Module

2
Selection of Materials and
Shapes

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 Lecture
1
Physical and Mechanical Properties of
Engineering Materials

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Instructional objectives
At the of this lecture, the student should be able to appreciate
(a) general classification of engineering materials, and
(b) physical and mechanical properties of engineering materials

Engineering Materials
Materials play an important role in the construction and manufacturing of various parts and
components. An appropriate selection of a material for a given application adds to economy,
working and life of the final part and component.

Classification of Engineering Materials

Engineering materials can be broadly classified as metals such as iron, copper, aluminum and
their alloys, and non-metals such as ceramics (e.g. alumina and silica carbide), polymers (e.g.
polyvinyle chloride or PVC), natural materials (e.g. wood, cotton, flax, etc.), composites (e.g.
carbon fibre reinforced polymer or CFRP, glass fibre reinforced polymer or GFRP, metal matrix
composites or MMC, Concrete, Ceramic matrix composites, Engineering wood such as plywood,
oriented strand board, wood plastic composite etc.) and foams.

Properties of Engineering Materials

Material property is the identity of material, which describes its state (physical, chemical) and
behavior under different conditions. The material properties can be broadly categorized as
physical, chemical, mechanical and thermal.
The physical properties define the physical state of material and are independent of its chemical
nature. The physical properties of engineering materials include appearance, texture, mass,
density, Melting point, boiling point, viscosity, etc. The chemical properties describe the
reactivity of a material and are always mentioned in terms of the rate at which the material
changes its chemical identity, e.g. corrosion rate, oxidation rate, etc. The mechanical properties
describe the resistance against deformation, in particular, under static and dynamic mechanical

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loading condition. The mechanical properties include elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, yield
strength and ultimate tensile strength, hardness and toughness, etc. The thermal properties
describe material behavior under thermal loading and include thermal conductivity, specific heat,
thermal diffusivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, etc. For a given application or service, an
engineering material is selected based on a set of appropriate material properties, often referred
to as attributes, that would be requisite to sustain various expected loads. Figure 2.1.1 depicts a
schematic representation of material family, which is utilized in selection of materials for a target
application.

Figure 2.1.1 Organized classification of materials and properties [1]

Physical Properties
Physical properties describe the state of material, which is observable or measurable. Color,
texture, density, melting point, boiling point, etc. are some of the commonly known physical
properties.
• Color: Represents reflective properties of substance
• Density: Amount of mass contained by unit volume of material. The higher the density
the heavier is the substance. (SI unit: kg/m3)

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 • Melting point: Melting point is the temperature at which material changes its state from
solid to liquid. (SI units: K)
• Boiling point: Boiling point is the temperature at which material changes its state from
liquid to gaseous. (SI units: K)

Chemical Properties
Chemical properties are the measure of reactivity of a material in the presence of another
substance or environment which imposes change in the material composition. These properties
are always mentioned in term of the rate of change in its composition. Corrosion rate, oxidation
rate, etc. are some of the chemical properties of material.
• Corrosion rate: Corrosion rate is measured in terms of corrosion penetration for given
period of time at specific surrounding condition. Corrosion rate is given by length of
penetration per unit time. (Units: mm/year)
• Oxidation rate: Oxidation rate is measured in terms of amount of material consumed
forming oxide or amount of oxide scale formed for given period of time at specific
surrounding temperature. Oxidation rate is given by amount of mass of material lost or
thickness of scale formed during oxidation per unit time. (Units: gms/min or μm/min).

Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties describe the behavior of material in terms of deformation and resistance to
deformation under specific mechanical loading condition. These properties are significant as they
describe the load bearing capacity of structure. Elastic modulus, strength, hardness, toughness,
ductility, malleability are some of the common mechanical properties of engineering materials.
Every material shows a unique behavior when it is subjected to loading. Figure 2.1.2 shows a
typical stress-strain curve of C-steel under uniaxial tensile loading. Point ‘A’ indicates the
proportional limit. Stress strain behavior is linear only up to this point. Point ‘B’ represents the
point at which the material starts yielding. Between point A and B, the stress strain behavior is
not linear, though it is in elastic region. Point ‘C’ is referred to the upper yield point. The
material behavior after point ‘D’ is highly nonlinear in nature. Point ‘E’ is the maximum stress
that the material can withstand and the point ‘F’ schematically indicates the point of rupture.

