ELECTRONIC & COMMUNICAION

ON
(FIRE ALARM)
Department of ELECTRONIC& COMMUNICATION Engineering
Chandigarh College of Engineering and Technology (DIPLOMA Wing),
Chandigarh
FEBRUARY, 2019
(Affiliated to PSBTE, Chandigarh)

Submitted BY: Submitted TO:

AISHWARYA KUMAR & ARYAN MR. SUKHWINDER SINGH
(ECE , 4TH SEM , 2 YEAR ) (LECTURER ,ECE)
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work, which has been presented in this Training Report, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the awards of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in
Mechanical Engineering submitted to the Mechanical Engineering Department, CCET,
Chandigarh, is an authentic piece of work carried out from June 1,2018 to June 29,2018,
under the supervision of Dr Rakesh Chander

The matter in this Training Report is not submitted by me for the award of any degree
elsewhere.

ADARSH KUMAR
CO16101

This is to certify that the statements made by the candidate are correct
to the best of my knowledge and belief.

DR RAKESH CHANDER

(HR)
CM Auto Sales

DR. S.C. VETTIVAL ER. RAJIV

FACULTY 1 FACULTY 2

Er.V.Senthil Dr. Jatinder Madan

(Training In-charge) (HOD, ME)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to put forth my regardful thanks to all those who had helped me in
guiding me to get the most out of this golden opportunity to learn the most during such a
period of my training at CM Auto Sales

I pay my special thanks to who gave me chance to work with him and gave me
excellent knowledge. Also I put my special regards to the management, workers and co-
trainees who have always been so supporting and ready to help.

I also put forth my special thanks to all the concerned persons as well as Dr. K. G.
Sharma, (Training & Placement Department), Dr. Jatinder Madan, (HOD, Mechanical),
Er.V.Senthil (Training In-charge, Mechanical)and Dr. Manpreet Singh, Principal C.C.E.T.
(Degree Wing), Chandigarh, who have enabled me to have an opportunity to work at the
prestigious organization.

Thankful,

ADARSH KUMAR
 SR. NO TOPIC PAGE NO.
1. DECLARATION (i)

2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (ii)
3. INTRODUCTION ABOUT 1-2
CM AUTO SALES
4. GROWTH OF CM AUTO 2-4
SALES
5. SLIGHT VIEW OF THE 4-9
TOPICS
6. TOPICS EXPLAINED IN 9-49
BRIEF

INTRODUCTION

CM AUTO SALES

ABOUT CM AUTO SALES

I had my training of 1 month at the CM auto sales (body shape/service centre), industrial area
, phase 1. CM Auto Sales is an authorized dealership of Maruti Suzuki present across Tricity,
Anandpur Sahib, Rupnagar, Kharar, Nangal. It started in the year 2006. CM AutoSales
completes dream of many people to have their first car of Maruti Suzuki Brand. We have
successfully expanded our business to seven more dealership in the locations Chandigarh,
Mohali, Nangal, Kharar and Anandpur.
CM AutoSales is awarded by its delighted customers as best Maruti Dealers in Chandigarh.

As per CM auto sales it only deals with the cars of Maruti Suzuki - selling and servicing only
of those cars. NO OTHER car rather than those are treated here.

Origin of Maruti Suzuki

Maruti Suzuki India Limited, formerly known as Maruti Udyog Limited, is an automobile
manufacturer in India. It is a 56.21% owned subsidiary of the Japanese car and motorcycle
manufacturer Suzuki Motor Corporation. As of July 2018, it had a market share of 53% of the
Indian passenger car market.Maruti Suzuki manufactures and sells popular cars such as
the Ciaz, Ertiga, Wagon R, Alto, Swift, Celerio, Swift HYPERLINK
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_Swift"Dzire, Baleno and Baleno RS, Omni, Alto
HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_Alto"800, Eeco, Ignis, g S-
HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_SX4"Cross.The company is
headquartered at New Delhi. In May 2015, the company produced its fifteenth millionth
vehicle in India, a Swift Dzire.

Maruti was established in February 1981 with production starting in 1983 with the Maruti
800, based on the Suzuki Alto kei car. As of May 2007, the Government of India, through
Ministry of Disinvestment, sold its complete share to Indian financial institutions and no
longer has any stake in Maruti Udyog

Under the Maruti name

In 1970, a private limited company named Surya Ram Maruti technical services private
limited (MTSPL) was launched on 16 November 1970. The stated purpose of this company
was to provide technical know-how for the design, manufacture and assembly of "a wholly
indigenous motor car". In June 1971, a company called Maruti limited was incorporated
under the Companies Act. Maruti Limited went into liquidation in 1977. Maruti Udyog
Ltd was incorporated through the efforts of V. Krishnamurthy.

