2geologicalcomplexity PDF

2.
Geological Complexity
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering with

Melanges, Fault Rocks and Other Bimrocks
Dr. Edmund Medley, PE, CEG, D.GE, F.ASCE

Geological Engineer
Principal Consultant
Photo: Ed Medley
Terraphase Engineering, Oakland, CA
Departamento de Ingenieria Civil

Grupo de Investigation en Geotechnica
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín
Aula Máxima Facultad de Minas

Sept 18 - 22 2017
Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017 1

BIG CONCLUSION 1: Remember this
picture!!!
Matrix
Blocks, inclusions, lenses, etc
Scale: 1:?????? Matrix
Actual Distribution of Blocks Medley, 2000

2
Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017
picture as well!!!
Matrix
Matrix
Apparent Distribution of Blocks

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017 Willis, 20003
Geotechnical Engineering = From Rock to Soil
Simple way
to describe
complexity
Courtesy of Prof.
R.E. Goodman

4
“Rock”: simple word, complex concept!
“simple” geology but
challenging rock
engineering
Intact fragmented
“complex” geology and

REALLY challenging rock
engineering
Laznicka, 1988
5
An early (1986) Geotechnical
Classification of Complexity
From Medley, 1994
6
..and > 1000 geological words/terms for
fragmented rocks and complex mixtures
Laznicka, 1988
7
So: the main reason for the word bimrocks
Term “bimrocks” created intended to focus engineer/geopractitioner

on working with geological complexity regardless of countless
geological terms and variety of geological causes
i.e.: reduce the complexity of geologic WORDS and geologic origins to

a simple word/simple concept suitable for engineers
8
Bimrocks (and bimsoils)
Think of Rock/Soil mixtures
Term “bimrocks” intended to focus engineer/geopractitioner on
working with geological complexity regardless of countless
geological terms and variety of geological causes
Bimrocks definition (Medley, 1994) : block-in-matrix rocks - mixtures
of rocks composed of geotechnically significant blocks within a
bonded matrix of finer texture (melanges, fault rocks, weathered
rocks, etc.)
Geotechnical significance means that there is mechanical contrast between
blocks and matrix, and the geometry and proportion of the blocks influence
the properties of a rock/soil mass underlying a slope, at the scales of
engineering interest (centimeters to hundreds of meters) i.e.: scale matters!
Bimsoils are analogous to bimrocks but with little or no bond between
blocks and matrix (debris flow deposits, glacial tills, colluvium, etc. )
- depends on scale of interest
9
A bimsoil: coarse alluvium (BUT: scale matters!)
Road cut Hwy 1
near Carmel, CA
E. Medley, 1990
HARD cobbles
and boulders:
troublesome to
work with?
Depends on
excavation
method
Scale matters! This is a bimsoil at lab scale; possibly for a scraper (but not
a D-10 bulldozer); possibly for micro-tunnel (and maybe a TBM)

Glacial till: rock/soil mixture
Corestones, block, boulder

soil
Glacial till in Michigan Virginia Tech Univ website
11
Weathered rock: Bimsoil?
residual HW Soils diagram
corestone (a block)
(http://echo2.epfl.ch/VICAIRE/mod/3/chapt/picture -
s_fig1_7.jpg).jpg
residual
saprolite
Highly to completely weathered basalt

rock in Hawaii
Residual soil not likely a bimsoil; but highly to moderately rock could be
a bimrock/bimsoil (depends on state of matrix)

12
Decomposed Granite
Corestones, blocks, boulders
soil
Mixture of weaker soil and strong blocks (decomposed granite

at Hwy 50, California)
13
The complexity of a “simple” rock/soil mixture
turbidite sequence - interbedded sandstones and shales

(Devil’s Slide, Pacifica, California) photo: Ed Medley
14
Complex poly-lithologic geologic mixture
mega-breccia, Death Valley, California
15
Volcanic rock masses can be complex too
Pahoe’hoe lava Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii

16
Background: Basalt Lava Flows
Website of Dan Stora, France

17
Background: Detail of Basalt Lava
Clinker
forms at
cooling
surfaces
Website of Dan Stora, France

18
Formation of clinker
top a’a clinker
a’a rock core
bottom clinker

19
Pa’hoe’hoe (ropey lava)

20
Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii
a’a lava

21
a’a lava
a’a
clinker

22
Successive flows are irregular

23
Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii; Aug 7, 2002
Sequences of rock/clinker/cavities
Blocks of massive a’a basalt

within irregular non-uniform
sequences of massive a’a, a’a
clinker, paho’hoe flows and
pahoe’hoe lava tubes and
cavities
24
Fault Rocks and Shear Rocks
http://www.newcastle.edu.au/department/gl/ro/str/st4.htm
Fault zones and

Shear zones may
have blocks
millimeters to 100s
of meters wide:
Riedmueller et al, 2001
block size distributions

tend to be scale-
independent
5m, 5km,..
5m, 5km,.. Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017 25
This is a one line title slide
26
Significance of Fault Zones
Geotechnical Relevant
Characterization of Brittle Faults
 Faults are elongated complex zones of deformation,

ranging from decimeters to kilometers in magnitude
 A significant internal structure of shear and extensional fractures

has developed, reflecting the geometry of the strain field
and, consequently, the orientation of the principal stresses
 The brittle deformation, such as particle size reduction by

crushing of grains and reorientation of grains by shearing,
generates the characteristic fine-grained gouge
 Low-temperature solution transfer contributes substantially

to the alteration of fault rocks, in particular gouge, through
transformation and neoformation of clay minerals

27
Significance of Fault Zones
Geotechnically Relevant
Characterization of Brittle Faults
 The significant geotechnical feature is a substantial heterogeneity,
reflected by the occurrence of more or less undeformed competent
blocks which are typically surrounded by a fine-grained matrix
consisting of gouge and highly fractured rocks. The matrix appears
to be flowing around the blocks in an anastomosing pattern
 The mainly lozenge shaped blocks exhibit a fractal distribution of

dimensions, ranging from the microscale to hundreds of meters in
length. Fault structures are scale independent
 A considerable heterogeneity of the stress field may exist.

Variations in the stress field might be an important cause of
segmentary fault zone formation
 Groundwater conditions are also highly variable. Water pressures

and flow directions may change dramatically across fault zones.
A fault zone acts as aquifer, aquitard and aquiclude
28
Block orientation in bimrocks
Cowan,
1985
29
Mapping of slopes (Bolu Tunnel, Turkey)
Typical Melange Showing Diverse Elongate Blocks
and Irregular Foliated Matrix (S-M-C-Cataclasites)
Area of photo

30
Fault Structures
FINE - GRAINED LOZENGE - SHAPED

INTENSELY SHEARED BLOCKS OF NO
GOUGE DEFORMATION
Fault Zone Model, Blocks Show Fractal Dimensions,

from the Micro – to the Megascale (SCALE INDEPENDENCE)
31
Sheared Serpentinite
Serpentinite blocks
sheared
serpentinite
Sheared Serpentinite, Franciscan Complex, Oakland.,

California; 2015 photo: E. Medley
32
Fault Structures
Blocks (phacoids) of quarzite

embedded in
graphite phyllite
Tunnel Steinhaus, Austria, Tunnel Face

33
Faulted and Sheared Rock
block
sheared
rock
Mixture of sheared rock and intact blocks at a Quarry

within San Andreas Fault zone – not your typical soil slope
34
Fault Structures
Foliated soft matrix showing Lenticular stiff block showing

ductile and brittle compressional extension fractures
deformation features
Quartzitic Sandstone,
Devonian
Graphitic Shale,
Carboniferous
Formation of Melange in an Foreland Basin Overthrust Setting,

Main Tunnel, Mae Kuang Irrigation Project, N – Thailand
35
Melanges
Franciscan Complex melange, Mendocino California photo: Ed