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 Figure 2.1.2 Stress-strain curve for carbon-steel [3]

Stresses computed on the basis of the original area of the specimen are often referred to as the
conventional or nominal stresses. Alternately, the stresses computed on the basis of the actual
area of the specimen provide the so called true stress. Within the elastic limit, the material
returns to its original dimension on removal of the load. The elastic modulus is referred to the
slope of the stress-strain behavior in the elastic region and its SI unit is conceived as N.m-2. The
elastic modulus is also referred to as the constant of proportionality between stress and strain
according to Hooke’s Law. Beyond the elastic limit, the materials retains a permanent,
irreversible strain (or deformation) even after the load is removed. The modulus of rigidity of a
material is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within the elastic limit. The bulk
modulus is referred to the ratio of pressure and volumetric strain within the elastic limit.
Figure 2.1.3(a) to (c) schematically shows the uniaxial tensile, shear and hydrostatic
compression on a typical block of material. When a sample of material is stretched in one
direction it tends to get thinner in the other two directions. The Poisson's ratio becomes
important to highlight this characteristic of engineering material and is defined as the ratio
between the transverse strain (normal to the applied load) and the relative extension strain, or
the axial strain (in the direction of the applied load). For an engineering material, the elastic
modulus (E), bulk modulus (K), and the shear modulus (G) are related as: G = E/2(1+ν) and K =
E/3(1-2ν), where ν refers to the Poisson’s ratio.

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 (a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.1.3 Schematic presentation of (a) tensile, (b) shear and (c) hydrostatic compression [4]

The strength (SI units: Pa or N/m2) is the property that enables an engineering material to resist
deformation under load. It is also defined as the ability of material to withstand an applied load
without failure. Based on the typical stress-strain behavior of an engineering material, a few
reference points are considered as important characteristics of the material. For example, the
proportional limit is referred to the stress just beyond the point where the stress / strain behavior
of a material first becomes non-linear. The yield strength refers to the stress required to cause
permanent plastic deformation. The ultimate tensile strength refers to the maximum stress value
on the engineering stress-strain curve and is often considered as the maximum load-bearing
strength of a material. The rupture strength refers to the stress at which a material ruptures
typically under bending. Different material behaves differently when subjected to load. Figure
2.1.4 indicates the different in stress strain behavior of typical cast iron, low carbon steel, and
aluminum alloy. Cast iron, being a brittle material generates steeper curve than low carbon steel
or aluminum alloy. There is no sign of yielding prior to failure, so the yield point has to be found
out graphically. The yield point strength in the case of low carbon steel and aluminum alloys can
be identified easily.
The hardness is another important mechanical property of engineering material and refers to the
resistance of a material against abrasion / scratching / indentation. The hardness of a material is
always specified in terms of the particular test that is used to measure the same. For a measure of
resistance against indentation, Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell, Knoop hardness tests are common.
Alternately, for a measure of resistance against scratch, Mohr’s hardness test is followed. The
basic principle used in these testing involves the pressing of a hard material against the candidate
material, whose hardness is to be measured. The Brinell hardness (figure 2.1.5) test method
consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or carbide ball

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subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg
to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case
of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the
indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell
harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.
The typical Brinell hardness values of some of the commonly used engineering materials are as
follows: aluminum – 15, copper – 35, mild steel – 120, austenitic stainless steel – 250, hardened
tool steel – 650, and so on.

Figure 2.1.4 Comparison of behavior of different material

Another important mechanical property of engineering materials is the toughness that provides a
measure of a material to withstand shock and the extent of plastic deformation in the event of
rupture. Toughness may be considered as a combination of strength and plasticity. One way to
measure toughness is by calculating the area under the stress strain curve from a tensile test. The
toughness is expressed in Joule to indicate the amount of energy absorbed in the event of failure
or rupture. Figure 2.1.6 shows the schematic set-ups of Izod impact test and Charpy impact test.
In both the cases, impact loading is applied in notched specimen of predefined dimension.
Energy absorbed during the breakage of the specimen is the measure of the toughness. In a

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similar line, resilience of a material refers to the energy absorbed during elastic deformation and
is measured by the area under the elastic portion of the stress – strain curve. Izod and charpy
tests are two important methods for evaluating toughness of a material.

Figure 2.1.5 Brinell Hardness Test [5]

Figure 2.1.6 Schematic set-up of (a) Izod Test and (b) Charpy Test [6]

Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of an engineering material primarily refer to the characteristic behaviors
of the material under thermal load. For example, thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability

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of material to conduct heat and is expressed as W.K-1.m-1 in SI unit. The specific heat refers to
the measure of energy that is required to change the temperature for a unit mass and is expressed
as J.kg-1.K-1. The product of density and specific heat is often referred to the heat capacity of a
unit mass of material. The thermal diffusivity refers to the ratio of thermal conductivity and heat
capacity of a material and provides a measure the rate of heat conduction. The thermal diffusivity
is expressed in terms of m2.s-1.
When a material is subjected to both thermal and mechanical loading, two more characteristics
of materials - coefficient of thermal expansion and thermal shock resistance - become significant.
The coefficient of thermal expansion provides a measure of unit change in strain of a material for
unit change in temperature and is expressed in terms of K-1 in SI unit. The thermal strain in
material is considered to be isotropic in nature. The thermal shock resistance provides a measure
to which a material can withstand an impact load which is either thermal or thermo-mechanical
in nature. The thermal shock resistance is expressed as Kσ T (1 - ν ) αE , where K is the thermal
conductivity, σ T maximal tension the material can resist, α the thermal expansion coefficient, E
the Young’s modulus and ν the Poisson’s ratio.