Affiliation with Suzuki

In 1982, a license& Joint Venture Agreement (JVA) was signed between Maruti Udyog Ltd,
and Suzuki of Japan. At first, Maruti Suzuki was mainly an importer of cars. In India's closed
market, Maruti received the right to import 40,000 fully built-up Suzukis in the first two
years, and even after that the early goal was to use only 33% indigenous parts. This upset the
local manufacturers considerably. There were also some concerns that the Indian market was
too small to absorb the comparatively large production planned by Maruti Suzuki, with the
government even considering adjusting the petrol tax and lowering the excise duty in order to
boost sales. Finally, in 1983, the Maruti 800 was released. This 796 cc hatchback was based
on the SS80 Suzuki Alto and was India's first affordable car. Initial product plan was 40%
saloons, and 60% Maruti Van. Local production commenced in December 1983. In 1984,
the Maruti Van with the same three-cylinder engine as the 800 was released and the installed
capacity of the plant in Gurgaon reached 40,000 units.
In 1985, the Suzuki SJ410-based Gypsy, a 970 cc 4WD off-road vehicle, was launched. In
1986, the original 800 was replaced by an all-new model of the 796 cc hatchback Suzuki
Alto and the 100,000th vehicle was produced by the company. In 1987, the company started
exporting to the West, when a lot of 500 cars were sent to Hungary. By 1988, the capacity of
the Gurgaon plant was increased to 100,000 units per annum.

Manufacturing facilities

Maruti Suzuki has three manufacturing facilities in India. All manufacturing facilities have a
combined production capacity of 1,700,000 vehicles annually. The Gurgaon manufacturing
facility has three fully integrated manufacturing plants and is spread over 300 acres
(1.2 km2).The Gurgaon facilities also manufacture 240,000 K-Series engines annually. The
Gurgaon Facilities manufactures the Alto 800, WagonR, Ertiga, S-Cross, Vitara
Brezza, Ignis and Eeco.

The Manesar manufacturing plant was inaugurated in February 2007 and is spread over 600
acres (2.4 km2).Initially it had a production capacity of 100,000 vehicles annually but this
was increased to 300,000 vehicles annually in October 2008. The production capacity was
further increased by 250,000 vehicles taking total production capacity to 800,000 vehicles
annually.

The Manesar Plant produces the Alto 800, Alto K10, Swift, Ciaz, Baleno, Baleno
RS and Celerio. On 25 June 2012, Haryana State Industries and Infrastructure Development
Corporation demanded Maruti Suzuki to pay an additional Rs 235 crore for enhanced land
acquisition for its Haryana plant expansion. The agency reminded Maruti that failure to pay
the amount would lead to further proceedings and vacating the enhanced land
acquisition.[25]The launch of the Dzire happened in the month of May 2017 and the variant is
said to have good mileage[26]
The Gujarat manufacturing plant became operational in February 2017. The plant current
capacity is about 250,000 units per year. But with new investments Maruti Suzuki has plan to
take it to 450,000 units per year.[27]
In 2012, the company decided to merge Suzuki Powertrain India Limited (SPIL) with
itself.[28] SPIL was started as a JV by Suzuki Motor Corp. along with Maruti Suzuki. It has
the facilities available for manufacturing diesel engines and transmissions. The demand for
transmissions for all Maruti Suzuki cars is met by the production from SPIL.

Sales and service network

Maruti Suzuki has 1,820 sales outlets across 1,471 cities in India. The company aims to
double its sales network to 4,000 outlets by 2020.[59] It has 3,145 service stations across 1,506
cities throughout India.[60] Maruti's dealership network is larger than that of Hyundai,
Mahindra, Honda, Tata, Toyota and Ford combined.[61]Service is a major revenue generator
of the company. Most of the service stations are managed on franchise basis, where Maruti
Suzuki trains the local staff. Other automobile companies have not been able to match this
benchmark set by Maruti Suzuki. The Express Service stations help many stranded vehicles
on the highways by sending across their repair man to the vehicle.

Maruti Accessories
Many of the auto component companies other than Maruti Suzuki started to offer components
and accessories that were compatible. This caused a serious threat and loss of revenue to
Maruti Suzuki. Maruti Suzuki started a new initiative under the brand name Maruti Genuine

Accessories to offer accessories like alloy wheels, body cover, carpets, door visors, fog
lamps, stereo systems, seat covers and other car care products. These products are sold
through dealer outlets and authorized service stations throughout India

Awards and recognition

The Brand Trust Report published by Trust Research Advisory, a brand analytics company,
has ranked Maruti Suzuki in the thirty seventh position in 2013and eleventh position in
2014 among the most trusted brands of India.
Viewers' Choice Car of the Year published by CNBC-TV18 OVERDRIVE, Overdrive is
Indias No.1 Auto Publication for Cars and Bikes in India, has awarded Maruti Suzuki Baleno
the Viewers' Choice Car of the Year 2016

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

I had my training under the body servicing centre in the period ranging from 1st june,2018 to
29th june,2018 . The duration for my training per day was 9:00 am to 5:00 pm .In our this
working period i got new information and knowledge about cars and had my first physical
experience with servicing of cars. The centre where I worked had three main floors and a
basement . the basement was for servicing the cars where I worked ,the second floor was
mainly for to remove dents from the cars and the third floor was for painting and finishing for
the cars.
My main contribution was in servicing of car parts which mainly include changing engine
oil, changing oil filter , air filter , replacing spark plugs with the new ones, wheel balancing,
wheel alignment and other things. I was been guided properly by my co-workers to do these
things with 100% efficiency

A SLIGHT VIEW TOWARDS THE MAIN TOPICS

COOLANT

Coolant as we know is a antifreeze bright yellow or green liquid that mixes with water in
cars, trucks and other vehicles to keep the radiators from freezing or overheating. It is made
from either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. Antifreeze or coolant change the freezing
and boiling points of water.

