Learning

Learning Psychology
Learning
Psychology
NQF Level 2 Psychology
NQF Level 2
The TVET FIRST NC(V) series helps students, colleges and
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NQF Level 2
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Student’s Book

ISBN 978 177030 514 4

e!Vula Training STUDENT’S BOOK
Learning Psychology L2 SB Prelims:Learning Psychology 2 SB Prelims 11/18/08 2:57 PM Page i

Learning Psychology

Student’s Book

TVET FIRST

NQF Level 2
e!Vula Training
Learning Psychology L2 SB Prelims:Learning Psychology 2 SB Prelims 11/18/08 2:57 PM Page ii

TVET FIRST Learning Psychology NQF Level 2 Student’s Book

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Learning Psychology L2 SB Prelims:Learning Psychology 2 SB Prelims 11/18/08 2:57 PM Page iii

Contents
Topic 1: Learning Psychology and approaches to learning........... 1
Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology.............................................................. 3
1.1 Defining the concept of Learning Psychology .............................................................. 3
Definition of learning........................................................................................................ 3
Definition of Learning Psychology ................................................................................. 3
1.2 Rationale for including Learning Psychology as part of this course ......................... 6
1.3 The conditions for effective learning .............................................................................. 7
Summative Assessment: Topic 1...................................................................................................................... 9

Topic 2: Brain structures, functions and cognitive

processing ............................................................................................................................... 10
Module 1: The brain structure, its function and brain activity .............................................................. 12
1.1 The structure of the brain ................................................................................................. 12
The hindbrain..................................................................................................................... 13
The midbrain ...................................................................................................................... 14
The forebrain ...................................................................................................................... 14
Neurons............................................................................................................................... 17
Left brain versus right brain ............................................................................................ 19
1.2 The risk factors that influence brain activity ................................................................. 21
1.3. The role of timing and its effect on human learning .................................................... 22
Windows of opportunity .................................................................................................. 22

Module 2: The cognitive processes of the brain and their application ................................................. 24
2.1 Cognitive processes........................................................................................................... 24
Lower levels of cognition ................................................................................................. 25
Higher levels of cognition ................................................................................................ 26
Important points about Bloom’s taxonomy................................................................... 26
2.2 The application of cognitive processes........................................................................... 27

Module: 3 The meaning and significance of perception in learning..................................................... 31

3.1 The meaning of perception .............................................................................................. 31
3.2 The effect of perception on learning ............................................................................... 33
3.3 Why perceptual problems exist ....................................................................................... 34
3.4 Possible solutions to perceptual problems..................................................................... 34
Summative Assessment: Topic 2...................................................................................................................... 35

Topic 3: Personality and temperament traits .................................................. 36

Module 1: Personality and different learning styles................................................................................ 39
1.1 What are personality traits? ............................................................................................. 39
1.2 Recognising and describing personality and temperament traits.............................. 40
Effects on learning ............................................................................................................. 10

Module 2: Individual differences in personality and their effects on learning .................................. 43

2.1 Individual differences in personality traits.................................................................... 43
The four humours.............................................................................................................. 43
The Jung-Myers-Briggs typology .................................................................................... 44
2.2 The influence of personality traits on learning ............................................................. 45
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Module 3: The five factors of the basic structure of personality............................................................ 48

3.1 Defining the five factors of personality .......................................................................... 48
Openness............................................................................................................................. 49
Conscientiousness ............................................................................................................. 49
Extraversion........................................................................................................................ 49
Agreeableness .................................................................................................................... 50
Neuroticism ........................................................................................................................ 50
3.2 Recognise and describe personality traits...................................................................... 50
Implications of the five trait factors on learning........................................................... 51
3.3 Choosing a career path based on personality profiles ................................................. 53
Career paths suitable to the different personality traits .............................................. 54
Summative Assessment: Topic 3...................................................................................................................... 56

Topic 4: Self-awareness and its effect on learning.................................... 58

Module 1: The concept and nature of the self .......................................................................................... 61
1.1 The meaning of self-concept ............................................................................................ 61
1.2 The relationship between self-concept and self-confidence........................................ 63
1.3 Enhancing self-confidence in the learner ....................................................................... 65
1.4 Factors and resources that affect self-concept ............................................................... 67