Getting Familiar with Different Materials

Metals
Metals have free valance electrons which are responsible for their good thermal and electrical
conductivity. Metals readily loose their electrons to form positive ions. The metallic bond is held
by electrostatic force between delocalized electrons and positive ions. Metals are primarily used
in the form of alloys which depict a combination of two or more materials, in which at least one
is metal. The iron based alloys are characterized as ferrous alloys. For example, steel is an alloy
of iron, carbon and other alloying elements, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, bronze is an
alloy of copper and tin, and so on. Metals and alloys are typically characterized by an excellent
blend of mechanical and thermal properties. Table 2.1.1 indicates the typical material properties
and common applications of some of the widely used metallic materials.

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 Table 2.1.1 Common material properties of metallic materials [7]
Material
Iron Copper Aluminum C-Steel AA6061 Ti-6Al-4V
Properties
Type Pure Pure Pure Fe- Alloy Al-alloy Ti-Alloy
-3
Density (kg.m ) 7870 8930 2698 8000 2700 4420
Melting Solidus = 855 Solidus = 1877
1808 1357 933 1750
Temperature (K) Liquidus = 924 Liquidus = 1933
Boiling
3134 2835 2792 3300 3533
Temperature (K)
Young’s
200 110 68 210 70-80 113.8
Modulus(GPa)
Shear
77.5 46 25 79.3 26 44
Modulus(GPa)
Bulk
166 140 76 160 40.7
Modulus(GPa)
Poisson’s Ratio 0.291 0.343 0.36 0.27-0.3 0.33 0.342
Yield Strength
50 33.3 250 275 880
(MPa)
Ultimate Tensile
210 90-180 410 310 950
Strength (MPa)
Coefficient of
Thermal
12.2 16.4 24 10.8 23.6 8.6
Expansion X 10-6
(K-1)
Thermal
Conductivity 76.2 400 210 35-55 180 6.7
-1 -1
(W.mm .K )
Specific Heat
440 385 900 490 896 526.3
(J.kg-1.K-1)
Utensils, Aerospace,
Aerospace,
Naval Aircraft fittings, Marine, Power
Heat Construction,
Application Construction, Pistons, Bike generation,
Exchanger Electrical
Chemical frames Offshore
conductors
transport, Industries

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Ceramics and Glasses
Ceramics are non-metallic in nature and refer to the carbide, boride, nitride and oxides of
Aluminum, silica, zirconium, etc. However, the ceramics possess excellent resistance to thermal
and chemical corrosion and wear resistant. Ceramics are also good thermal and electrical
insulators. Table 2.1.2 indicates the typical material properties and common applications of some
of the widely used ceramics.

Table 2.1.2 Material properties and applications of commonly used Ceramics [7]
Material
Glass
Alumina Silicon Carbide Silicon Nitride
(Soda-lime glass)
Properties
Density (kg.m-3) 3960 3000 3290 2520
Melting
2300 3000 2173 1313
Temperature (K)
Young’s
370 410 310 72-74
Modulus(GPa)
Shear
150 179 29.8
Modulus(GPa)
Bulk Modulus(GPa) 165 203
Poisson’s Ratio 0.22-0.27 0.14 0.27
Ultimate Tensile
300 250
Strength (MPa)
Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion 5.4 2.77 3.3 8.5
-6 -1
X 10 (K )
Thermal
Conductivity 30 33-155 30
-1 -1
(W.mm .K )
Specific Heat (J.kg-
1
850 715 840
.K-1)
Cutting Balls and roller of
High temperature
wheels, bearing, Cutting Windows, food
Application furnace, Heat
polishing tools, Engine valves, Preparation
shield
clothes Turbine blades

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Polymer
Polymer is a chain of molecules connected by covalent (sharing of electrons) chemical bond.
Three types of polymers are most common: (a) thermoplastics which can be reworked on
heating, (b) thermosets which cannot be worked with after curing is over, and (c) elastomers,
which typically provide very high elastic deformation. The polymers cannot withstand high
temperature due to their low transition temperature Table 2.1.3 indicates the typical material
properties and common applications of some of the widely used polymers.