Medley 36
Melanges and Similar Bimrocks
• Bimrocks: block-in-matrix rocks
“mixtures of rocks composed of geotechnically significant
blocks within a bonded matrix of finer texture”
• Melanges: (French mélange) : UNCHILE* mixtures of

competent blocks composed of sedimentary/ metamorphic
blocks in weaker matrix of sheared shale or serpentinite
• Melanges are the most difficult bimrocks..
• Similar Bimrocks: Saprolites, Breccias, Fault Zones, Lahars,

Tillites, etc.
*CHILE: CONTINUOUS HOMOGENEOUS ISOTROPIC LINEARLY ELASTIC
37
Melanges (mélanges)- the most intractable of bimrocks
melanges: geological mixtures with poly-lithologic blocks ranging in size from
sand to mountains
Gwna Melange, Tryn-y-moel, Lleyn Peninsula, Wales Franciscan Complex melange, Caspar
Headland, near Mendocino, California
38
Melanges are common (and ignored!)
Verizon ad San Francisco International Airport, Oct 2007
Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, 39

Sept. 2017
Global distribution of melanges (> 70 countries)
Medley, 1994
40
Franciscan Complex near San Francisco, California
From Medley, 1994; after

Ellen and Wentworth,1995
41
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http://www.nps.gov/goga/forteachers/images/graywacke-outcrop1.jpg
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Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017 43
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greenstone at Shell Beach
(http://geology.about.com/od/geology/ca/ig/CA
shellbeach/shellbchgreenstone.htm)
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Copyright © All rights reserved ‐ Dr.
44
Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017
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Marin Headlands: E
Medley 2005
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Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept.
2017 45
)UDQFLVFDQ& RP SOH[6HUSHQWLQLWH0 [P DILFXOWUDP DILF
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46
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Mendocino; E Medley ~1992
Weaker sheared matrix
But: weaker “ sheared matrix” is
big block of strong graywacke actually a mix of hard blocks in
sheared shale
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Read the mixture: Medley, mélange, Wales, Berkeley, etc..
http://edmedley.com/blog/2009/02/07/on-first-encountering-melange/ Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017 47
$)UDQFLVFDQ& RP SOH[P HODQJHRXWFURSVFDOH
tortuous shear
48
Slope debris
Sandstone
Marble / Shale
Tectonic Melange
(Photo C)

49
Melanges look like fault rocks

Bolu Tunnel, Turkey

50
weak block/matrix contacts
Gwna Melange
Lleyn Peninsula,
N. Wales
photo: E . Medley
51
Matrix and blocks in core
matrix-rich core - sheared

shale: (aka argille scagliose)
Intercept of block and core (not the

“diameter!)
Scott Dam melange (California) photos: Prof . R Goodman

Simple model for origin of melanges
Prof R E Goodman
53
BUT: melanges are even more complex : there are many
different kinds, and many geology arguments
Laznicka, 1988
Cowan, 1985
54
Definition of melange (from Geological Dictionary)
“ A body of rock mappable at a scale of 1:24.000 or smaller and

characterized both by lack of internal continuty of contacts or strata
and by the inclusion of fragments and blocks of all sizes, both exotic and
native, embedded in a fragmanted matrix or finer-grained material”
In engineering sense and considering the scale of most engineering

works (larger than 1:24,000) This definition is not satisfactory
Prof.Dr. Reşat Ulusay, Turkey, 2004
Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. 55

Melanges in Turkey
Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. 56

Melanges in Turkey: the Geological Engineering Experience of
Prof.Dr. Reşat Ulusay, Hattecepe Univ. Turkey (2004)
• Melanges have been recognized by geologists as significiant components

of orogenic belts for decades, yet the engineering community has been
slow to appreciate their importance
• In many engineering projects, melanges are still treated as stratified

units, or occasionally mistaken for soil with boulders
• Whether a melange is of tectonic or sedimentary origin is unimportant

for engineering purposes
• In contrast, the grade of metamorphism of the matrix can be

important, because significiant recrystallization of the matrix
strengthens it and reduces block-matrix strength contrast
• Serious errors have been by engineers made because of