Module 2: Self-esteem and its influence on learning............................................................................... 69

2.1 The meaning of self-esteem.............................................................................................. 69
2.2 How self-esteem affects learning..................................................................................... 71
2.3 Enhancing the learner’s self-esteem ............................................................................... 72

Module 3: Developing self-awareness in the learner .............................................................................. 75

3.1 The meaning of self-awareness........................................................................................ 75
3.2 Methods to enhance self-awareness ............................................................................... 77
3.3 Reflection on methods to develop self-awareness........................................................ 79

Module 4: Strategies for self-motivation ................................................................................................... 81

4.1 The meaning of self-motivation ...................................................................................... 81
4.2 Strategies for self-motivation........................................................................................... 84
a. Develop interest ............................................................................................................. 84
b. Create challenges........................................................................................................... 84
c. Empower learners.......................................................................................................... 85
d. Encourage self-evaluation............................................................................................ 85
e. Provide organised strategies ........................................................................................ 85
f. Work with the imagination ........................................................................................... 85
Summative Assessment: Topic 4...................................................................................................................... 86

Topic 5: The process of learning .......................................................................................... 88

Module 1: Perspectives on conditioning in the learning process .......................................................... 91
Conditioning and types of conditioning ................................................................................ 91
Classical conditioning ............................................................................................................... 92
Operant Conditioning ............................................................................................................... 93
How conditioning affects learning.......................................................................................... 94
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Module 2: Learning through consequences of behaviour ...................................................................... 96

2.1 Operant conditioning and reinforcement ...................................................................... 96
Reinforcement and punishment ...................................................................................... 96
Primary and secondary reinforcers................................................................................. 97
Shaping ............................................................................................................................... 98
2.2 Learning through reinforcement strategies ................................................................... 99

Module 3: Modelling and informal learning ............................................................................................ 101

3.1 Modelling as a means of learning ................................................................................... 101
3.2 Informal learning............................................................................................................... 103
3.3 The practical implications of modelling and informal learning ................................. 103

Module 4: The role of e-learning ................................................................................................................ 105

4.1 The meaning of e-learning ............................................................................................... 106
4.2 Requirements and skills needed for e-learning............................................................. 107
Requirements for e-learning ............................................................................................ 107
Skills needed for e-learning.............................................................................................. 109
4.3 Advantages and disadvantages of e-learning ............................................................... 110
Advantages of e-learning ................................................................................................. 110
Disadvantages of e-learning ............................................................................................ 113

Summative assessment: Topic 5....................................................................................................................... 114

Appendix: Portfolio of Evidence Guideline.................................................................................................. 117

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Topic 1
Learning Psychology
and approaches
to learning

1
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Topic 1
Learning Psychology and approaches
to learning
Overview
During most of their lives, people are engaged in some learning activity or other – learning to ride a
bicycle or speak a foreign language, to swim, cook or play a new game, to handle a cordless drill,
manage a shop or perform a new task at work. For each person a selection of such experiences,
especially the universal one of school, is what makes up his idea of what learning involves and what
it means to learn or remember or think.
Learning occurs throughout the whole range of human activity. But what exactly is learning and how
does learning take place? Do people use the same “methods”, for example, to learn to speak a foreign
language as they do to learn to swim?
Psychologists and other researchers have attempted to answer these and other questions about
learning and the results of this research can be found in many theories of learning. There are many
popular theories that attempt to explain what learning is, how it takes place; what memory is and the
role it plays; and especially, the functions of the brain during the learning process.
When a person learns to ride a bicycle, for example, what should the conditions be in order to learn
effectively? What conditions are needed in the classroom situation? Both external conditions (the
environment) and internal conditions (the learner’s abilities) must be considered in order to make
that learning experience successful. The role of the educator will also influence the effectiveness of the
learning process. Learning can therefore be seen as a complex, multi-faceted process that needs to be
studied carefully.
The different aspects necessary for
effective learning will be dealt with in
this subject. This includes the
learner and the environment. The
following subject outcomes will
be covered in this topic, and
students should be able to:
• Define the concept of
Learning Psychology.
• Understand the rationale for
studying Learning
Psychology and give their
opinion of the necessity of
its inclusion in the
qualification.
• Explain the conditions
needed for effective
learning.