Table 2.1.3 Material properties and applications of commonly used Polymers

Material
Polyvineyl
Bakelite Silicone
chloride (PVC)
Properties
Type thermoplastic elastomer Elastomer
968-1290
Density (kg.m-3) 1350 1300
High density silicone-2800
Melting Temperature (K) 373-530 588
Young’s Modulus(MPa) 1-5
10-60
Yield Strength (MPa)
(Flexible-rigid)
Ultimate Tensile Strength
2.6 21-47 11
(MPa)
Coefficient of Thermal
52 8.1
Expansion X 10-6 (K-1)
Thermal Conductivity
0.14-0.28 0.23 0.22
(W.mm-1.K-1)
Specific Heat (J.kg-1.K-1) 900 1465
Electrical appliances,
Electrical
Application Plumbing Structural application
Insulators
(below 200°C)

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Natural Materials
The most common examples of natural materials are wood, cotton, flax, wools, bamboo, jute
which primarily come from the plants or animals. Most of the natural materials are recyclable
and require considerable processing operations before use. Table 2.1.4 indicates the typical
material properties and common applications of some of the widely used natural materials.

Table 2.1.4 Material properties and applications of commonly used natural materials
Material
Oak Wood Wool Flax
Properties
European
Type
Oak
-3
Density (kg.m ) 650 22
Ignition Temperature (K) 523 873
Heat of Combution
4.9
(Kcal/g)
Longitudinal: 3.5
Young’s Modulus (GPa) 9-13
Transverse: 0.93
Shear Modulus(GPa)
Bulk Modulus(GPa)
Poisson’s Ratio
Yield Strength (MPa)
Ultimate Tensile Strength
50-180 163
(MPa)
Coefficient of Thermal
34-54
Expansion (K-1)
Thermal Conductivity
0.3-0.35 0.028
(W.mm-1.K-1)
Specific Heat (J.kg-1.K-1) 0.17
Furniture, Fabric, Thermal Fabrication
Application
Packaging insulator of twine

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Composite
Composite material is formed by combining one or more different materials. Unlike alloy
system each constituent is distinguishable and retain their properties. Composite materials
consist of matrix material with reinforcement to enhance its strength. Few common examples of
composites are FRP (Glass/carbon fiber reinforced polymers), Metal matrix composites. Using
composites one can combine attractive qualities of other materials and engineer properties to
demand. On the other side they are expensive and difficult to fabricate and join. Table 2.1.5
indicates common properties and applications of composites.

Table 2.1.5 Material properties and applications of commonly used composites

Material Carbon fiber
reinforced Aluminum Titanium Alumina
Cermet
Properties polymer matrix matrix matrix
matrix
Density (kg.m-3) 1800 2650 3860
Young’s Modulus(GPa) 210 300 85 100
Poisson’s Ratio 0.295
Yield Strength (MPa) 350 500
Ultimate Tensile Strength
7000 1500 1750 385 500
(N.mm-2)
Mechanical
Aerospace,
components, High Cutting
Sporting
Protection Aerospace temperature tools,
Application equipments,
screen, Turbines Mechanical Polishing
Electronic
Sporting Application materials
packaging
equipments

Foams
Foam is a substance formed by trapping many gaseous bubbles in liquid or solid. Solid foams are
very important class of structure due to its light weight. The foams can be metallic (eg. Titanium
foam), ceramic (alumina foam) or based on polymer (polyurethane foam). The metallic foams
are commonly used for medical implants. The ceramic foams are used typically as insulators
while the polymer based foams are primarily used for packaging and acoustic insulators.

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Exercise
Choose the correct answer.
1. Hydrostatic stress results in
(a) linear strain (b) shear strain (c) both linear and shear strain (d) None
2. Toughness of a material is equal to the area under ____ part of the stress-strain curve.
(a) Elastic (b) Plastic (c) Both elastic and plastic (d) None
3. During a tensile loading, the length of a steel rod is changed by 2 mm. If the original length
of the rod has been 20 mm, what is the amount of strain induced
(a) 0.1 (b) 2 (c) 0.9 (d) 0.22
4. ____ is an example of a chemical property.
(a) Density (b) Mass (c) Acidity (d) Diffusivity

Answers:
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c)

References
1. M F Ashby, Material Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.
2. G E Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, 1961.
3. http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT-
ROORKEE/strength%20of%20materials/homepage.html, (28.05.2012).
4. http://www.grantadesign.com/education/datasheets/sciencenote.html, (28.05.2012).
5. http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2765, (28.05.2012).
6. http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2763, (28.05.2012).
7. http://www.matweb.com, (28.05.2012).

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