WHEEL ALIGNMENT

Wheel alighnment referred to as breaking or tracking is part of standard automobile

maintainence that consist of adjusting the angles of wheels to the car manufacture
specifications . the purpose of these adjustments is to reduce tire wear, and to ensure that
vehicle travel is
straight and true (without "pulling" to one side).[1] Alignment angles can also be altered
beyond the maker's specifications to obtain a specific handling characteristic. Motorsport and
off-road applications may call for angles to be adjusted well beyond "normal", for a variety of
reasons.
An increasing number of modern vehicles have advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS)
such as electronic stability control, anti-lock brakes, lane departure warning, adaptive cruise
control and traction control. These systems can be affected by mechanical alignment
adjustments. This has led many manufacturers to require electronic resets for these systems
after a mechanical alignment is performed

DISC BRAKE

A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc or
"rotor"[1] to create friction.[2] This action retards the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle,
either to reduce its rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted
into waste heat which must be dispersed.
Hydraulically actuated disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor
vehicles, but the principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost any rotating shaft.
The disc is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such
as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to
the wheel and/or the axle. To retard the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads,
mounted on the brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically,
or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc.

Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Compared to drum brakes, disc
brakes offer better stopping performance because the disc is more readily cooled. As a
consequence discs are less prone to the brake fadecaused when brake components overheat.
Disc brakes also recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective than dry
ones).

DRUM BRAKE

A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press
outward against a rotating cylinder-shaped part called a brake drum.
The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the
drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually called a clasp brake. Where
the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a conventional disc brake, it is sometimes
called a pinch drum brake, though such brakes are relatively rare. A related type called
a band brake uses a flexible belt or "band" wrapping around the outside of a drum

Drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum, shoe, wheel cylinder, and
various springs and pins.

1. Backing Plate

2. Brake Drum

3. Wheel cylinder

4. Brake Shoe

SPARK PLUG

A spark plug (sometimes, in British English, a sparking plug,[1] and, colloquially, a plug) is
a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber of
a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while
containing combustion pressure within the engine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell,
electrically isolated from a central electrode by a porcelain insulator. The central electrode,
which may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output terminal
of an ignition coil or magneto
FILTERS

AC Filter

The primary purpose of a cabin filter or AC filter is to filter contaminants in the air entering
into the cabin through the AC ducts. The ambient air flowing in through the air ducts from
outside the car passes through a “cabin filter” inside the vehicle before entering the cabin.
This ensures allergens, dust, and dirt are removed from the air. The air then passes through
the cooling cool and the cold air blows out of the air vents into the cabin.

OIL FILTER

The oil filter helps remove contaminants from your car engine’s oil that can accumulate over
time as the oil keeps your engine clean

The importance of clean motor oil

Clean motor oil is important because if the oil were left unfiltered for a period of time, it
could become saturated with tiny, hard particles that can wear surfaces in your engine. This
dirty oil can wear the oil pump’s machined components and damage the bearing surfaces in
the engine

WHEEL BALANCING

Wheel balancing, also known as tire balancing, is the process of equalizing the weight of the
combined tire and wheel assembly so that it spins smoothly at high speed. Balancing involves
putting the wheel/tire assembly on a balancer, which centers the wheel and spins it to
determine where the weights should go.In essence, wheels and tires are never exactly the
same weight all around. The wheel's valve stem hole will usually subtract a small amount of
weight from that side of the wheel.
These are the short views of the topics which will be discussed further in the report.

Coolant

A coolant is a substance, typically liquid or gas, that is used to reduce or regulate the
temperature of a system. An ideal coolant has high thermal capacity, low viscosity, is low-
cost, non-toxic, chemically inert and neither causes nor promotes corrosion of the cooling
system. Some applications also require the coolant to be an electrical insulator.

While the term "coolant" is commonly used in automotive and HVAC applications, in
industrial processing heat transfer fluid is one technical term more often used in high
temperature as well as low temperature manufacturing applications. The term also covers
cutting fluids. Industrial cutting fluid has broadly classified as water soluble coolant and neat
cutting fluid. Water soluble coolant is oil in water emulsion. It has varying oil content from
nil oil (synthetic coolant).
Water is the most common coolant. Its high heat capacity and low cost makes it a suitable
heat-transfer medium. It is usually used with additives, like corrosion inhibitors and
antifreeze. Antifreeze, a solution of a suitable organic chemical (most often ethylene glycol,
diethylene glycol, or propylene glycol) in water, is used when the water-based coolant has to
withstand temperatures below 0 °C, or when its boiling point has to be raised. Betaine is a
similar coolant, with the exception that it is made from pure plant juiceand is therefore not
toxic or difficult to dispose of ecologically.
 Wheel Alignment

In its most basic form, a wheel alignment consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels so
that they are perpendicular to the ground and parallel to each other. The purpose of these
adjustments is maximum tire life and a vehicle that tracks straight and true when driving
along a straight and level road.