Figure 1.1: One kind of learning is when you learn to drive. Learning
occurs through the whole range of human activity.

2 Topic 1
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Module 1
The concept and rationale
of Learning Psychology
1.1 Defining the concept of Learning
Psychology
It is important to incorporate the subject Learning Psychology in the
study of Early Childhood Development since it gives the student the
necessary insight into what learning is as well as the theories which
underpin learning. Learning Psychology can be seen as a theoretical
science that looks at the understanding of learning, the learner and the
learning environment. Learning is a vital human function that relies on
the acquisition of different types of knowledge. It leads a person to
develop new capacities, skills, values, perspectives and preferences.
Psychology is the study of various theories about human beings: their
mental processes, social behaviour and development – and this
includes learning.

Definition of learning
Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in
behaviour or knowledge resulting from experiences. Another
definition by Nieman and Pienaar (2006: 72) is: “Learning is regarded as
an active, lifelong process of experience and attaching meaning to experiences
that eventually changes the
individual.” This means learning
results in a change in the learner’s
insight, comprehension,
behaviour, perception or Words &
motivation. This change leads to T erms
added knowledge or the ability Habituati
to do something the learner on: A decre
response ase in
to a stimu
could not do before (Nieman et repeated
exp
lus after
al. 2006: 72). referred to osure to it. Also
as ada ptation as
involves a it
djusting to
Learning begins soon after a experienc
es. .
new
child is born. Different forms of Condition
ing: Asso
learning take place at different stimulus
with a res
ciating a
stages in a person’s life and ponse.
Social lea
these range through rning: Lea
occurs wh rning that
en observ
habituation, conditioning, behaviour
of others.
ing the
social learning and cognitive Cognitive
lea
learning. The simplest form that occurs rning: Learning
when hum
of learning is habituation receive, p a
rocess, sto n beings
informati re and us
while the most complex on e
form is cognitive learning.

Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 3

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It is also necessary to distinguish between rote learning and

meaningful learning. The first is the acquisition of a single concept,
the solution of an artificial problem, or learning of arbitrary
associations. Rote learning involves memorisation through repetition
without attention reasoning or initial understanding – for example, a
young child learning the alphabet. The effect of this kind of learning is
often short term. The disadvantage of this kind of learning is that few
if any connections are made between new information and the
knowledge already acquired. Rote learning is often slow and relatively
ineffective because it is the repetition of information without attaching
any meaning to it. Verbally rehearsing information is sometimes
necessary, as in the child learning the alphabet, because it will assist
the child in being able to write and spell words later on. It will
therefore help with understanding more complicated and meaningful
information later on.
On the other hand meaningful learning involves knowledge
acquisition of a complex network of interrelated ideas and concepts.
Meaningful learning results in the long-term understanding and
retention of information, concepts or behavioural patterns.
Memorisation forms part of meaningful learning, but learning should
never be thought of merely as a process of memorisation.
Then there is also the distinction between learning and studying.
Learning implies the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and
attitudes, but studying, on the other hand, is the process during which
that knowledge and those skills are deliberately committed to long-
term memory.
Learning functions are performed by different processes within the
Think about it
brain, which depend on the mental capacities of the learner, the type of
knowledge that has to be acquired and the varying circumstances in Do animals learn in the same
the environment. For effective learning to take place, the right way as humans do?
conditions have to be present. This concept will be discussed later in
this module.

Definition of Learning Psychology

This subject focuses on both the concept of learning and that of
psychology, which means looking at the learning process in more
depth than simply from an educational point of view. It is important
for educators to know what underlying processes are involved in
learning, such as the cognitive processes of thinking and memory. The
educator should have an understanding of children with their
individual temperaments and ways of perception. These are the areas
that are researched and studied by psychologists.
Psychology is defined as “the study of the mind and how it influences
people’s behaviour.” (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
2003:1322) Learning psychologists study the mental processes of
learning and link this to what educators do in the classroom. This
combination of research and practical experience is also referred to as
“Educational Psychology”. This large base of research is a very useful