mischaracterization of melanges
57
Summarizing: bimrocks have strong blocks, weak matrix
Sheared
serpentinite
melange
Weathered rocks Major fault zones
58
Summarizing: block-in-matrix fabric is common
Bimrocks include: melanges, fault rocks, weathered rocks, etc.
Bimsoils, analogous to bimrocks but without bonded matrix (debris

flow deposits, glacial tills, colluvium, etc. - depends on scale of
interest
Bimrocks/bimsoils often have severe spatial variability and

mechanical/lithological heterogeneity- depends on scale of interest!
SO WHAT? Mischaracterizations of bimrocks co$t - so important to

Contractors, Owners and Lawyers
Geopractitioners must consider blocks (lithology, shape, SIZE etc..)
59
Start by looking at blocks (look at matrix later!)
Soon-to-be Dr. Julien

Waeber, Geological Engineer
Concretions in Panoche Fm, Livermore, CA: photo E Medley, 2006

60
Some elements of CHARACTERIZATION
(much more in another Lecture)
•Block/matrix discrimination
•Matrix lithology
•block size
Prof. Dimitrios Zekkos
•block shape
•block lithology
•block orientation
•block size distribution
•block discontinuities
•Etc… Photo: Julien Waeber, 2006

61
Q: : KDWLVEORFNVL]H""$ 5DUHO\WKH´GLDP HWHU”
G round surface maximum

observed
Boring
dimension
“ Diameter“
dmod
chord
“Diameter”
Boredcore
Buried block exploredby a boring
Outcropped block
62
Drilling through a block: chords and diameters
Diameter
Only rarely will a drilled

chord be the same as the
diameter: so when drilling
bimrocks be very careful
when you use the words:
“block diameter”
chord
After Russ and Dehuff (2000),

“Practical Stereology”
63
the importance of scale
independence in our
work with bimrocks

64
Scale independence
Cowan, 1985
65
a Franciscan Complex melange: blocks at many scales
Caspar Headlands Mendocino area, CA E Medley
Huge blocks, big blocks, small

blocks, tiny blocks – all depends
on your scale of interest
66
Measuring block
sizes
“size” = dmod
(and size
distributions)
in 2-dimensions
Outcrop scale of
interest
A
A< 1 m2
Medley, 1994
67
Histogram of block sizes
Medley, 1994
68
Log Histogram of block sizes
“fractal dimension” in 2D:

D=1.2 (add 1 to get fractal
dimension in 3D)
Medley, 1994
69
Block measurements at many scales
Medley, 1994
70
Histograms at several scales
Distributions look similar….
“Censoring” of data
due to undercounting-
blocks too small to
see at this scale but
will be counted when
scale zooms in
smaller
Medley, 1994
71
Log Histograms at several scales
Medley, 1994
72
Normalization by √A
Medley, 1994
73
Add Franciscan Complex blocks in Marin County
A Regional map
scale of interest
A~1000 km2
From Medley, 1994; after

Ellen and Wentworth,1995
74
Log Histogram at km scale
75
Compare Log histograms at different
scales
76
Scale-independent block size distributions of
Franciscan melanges
Block/matrix
threshold:
0.05√A
dmax= size of largest

block: 0.75√A
Low
frequency
because too
small to
count
accurately
(“censored
data” Kalendar et al, 2014, after
Medley, 1994
Plotted as a Log-Histogram
77
Another reason to select the 5%
block/matrix threshold
Number
of blocks
95% of number
of blocks are
smaller than
Volume 0.05dmax but
represent
< 1% of total
volume of
blocks
0.05dmax
dmod/dmax
78
Blocks in Franciscan Complex melange
(and many other bimrocks)
• Blocks range in size between mountains and sand and will always be
present, even if you cannot see them
• Block size distributions are scale independent and fractal (power law) - they
look much the same
• regardless of scale – one or two large blocks, and increasing numbers of

smaller blocks
• Largest reasonable block is:

0.75A aka dmax
• Block/matrix threshold is 0.05A
• Blocks will always be found: Characterization must take blocks into account
79
AND: findings from studies of “model”
bimrocks at outcrop and laboratory scale
ARE
relevant for in-situ bimrock masses!!!