We will cover various levels of detail with the deepest levels containing information that
even a wheel alignment technician will find informative.

Wheel Alignment is often confused with Wheel Balancing. The two really have nothing to
do with each other except for the fact that they affect ride and handling. If a wheel is out of
balance, it will cause a vibration at highway speeds that can be felt in the steering wheel
and/or the seat. If the alignment is out, it can cause excessive tire wear and steering or
tracking problems. If you know anything about wheel alignment, you've probably heard the
terms

Camber, Caster and Toe-in.

Camber

Camber is the angle of the wheel, measured in degrees, when

viewed from the front of the vehicle. If the top of the wheel is
leaning out from the center of the car, then the camber is positive,if
it's leaning in, then the camber is negative. If the camber is out of
adjustment, it will cause tire wear on one side of the tire's tread. If
the camber is too far negative, for instance, then the tire will wear
on the inside of the tread.
Camber wear pattern

If the camber is different from side to side

it can cause a pulling problem. The vehicle will pull to the side with
the more positive camber. On many front-wheel-drive vehicles,

camber is not adjustable. If the camber is out on these cars, it indicates that something is
worn or bent, possibly from an accident and must be repaired or replaced.

Caster

When you turn the steering wheel, the front wheels respond by turning on a pivot attached to
the suspension system. Caster is the angle of this steering pivot, measured in degrees, when
viewed from the side of the vehicle. If the top of the pivot is leaning toward the rear of the
car, then the caster is positive, if it is leaning toward the front, it is negative. If the caster is
out of adjustment, it can cause problems in straight line tracking. If the caster is
differentfrom side to side, the vehicle will pull to the side with the less positive caster. If the
caster is equal but too negative, the steering will be light and the vehicle will wander and be
difficult to keep in a straight line. If the caster is equal but too positive, the steering will be
heavy and the steering wheel may kick when you hit a bump. Caster has little affect on tire
wear.
The best way to visualize caster is to picture a shopping cart caster. The pivot of this type of
caster, while not at an angle, intersects the ground ahead of the wheel contact patch. When
the wheel is behind the pivot at the point where it contacts the ground, it is in positive caster.
Picture yourself trying to push the cart and keep the wheel ahead of the pivot. The wheel
will continually try to turn from straight ahead. That is what happens when a car has the
caster set too far negative. Like camber, on many front-wheel-drive vehicles, caster is not
adjustable. If the caster is out on these cars, it indicates that something is worn or bent,
possibly from an accident, and must be repaired or replaced.

Toe-in

The toe measurement is the difference in the distance between the front of the tires and the
back of the tires. It is measured in fractions of an inch in the US and is usually set close to
zero which means that the wheels are parallel with each other. Toe-in means that the fronts
of the tires are closer to each other than the rears. Toe-out is just the opposite. An incorrect
toe-in will cause rapid tire wear to both tires equally. This type of tire wear is

called a saw-tooth wear pattern as shown in this illustration.

If the sharp edges of the tread sections are pointing to the center of the car, then there is too
much toe-in. If they are pointed to the outside of the car then there is too much toe-out. Toe
is always adjustable on the front wheels and on some cars, is also adjustable for the rear
wheels.

Four-Wheel Alignments

There are two main types of 4-wheel alignments. In each case, the technician will place an
instrument on all four wheels. In the first type the rear toe and tracking is checked, but all
adjustments are made at the front wheels. This is done on vehicles that do not have
adjustments on the rear. The second type is a full 4-wheel alignment where the adjustments
are first made to true up the rear alignment, then the front is adjusted. A full 4-wheel
alignment will cost more than the other type because there is more work involved.

Other facts every driver should know about wheel alignments.

A proper wheel alignment should always start and end with a test
drive.The front end and steering linkage should be checked for wear before performing an
alignment.

The tires should all be in good shape with even wear patterns. If you have a tire with
excessive camber wear, for instance, and you correct the alignment problem that caused that
wear, the tire will now be making only partial contact with the road(see illustration on right).

Pulling problems are not always related to wheel alignment. Problems with tires(especially
unequal air pressure), brakes and power steering can also be responsible. It is up to a good
wheel alignment technician to determine the cause.

Advanced Wheel Alignment Information.

While Camber, Caster & Toe-in are the settings that are always checked when doing a wheel
alignment, they are not the only settings. Below is a list of the alignment settings that
areimportant for a wheel alignment technician to know about in order to diagnose front end
problems.
To find out more about each of these measurements, click on them.

Camber
Caster
Toe
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI)
Included Angle
Scrub Radius
Riding Height
Set Back
Thrust Angle
Steering Center
Toe Out on Turns

Camber

When camber specifications are determined during the design stage, a number of factors are
taken into account. The engineers account for the fact that wheel alignment specifications
used by alignment technicians are for a vehicle that is not moving. On many vehicles,
camber changes with different road speeds. This is because aerodynamic forces cause a
change in riding height from the height of a vehicle at rest. Because of this, riding height
should be checked and problems corrected before setting camber. Camber specs are set so
that when a vehicle is at highway speed, the camber is at the optimal setting for minimum
tire wear.