4 Topic 1
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source of information for the educator in learning how to plan

effectively and implement the best teaching strategies in the classroom.
All this information should not be seen as a precise formula on how to
be a successful educator. But a foundation of knowledge in this field
can help to empower educators in their daily decision-making tasks.
This subject will therefore help students become familiar with some of
the research findings as well as practical suggestions that can lead to
effective teaching. Think about it
Learning Psychology can be defined as the application of psychological
methods and theories to better understand the processes of learning, Why is it easier to remember
development, motivation, comprehension and knowledge acquisition. only some things that have
It is also about how these aspects influence the interaction between been learnt and not
teaching and learning. In other words, Learning Psychology applies everything?
psychological methods to the study of education. By studying Why is time a very important
Learning Psychology, educators will be guided in understanding factor in the learning process?
learners, the learning process and the instructional strategies that will
enhance learning (Henson & Eller 1999: 4).

Learning activity 1.1

Form small groups of about three or four and discuss the concepts “Learning” and “Learning
Psychology”. Explore the different types of learning as well as the role Learning Psychology
plays in the classroom. One person in each group should take notes of the discussion and, after
about 10 minutes, each group should report back to the class what they discussed. Compare
notes with the other groups.
Your lecturer will assess you according to the following rubric.

Assessment standards Comments 1 2 3 4 5

The group discussed the main concepts of
Learning Psychology.
The group discussed the link between
“learning” and “Learning Psychology”.
The group worked well together and was
prepared for the discussion.
The work was completed timeously and the
group worked well together.
The group’s opinions are based on the
participative learning approach.
Scale: 1 = Not achieved (0-39%); 2 = Not yet competent (40-49%); 3 = Competent (50-69%); 4 = Highly competent (70-79%);
5 = Outstanding (80-100%)

Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 5

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Figure 1.2: Meaningful learning takes place in a participative setting.

1.2 Rationale for including Learning

Psychology as part of this course
Many students ask why this subject should be part of the Education
and Development course. The definition of Learning Psychology
points to some of the reasons why it is an important subject. The
following points explain the rationale in more detail:
• Educators need to know more about the children they will be
teaching in terms of how they learn, think, memorise and behave
in relation to the different stages of development.
• Educators have to be exposed to the theoretical
understanding of the psychology of human behaviour.
• Educators need to understand the learning process in
order to teach effectively.
• Educators may be involved in research and
studies with regard to effective teaching. This
subject will give them the necessary
understanding about the process of
learning.
• After completing Learning Psychology,
educators are better able to predict
outcomes and to plan constructively for
different classroom situations.
• Through the study of Learning
Psychology, educators will be able to see
cause-and-effect relationships in the
classroom.
• Educators will be able to implement
useful changes in the classroom.
Figure 1.3: When children work together, they often learn better.

6 Topic 1
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Therefore, in order to become effective eductors of children in the

early developmental phases, students need to study Learning
Psychology. This will assist them in thinking critically about Think about it
teaching. Learning Psychology should also become part of the
educator’s plan for lifelong learning, as it could form the first step
towards further study – because being a good educator also means A positive learning environment
must be established from the
being a good learner. start and maintained
throughout the year.

Learning activity 1.2

Divide into groups of about four or five and read the section on “Rationale for including Learning
Psychology”. Discuss Learning Psychology in terms of its relevance to education. Students should
discuss their views and mention theories of learning with which they are familiar.
One student in each group should be appointed to report the main points of the discussion to the
class. The class can then discuss the combination of all the points.

1.3 The conditions for effective learning

Since there are many factors that may contribute to effective learning, it is
not possible to discuss all of them. Perhaps one of the most important
factors is that of the learning environment in which the educator has the
ability to maintain a positive and open climate.
“Educators must create an atmosphere which will encourage learning.
By means of careful planning, educators can organise their classrooms in
such a way that they contribute positively to learning, motivate the learners,
and thereby also minimize inappropriate behaviour.” ((Nieman et al. 2006:
159)
A positive learning environment means that learners, including those who
have special needs, will be able to learn effectively within the classroom
climate. In order to create a positive classroom climate the following
aspects should be considered:
• The educator should strive to provide learners with positive
expectations, open and lively communication, consistency,
constructive feedback, appropriate praise, a sense of humour, a caring
attitude, positive reinforcement and occasional rewards.
• Learning does not take place in isolation, but is part of a broader
social and cultural environment. Therefore the educator should
always bear in mind the learners’ cultural backgrounds.
• A positive environment will be one where good discipline is
maintained. This can be achieved by using a well-structured
classroom policy that takes various behaviours and the consequences
of those behaviours into consideration. The educator’s role as the one
who maintains discipline should be clear. Parents should assist with
enforcing and be supportive of the classroom policy. The ultimate aim
of discipline is not to punish learners, but to guide them in developing
strong internal discipline and the ability to accept responsibility.

Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 7

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Motivation also contributes to a positive learning environment

because the motivated learner will not cause disruptions, but will
want to learn, to be co-operative and creative.
The educator needs to create a learning environment in which
stereotyping is examined and queried. Stereotyping, for
example, of gender roles (male or female), can negatively
influence the learning environment. Educators should avoid
instances where stereotyping can arise in learning materials
and should discourage such attitudes in social interaction
with the children.
The physical layout and facilities in the classroom
should always be structured in such a way that learners
with special needs will feel comfortable and at home.
The learners’ sense of self-reliance and confidence can Figure 1.4: An environment that contributes to
be adversely affected by exclusion. learning is a positive one.

The quality of the learning environment can positively or adversely affect the
way in which learners learn. It is therefore a fundamental principle that
creating the right learning environment can lead to effective learning. The
implications extend beyond the classroom environment and it is therefore
important that educators are conscious of the need to create a learning
environment that provides the right experiences and conditions for learning.

Learning activity 1.3

Do this learning activity individually.

Imagine you have the resources to design the perfect learning environment – including learning
materials, layout, furniture, etc. Draw or write down what this room looks like.
Your lecturer will use the following checklist to assess the above report:

Assessment standards Comments 1 2 3 4 5

The student has given a meaningful explanation of
reasons why he or she has designed the classroom
in such a way.
Sentences are clear and complete.
Grammar and spelling are correct.
The student has provided a valid argument to
support his or her case.
Scale: 1 = Not achieved (0-39%); 2 = Not yet competent (40-49%); 3 = Competent (50-69%); 4 = Highly competent (70-79%);
5 = Outstanding (80-100%)

Learning activity 1.4

In pairs, discuss and write down ways of creating the right conditions for learners with special needs
to learn effectively. Consider what is needed for a learner with a physical disability, a learner who is
mentally disabled, and a learner from a foreign country who cannot speak the language of instruction.

8 Topic 1
Learning Psychology L2 SB T1:Learning Psychology 2 SB T1 11/18/08 2:58 PM Page 9

Learning activity 1.5

In pairs, follow the guideline on pages 7 and 8 regarding effective learning and design a page
which resembles a lesson plan.
Now role-play a scene where one student will teach another one a particular skill.
This page must be placed in your PoE as evidence.

Summative Assessment: Topic 1

Answer the following questions:
1. Define “learning”. (1)
2. Name the four different forms of learning? (2)
3. What is the meaning of “rote learning”? (2)
4. Define “Learning Psychology”. (1)
5. Give five good reasons why educators should study Learning Psychology. (5)
6. How can an educator create a positive learning climate? (3)
7. Why is it important for the educator to be aware of the learners’ different personalities? (2)
8. Give some examples of stereotyping. (3)
9. How would positive personality traits influence learning? (3)
10.Describe an ideal learning environment. (3)
Total: 25
The lecturer will use the following rating scale to assess your work:

Assessment standards Comments 1 2 3 4 5

The student created positive expectations.
The student gave constructive feedback.
The student gave appropriate praise.
The student demonstrated a caring attitude.
The student communicated in a lively, friendly
manner.
The student could maintain discipline.
The student created an environment which
motivates learning.
Scale: 1 = Not achieved (0-39%); 2 = Not yet competent (40-49%); 3 = Competent (50-69%); 4 = Highly competent (70-79%);
5 = Outstanding (80-100%)

Topic 1: Summary
In this topic you were introduced to the concept of Learning Psychology and the rationale for its
inclusion in your course. Learning and Learning Psychology were defined. Then we looked at the four
different forms of learning and the effect of personality traits on learning. The conditions for effective
learning and the need for the creation of a positive learning environment by educators were explained.

Module 1: The concept and rationale of Learning Psychology 9