REG
80
SO: if blocks will be found at all scales:
What is Block and What is matrix?
Scale matters!
Need a characteristic dimension (Lc) to scale the

bimrock mass to the scale of engineering interest (like
having coin, penknife, Significant Other/Graduate Student
in field photos))
Lc is lab specimen diameter, height of slope, width of

footing, thickness of expected failure zone, √A, etc.
81
Use these guidelines at any scale of
interest
• smallest blocks are:
0.05Lc or 0.05 A or 0.05dmax
•largest block is:

0.75Lc or 0.75 A or 0.75dmax
(Medley and Lindquist, 1995)
82
When is a block not a block? Depends on scale of interest
For a large area, A: use
Lc= A (100m)
Smallest block = 5 m
100 m Largest block = 75 m
At scale of trench
Lc~ 2 m (trench width)
Smallest block = 0.1 m
Largest block =1.5 m
pipeline trench R. of W.
100 m
20m At scale of width of
Right. of Way (for day to
day progress)
1 m block Lc= 20 m (ROW width)
Smallest block = 1 m
Largest block =15 m
For construction
estimates of whole
trench use  Area of
trench (45 m)
Smallest block = 2.2 m
Largest block = 33 m
83
From the chaos of geological
complexity and geological words we
can focus on a few simple ORDERLY
concepts

84
So: the block-in-matrix fabric is common
Summarizing so far:
Lessons learned from studying engineering problems in melanges

applies to geotechnical problems for all geologically complex
mixtures
Bimrocks include: melanges, fault rocks, weathered rocks, etc.
Bimsoils, analogous to bimrocks but without bonded matrix (debris

flow deposits, glacial tills, colluvium, etc. - depends on scale of
interest
Bimrocks/bimsoils often have severe spatial variability and

mechanical/lithological heterogeneity- depends on scale of interest!
SO WHAT? Mischaracterizations of bimrocks co$t - so important to

Contractors, Owners and Attorneys
Geopractitioners must consider blocks (lithology, shape, SIZE etc..)
85
picture!!!
Matrix
Blocks, inclusions, lenses, etc
Scale: 1:?????? Matrix
Actual Distribution of Blocks Medley, 2000

86
picture as well!!!
Matrix
Matrix
Apparent Distribution of Blocks

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017 Willis, 200087
88
EXTRAS

89
Weathered Rocks
•Rock weathers into soil, saprolite and corestones above intact bedrock
Corestones, ledges, wedges,

blocks, boulders, cobbles,
etc… of rock surrounded by
soil
Enchanted Learning website
University of Florida website

90
bimrocks are “miserable materials”
V. Marinos, P. Marinos , . Hoek,

“The geological strength index:
applications and limitations”,
Bull Eng Geol Environ (2005) 64:
55–65 DOI 10.1007/s10064-004-
0270-5
Courtesy: www.Rocsciece .com
91
“ At the scale of engineering interest, a chaotic rock mass composed of
competent blocks of various size and lithology, embedded within a weaker,
usually argillaceous matrix” (Medley, 1994)
Road cut
Dam site
Tunnel Slope

92
Scale-independent block size distributions of
Franciscan melanges
Plotted as a Log-Histogram
Medley, 1994
93
Formation of Clay Minerals
Sample 1: Smectite 92%

Illite 8%
Sample 1a: Smectite 87%

Illite 13%
Sample 2a: Smectite 77%

Mixed Layer
3%
Kaolinite 17%
Illite 3%
Sample 2b: Sample 40%

Kaolinite 50%
Illite 10%
Fault Zone in Gneiss („Zentralgneis“)

HPP MALTA – Göß Tunnel, Km 4,615
94
Fault Structures
Foliated soft matrix showing Lenticular stiff block showing

ductile and brittle compressional extension fractures
deformation features
Quartzitic Sandstone,
Devonian
Graphitic Shale,
Carboniferous
Formation of Melange in an Foreland Basin Overthrust Setting,