For many years the trend has been to set the camber from zero to slightly positive to offset
vehicle loading, however the current trend is to slightly negative settings to increase vehicle
stability and improve handling.

Return
Caster

Positive caster improves straight line tracking because the caster line (the line drawn through
the steering pivot when viewed from the side) intersects the ground ahead of the contact
patch of the tire. Just like a shopping cart caster, the wheel is forced behind the pivot
allowing the vehicle to track in a straight line.

If this is the case, then why did most cars have negative caster specs prior to 1975? There
are a couple of reasons for this. In those days, people were looking for cars that steered as
light as a feather, and cars back then were not equipped with radial tires. Non-radial tires
had a tendency to distort at highway speed so that the contact patch moved back past the
centerline of the tire (Picture a cartoon car speeding along, the tires are generally drawn as
egg-shaped). The contact patch generally moves behind the caster line causing, in effect, a
positive caster. This is why, when you put radial tires on this type of car, the car wanders
from side to side and no longer tracks straight. To correct this condition, re-adjust the caster
to positive and the car should steer like a new car.

Return
Toe

Like camber, toe will change depending on vehicle speed. As aerodynamic forces change
the riding height, the toe setting may change due to the geometry of the steering linkage in
relation to the geometry of the suspension. Because of this, specifications are determined for
a vehicle that is not moving based on the toe being at zero when the vehicle is at highway
speed. In the early days prior to radial tires, extra toe-in was added to compensate for tire
drag at highway speed.

On some older alignment machines, toe-in was

measured at each wheel by referencing the opposite wheel. This method caused problems
with getting the steering wheel straight the first time and necessitated corrective adjustments
before the wheel was straight. Newer machines reference the vehicle's centerline by putting
instruments on all four wheels. For more information on this see Steering Center and
Thrust angle.

Return
Steering Axis Inclination (SAI)

SAI is the measurement in degrees of the steering pivot line when viewed from the front of
the vehicle. This angle, when added to the camber to form the included angle (see below)
causes the vehicle to lift slightly when you turn the wheel away from a straight ahead
position. This action uses the weight of the vehicle to cause the steering wheel to return to
the center when you let go of it after making a turn. Because of this, if the SAI is different
from side to side, it will cause a pull at very slow speeds. Most alignment machines have a
way to measure SAI; however it is not separately adjustable. The most likely cause for SAI
being out is bent partswhich must be replaced to correct the condition. SAI is also referred to
as KPI (King Pin Inclination) on trucks and old cars with king pins instead of

ball joints.

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Included Angle

Included angle is the angle formed between the SAI and the camber. Included angle is not
directly measurable. To determine the included angle, you add the SAI to the camber. If the
camber is negative, then the included angle will be less than the SAI, if the camber is
positive, it will be greater. The included angle must be the same from side to side even if the
camber is different. If it is not the same, then something is bent, most likely the steering
knuckle.

Return

Scrub Radius

Scrub radius is the distance and the center of the tireside to side or the vehicle angle
problems will affect affect it. Different wheels or scrub radius as well as a tire the tire
contact patch is radius is when the contact drive vehicles usually havebetween where the
SAI intersects the ground This distance must be exactly the same from will pull strongly at
all speeds. While included the scrub radius, it is not the only thing that will tires from side to
side will cause differences in that is low on air. Positive scrub radius is when outside of the
SAI pivot, while negative scrub patch is inboard of the SAI pivot (front wheel negative
scrub radius).

If the brake on one front wheel is not working, with positive scrub radius, stepping on the
brake will cause the steering wheel to try to rip out of your hand. Negative scrub radius will
minimize that effect.

Scrub radius is designed at the factory and is not adjustable. If you have a vehicle that is
pulling even though the alignment is correct, look for something that will affect scrub
radius.

Return
Riding Height

Riding height is measured, usually in inches, from the rocker panel to the ground. Good
wheel alignment charts provide specs, but the main thing is that the measurements should be
within one inch from side to side and front to rear. Riding height is not adjustable except on
vehicles with torsion bar type springs. The best way to fix this problem is to replace the
springs (Note: springs should only be replaced in
Spark Plug

Spark plugs are instrumental in making a gasoline engine run. They shoot out a spark of
electricity into the compressed mixture of air and gasoline within an engine's cylinders. This
ignites the mixture and forces the cylinder's piston down. The motion of the piston is what
creates power.

Spark plugs also have another job -- they pull heat away from the combustion chamber. That
means spark plugs can get very hot. In general, cars have a spark plug for every cylinder in
the engine. For instance, a four-cylinder engine will have four spark plugs. However, there
are exceptions to the rule -- a vehicle with a HEMI engine will have two spark plugs per
cylinder.

The spark plug is quite simple in theory: It forces electricity to arc across a gap, just like a
bolt of lightning. The electricity must be at a very high voltage in order to travel across the
gap and create a good spark. Voltage at the spark plug can be anywhere from 40,000 to
100,000 volts.
Spark plugs use a ceramic insert to isolate the high voltage at the electrode, ensuring that the
spark happens at the tip of the electrode and not anywhere else on the plug; this insert does
double-duty by helping to burn off deposits. Ceramic is a fairly poor heat conductor, so the
material gets quite hot during operation. This heat helps to burn off deposits from the
electrode.
Some cars require a hot plug. This type of plug is designed with a ceramic insert that has a
smaller contact area with the metal part of the plug. This reduces the from the ceramic,
making it run hotter and thus burn away more deposits. Cold plugs are designed with more
contact area, so they run cooler.

