers a competitive edge to progressive enterprises. In many electron beam melting
applications, designers enjoy unprecedented design flexibility. Electron beam melting
produces parts with properties similar to wrought parts and better than those of cast parts. For
many applications, EBM is a cost-effective process that reduces inventory requirements and
waste. Reduced lead times often Improve customer satisfaction.

Electron beam melting technology offers other key advantages. Build rates are often 3-5 times
those of other AM technologies. Multi-beam systems simultaneously maintain multiple melt
pools for enhanced productivity. EBM parts usually need fewer support structures than DMLS
parts do. The EBM process is approximately 95-percent energy-efficient, which is five to 10
times better than laser-based AM processes.

The electron beam melting process reduces residual stresses in a variety of ways. It is possible
to control residual stress during the preparation of CAD data, during printing and in post-
processing. During printing, residual stress is reduced by preheating the print bed and by the
heating of the material before it is struck by the electron beam. To a degree, lower residual
stress is also a function of the process’ high build temperatures and slower cool-down rates
compared to laser-based AM processes.

23
Electron beam melting technology eliminates sintering, enabling users to gain precise control
over porosity. EBM operators further minimize porosity issues by adjusting beam parameters.

3.6.4 DISADVANTAGES

The surface of a part printed with electron beam melting often requires post-processing, while
the smooth surfaces of DMLM-produced parts do not typically require much post-processing.

EBM machines require important preventative maintenance, and the EBM process requires a
significant amount of validation.

Electron beam melting requires the use of pure, unadulterated metals. In every instance, a
validated supply chain and thorough testing are necessary to ensure the required purity levels.

Although the production of parts using electron beam melting technology requires a significant
capital investment, ROI is simultaneously improved through the elimination of certain
inefficiencies and design limitations inherent in traditional manufacturing techniques.

24
 4.LITERATURE REVIEW

The fuel cell performance is studied both experimentally and computationally in literature. The
latter, in particular, can provide detailed insights into the inherent limiting mechanisms,
transport phenomena, structural integrity, and electrochemistry on a local level throughout the
cell. Moreover, mathematical modelling is an efficient approach for parametric studies,
compared with repetitive and costly experimental techniques. This chapter conducts a literature
review on conventional fuel cell modelling in view of five aspects: mathematical modelling of
single cells (demonstrated with the P-SOFC), stack modelling, model simplification, numerical
methods for computational simulation, and sensitivity analysis based on numerical simulation.

Fuel cells are basically electrochemical cells that produce electrical energy from the chemical
energy of the fuel. These are highly efficient because in this process we don’t need to produce
heat or mechanical work as intermediate steps to generate electrical energy. Since there is no
burning in the fuel cells, so there is less production of pollutants. We can use a large variety of
chemicals for oxidation and reduction purpose in the fuel cell, but the most commonly,
hydrogen used as the reductants and ambient air is used as the oxidants.

Fuel cell usually comprises on fuel cell kits and stacks. In fuel cell kit, the chemical reaction
occurs which produce charges on electrodes, while stacks are used to regulate the flow of
charges or electric current from cell kit (Appleby, 1988, Larminie et al., 2003).

In 1839 William Grove demonstrated the basic operation of fuel cell, he electrolyzed water into
hydrogen and oxygen by using platinum electrode in the presence of dilute acid as electrolyte,
and then he replaced the power supply with ammeter. Electrolysis process is reversed and it
produced water and electric current. Choice of electrolyte depend upon operating temperature
conditions. Aqueous electrolyte can be used under 200 oC, high temperature can result into
more vapours and more degradation (Appleby, 1988, O’Hayre et al., 2006).

25
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