Main Tunnel, Mae Kuang Irrigation Project, N – Thailand
95
Fault Structures
Extension fractures Blocks of serpentinite
Extensional shears
4 cm base
Typical Structure of Ophiolitic Melange in Mesoscale

Egnatia Motorway, N-Greece
96
Fault Structures
Blocks of Serpentinite in an Ophiolitic Tectonic Melange

Egnatia Motorway, N- Greece
97
Fault Structures
Foliated quartzite Blocks of dolomite marble
Graphitic Phyllite
Tectonic Melange in an Alpine Thrust Setting

Semmering Motorway, Tunnel Steinhaus, Austria
98
Fault Structures
Marble block
with calcite filled
extension
fractures
embedded in
graphitic phyllite
and foliated
quartzite
Tectonic Melange in an Alpine Thrust Setting

Semmering Motorway, Tunnel Steinhaus, Austria
99
Fault Classification (Classical References)
• Brekke T.L & T. R. Howard (1973):

Functional classification of gouge material from seams and
faults in relation to stability problems in underground
openings. U.S.Bureau of Mines Contr. H0220022, pp.195.
• Zhang Xian-Gong, Han Wen-Feng & Nie De-Yin (1986):

Engineering geological classification of fault rocks. 5th Intern.
IAEG Congr. Buenos Aires, 479 - 486.
Engineering Geological Classification of Fault Rocks

100

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2.

Geotechnical and Geological Engineering with

Dr. Edmund Medley, PE, CEG, D.GE, F.ASCE

Departamento de Ingenieria Civil

Aula Máxima Facultad de Minas

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017 1

Scale: 1:?????? Matrix

Actual Distribution of Blocks Medley, 2000

Apparent Distribution of Blocks

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

“complex” geology and

From Medley, 1994

Term “bimrocks” created intended to focus engineer/geopractitioner

i.e.: reduce the complexity of geologic WORDS and geologic origins to

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017 10

Corestones, block, boulder

Glacial till in Michigan Virginia Tech Univ website

Highly to completely weathered basalt

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

Corestones, blocks, boulders

Mixture of weaker soil and strong blocks (decomposed granite

turbidite sequence - interbedded sandstones and shales

mega-breccia, Death Valley, California

Pahoe’hoe lava Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

Website of Dan Stora, France

Website of Dan Stora, France

top a’a clinker

a’a rock core

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii

Blocks of massive a’a basalt

Fault zones and

Riedmueller et al, 2001

block size distributions

 Faults are elongated complex zones of deformation,

 A significant internal structure of shear and extensional fractures

 The brittle deformation, such as particle size reduction by

 Low-temperature solution transfer contributes substantially

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

 The mainly lozenge shaped blocks exhibit a fractal distribution of

 A considerable heterogeneity of the stress field may exist.

 Groundwater conditions are also highly variable. Water pressures

Copyright © All rights reserved - Dr. Edmund Medley, Sept. 2017

FINE - GRAINED LOZENGE - SHAPED

Fault Zone Model, Blocks Show Fractal Dimensions,

Sheared Serpentinite, Franciscan Complex, Oakland.,

Blocks (phacoids) of quarzite

Tunnel Steinhaus, Austria, Tunnel Face

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Mixture of sheared rock and intact blocks at a Quarry

Foliated soft matrix showing Lenticular stiff block showing

Formation of Melange in an Foreland Basin Overthrust Setting,

Franciscan Complex melange, Mendocino California photo: Ed

• Melanges: (French mélange) : UNCHILE* mixtures of

• Melanges are the most difficult bimrocks..

• Similar Bimrocks: Saprolites, Breccias, Fault Zones, Lahars,

*CHILE: CONTINUOUS HOMOGENEOUS ISOTROPIC LINEARLY ELASTIC

Verizon ad San Francisco International Airport, Oct 2007

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