The carmaker will select the right temperature plug for each car. Some cars with high-
performance engines naturally generate more heat, so they need colder plugs. If the spark
plug gets too hot, it could ignite the fuel before the spark fires; so it is important to stick with
the right type of plug for your car.

Spark plugs wear out over time. As they get older, they may not spark properly. This affects
your engine's performance and results in a loss of power. But replacing your spark plugs isn't
like other car repair projects -- it's much more straightforward and only requires a few tools.
You don't need to be a skilled auto mechanic to change your car's spark plugs. In most cases,
you can switch out an old set for new plugs in about an hour.

Before changing your spark plugs, you should consult your vehicle's owner's manual. You're
looking for two things: how often you should change your spark plugs and where the spark
plugs are located on your engine. For most vehicles, the rule of thumb is to replace your
spark plugs every 30,000 miles (48,280 kilometers).

You should also make sure the engine is cold before you start -- spark plugs can get very hot!
Even after other parts of your engine have cooled down, the spark plugs may still be too
warm to touch. Let your engine cool down for a couple of hours before you begin.

Tools Needed to Change Spark Plugs in a Car

You'll need just a few tools to change out the spark plugs on your car. The most important
tool is a socket wrench with an extension and a spark plug socket. Spark plug sockets come in
two sizes: 5/8 inches and 13/16 inches. Most spark plug sockets have a rubber insert that
holds the plug snugly in place.

You may also need a universal joint if your spark plugs are difficult to reach. Universal joints
are articulated joints that allow you to turn the wrench in one axis and convert this motion
into a rotation around another axis. If you can't maneuver a wrench and extension in the space
around your spark plugs, a universal joint may help.
When replacing spark plugs, it's important to avoid over-tightening the plugs. Tightening a
spark plug too far could damage the plug or the threads in the cylinder head. Use a torque
wrench to make sure you don't over-tighten your plugs. Torque wrenches have a gauge that
displays the torque you've applied when turning the wrench.

While most modern spark plugs come pre-gapped from the manufacturer, a gapping tool is
good to have on hand. You use a gapping tool to make sure the gap between the spark plug's
center electrode and the ground electrode above it are the right distance apart. This is where
the spark fires on your spark plug.

You may also want to have on hand a pair of boot pliers, a length of rubber tube, a clean rag,
some rubbing alcohol, a tube of anti-seize and compressed air or a wet/dry vacuum on hand.
These items aren't critical for a basic spark plug replacement job but can help ensure that the
process goes smoothly.

What is the benefit of replacing a spark plug?

The primary benefit is knowing your car will start without a hitch. Needless to say, that’s not
all that matters. New spark plugs provide a lot of other performance benefits as well.
New Bosch spark plugs will lead to:
• Consistent production of optimal combustion. Fully functioning spark plugs equate
a fully functioning combustion system. Get this operating successfully, and a lot of
performance issues you’re experiencing could be a distant memory.
• Better fuel economy. The National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence says
misfiring spark plugs can reduce fuel efficiency by 30%. New plugs, when replaced at
specified intervals, maximize fuel economy and save some dough.
• Smooth and energetic starts. The first time you turn the ignition with a new spark
plug can be a eye-opening experience. That old spark plug may have been the reason
your car was experiencing those jerky starts.
• Less harmful emissions. The Environmental Protection Agency states that regular
engine tune-ups – especially in regard to spark plugs – not only save gas but also
reduce air pollution. That’s a win-win.
Bosch spark plugs are engineered to last.
Schedule a spark plug replacement, inspection or tune-up today.
What symptoms may indicate my vehicle’s spark plugs need replacing?

The signs of worn spark plugs. Hear it. Feel it. Sense it.
• Rattling, pinging or “knock”-like noises. When spark plugs begin to misfire, you
may notice unusual noises from the force of the pistons and combustion not working
properly. Pistons travel at high velocities. If the spark plug fires at the wrong time,
this could lead to constant rattling, pinging or knocking sounds.
• Hard vehicle start. If your car is having trouble starting or just feels disjointed and
jerky, your spark plugs may not be working right, and this can lead to misfires and
erratic performance.
• Reduced performance. When you’re out cruising, your spark plugs fire when you
accelerate and change gears. If the spark that this little plug generates isn’t
functioning at 100 percent, your vehicle performance will be poor, and you’ll
experience a sluggish and fuel-wasting drive.
• Poor fuel economy. Lots of things can lead to poor fuel economy, though when it
comes to old spark plugs, you’ll find fuel is wasted since your vehicle fails to receive
the proper, heat-generating spark at the right time.
 AC filter

Function of AC filter
The primary purpose of a cabin filter or AC filter is to filter contaminants in the air entering
into the cabin through the AC ducts. The ambient air flowing in through the air ducts from
outside the car passes through a “cabin filter” inside the vehicle before entering the cabin.
This ensures allergens, dust, and dirt are removed from the air. The air then passes through
the cooling cool and the cold air blows out of the air vents into the cabin.

Symptomsof AC filter
Clogged cabin filters can result in
• Restricted air flow into the cabin (blower doesnt throw enough cool air into the cabin)
• Higher strain on the engine (and lower power from the engine when AC is turned on)
• Increased dust levels in the cabin

Location in the car

In most cars, the cabin air filter is located behind the glove box on the passenger side of the
car. In some cases, the glove box will have to be removed to access the air filter. Also, in
some cars like Fiat Palios and Puntos, the entire dashboard will need to be removed to access
the cabin filter.

Air Filter

you talk about engines but it plays a vital role in keeping your mill healthy.

All fuel burning engines require a constant supply of air in order to function properly.
Air filters clean the air before it is passed through to the cylinders to prevent dust, dirt,
grit, and other debris from causing any damage.

To put it in perspective, you can compare an air filter with your nose as it filters out
foreign particles before the air reaches your lungs, ensuring that the respiratory system
can function properly. A car engine air filter might not be the first thing that comes to a
person's mind when

Change car engine filter

There is no simple answer as to how often a car engine air filter should be changed. It
depends on a number of factors, such as how many miles the vehicle has been driven
and the environment it is driven in. Vehicles driven in rural or dusty areas may need an
air filter replacement more often. Alternatively, a filter that is more suited to
particularly dusty areas can be purchased.
Benefits of a clean car engine air filter

1. Better performance and efficiency

A clean air filter improves the quality and quantity of clean air entering the engine, and
this improves the engine performance and efficiency. Dirty air filters will not allow the
same amount of air to enter the engine as a clean one would. Studies have shown that
fuel economy can be improved by up to 14 per cent with a clean air filter.

2. Extended engine life

Regularly changing the air filter is an inexpensive way to extend the life of an engine.
Small particles of dust or sand can cause damage to internal parts such as pistons and
cylinders.

3. Inexpensive and quick to change

An air filter is one of the cheapest and easiest parts to fit. In fact, many people choose
to change their own air filters themselvess
Oil filter

An oil filter is a filter designed to remove contaminants from engine oil, transmission
oil, lubricating oil, or hydraulic oilOil filters are used in many different types of hydraulic
machinery. A chief use of the oil filter is in internal-combustion engines in on- and off-
road motor vehicles, light aircraft, and various naval vessels. Other vehicle hydraulic
systems, such as those in automatic transmissions and power steering, are often equipped
with an oil filter. Gas turbine engines, such as those on jet aircraft, also require the use of oil
filters. Aside from these uses, oil production, transport, and recycling facilities also employ
filters in the manufacturing process.

The importance of clean motor oil

Clean motor oil is important because if the oil were left unfiltered for a period of time, it
could become saturated with tiny, hard particles that can wear surfaces in your engine. This
dirty oil can wear the oil pump’s machined components and damage the bearing surfaces in
the engine.

Working of oil filters

The outside of the filter is a metal can with a sealing gasket that allows it to be tightly held
against the engine’s mating surface. The base plate of the can holds the gasket and is
perforated with holes around the area just inside the gasket. A central hole is threaded to mate
with the oil filter assembly on the engine block. Inside the can is the filter material, most
frequently made from synthetic fiber. The engine’s oil pump moves the oil directly to the
filter, where it enters from the holes in the perimeter of the base plate. The dirty oil is passed
(pushed under pressure) through the filter media and back
Choosing the right oil filter
Choosing the correct oil filter for your vehicle is of the utmost importance. Most oil filters
look very similar, but small differences in the threads or gasket size can determine whether or
not a particular filter will work on your vehicle. The best way to determine which oil filter
you need is by consulting your owner’s manual or by referencing a parts catalog. Using the
wrong filter can cause oil to leak out of the engine, or an ill-fitting filter could just fall off.
Either of these situations could lead to serious engine damage.

You get what you pay for

Generally speaking, the more money you spend the better the filter is. Lower-cost oil filters
can contain light-gauge metal, loose (or shredding) filter material, and poor quality gaskets
that can lead to failure of the filter. Some filters may filter out smaller bits of dirt a little
better, and some may last longer. So, you should research the features of each filter that fits
your vehicle to determine which one best fits your needs.

Engine oil

Motor oil is a lubricant used in internal combustion engines, which power cars, motorcycles,
lawnmowers, engine-generators, and many other machines. In engines, there are parts which
move against each other, and the friction wastes otherwise useful power by converting the
kinetic energy to heat. It also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower efficiency
and degradation of the engine. This increases fuel consumption, decreases power output, and
can lead
Lubricating oil creates a separating film between surfaces of adjacent moving parts to
minimize direct contact between them, decreasing heat caused by friction and reducing wear,
thus protecting the engine. In use, motor oil transfers heat through conduction as it flows
through the engine.[3] In an engine with a recirculating oil pump, this heat is transferred by
means of air flow over the exterior surface of the [oil pan], airflow through an oil cooler and
through oil gases evacuated by the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system. While
modern recirculating pumps are typically provided in passenger cars and other engines
similar or larger in size, total loss oiling is a design option that remains popular in small and
miniature engines.

In petrol (gasoline) engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of
160 °C (320 °F). In diesel engines the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over 315 °C
Hydraulic fluid

A hydraulic fluid or hydraulic liquid is the medium by which power is transferred in

hydraulic machinery. Common hydraulic fluids are based on mineral oil or water.[1]
Examples of equipment that might use hydraulic fluids are excavators and backhoes,
hydraulic brakes, power steering systems, transmissions, garbage trucks, aircraft flight
control systems, lifts, and industrial machinery.

Brake fluid

Brake fluid is a subtype of hydraulic fluid with high boiling point, both when new (specified
by the equilibrium boiling point) and after absorption of water vapor (specified by wet
boiling point). Under the heat of braking, both free water and water vapor in a braking system
can boil into a compressible vapor, resulting in brake failure.[5] Glycol-ether based fluids are
hygroscopic, and absorbed moisture will greatly reduce the boiling point over time. Mineral
oil and silicone based fluids are not hygroscopic.
Power steering fluid

Power steering fluid is a sub type of hydraulic fluid. Most are mineral oil or silicone based
fluids, while some use automatic transmission fluid, made from synthetic base oil.Use of the
wrong type of fluid can lead to failure of the power steering pump.

Gear oil

Gear oil is a lubricant made specifically for transmissions, transfer cases, and differentials in
automobiles, trucks, and other machinery. It is of a high viscosity and usually contains
organosulfur compounds. Some modern automatic transaxles (integrated transmission and
differential) do not use a heavy oil at all but lubricate with the lower viscosity hydraulic fluid,
which is available at pressure within the automatic transmission. Gear oils account for about
20% of the lubricant market.

Most lubricants for manual gearboxes and differentials contain extreme pressure (EP)
additives and antiwear additives to cope with the sliding action of hypoid bevel gears.
Typical additives include dithiocarbamate derivatives and sulfur-treated organic compounds
("sulfurized hydrocarbons").

EP additives which contain phosphorus/sulfur compounds are corrosive to yellow metals

such as the copper and/or brass used in bushings and synchronizers; the GL-1 class of gear
oils does not contain any EP additives and thus finds use in applications which contain parts
made of yellow metals.

GL-5 is not necessarily backward-compatible in synchro-mesh transmissions which are

designed for a GL-4 oil: GL-5 has a lower coefficient of friction due to the higher
concentration of EP additives over GL-4, and thus synchroscan not engage as effectively.
API ratings

Gearbox oils are classified by the American Petroleum Institute using GL ratings. The higher
an oil's GL-rating, the more pressure can be sustained without any metal-to-metal contact
taking place between transmission components. Separate differential usually have higher
pressure between metal parts than gearboxes and therefore need higher GL-rating. For
example, most modern gearboxes require a GL-4 oil, and separate differentials (where fitted)
require a GL-5 oil.

While they take the same form, the viscosity grades for gear oils are on a different scale than
the viscosity grades for an engine oil. The viscometrics for gear oils are standardized in SAE
J306. Multigrade gear oils are becoming more common; while gear oil does not reach the
temperatures of motor oil, it does warm up appreciably as the car is driven, due mostly to
shear friction (with a s
Disc brake

Close-up of a disc brake on a car

A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calipers to squeeze pairs of pads against a disc or
"rotor" to create friction. This action retards the rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle,
either to reduce its rotational speed or to hold it stationary. The energy of motion is converted
into waste heat which must be dispersed.

Hydraulically actuated disc brakes are the most commonly used form of brake for motor
vehicles, but the principles of a disc brake are applicable to almost any rotating shaft.

Design
Development of disc-type brakes began in England in the 1890s. In 1902, the Lanchester
Motor Company designed brakes that looked and operated in a similar way to a modern disc-
brake system even though the disc was thin and a cable activated the brake pad. Other
designs were not practical or widely available in cars for another 60 years. Successful
application began in airplanes before World War II, and even the German Tiger tank was
fitted with discs in 1942. After the war, technological progress began to arrive in the 1950s,
leading to a critical demonstration of superiority at the 1953 24 Hours of Le Mans race,
which required braking from high speeds several times per lap. The Jaguar racing team won,
using disc brake equipped cars, with much of the credit being given to the brakes' superior
performance over rivals equipped with drum brakes. Mass production began with the 1955
Citroën DS.

Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance because the disc is
more readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to the brake fade caused when
brake components overheat. Disc brakes also recover more quickly from immersion (wet
brakes are less effective than dry ones).

Most drum brake designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By
contrast, a disc brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always proportional to
the pressure placed on the brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking
pedal, or lever. This tends to give the driver better "feel" and helps to avoid impending
lockup. Drums are also prone to "bell mouthing" and trap worn lining material within the
assembly, both causes of various braking problems.
The disc is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be made of composites such as
reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel
and/or the axle. To retard the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads, mounted on
the brake caliper, is forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or
electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached
wheel to slow or stop.

Brake disc

The brake disc (or rotor) is the rotating part of a wheel's disc brake assembly, against which
the brake pads are applied. The material is typically gray iron, a form of cast iron. The
design of the discs varies somewhat. Some are simply solid, but others are hollowed out with
fins or vanes joining together the disc's two contact surfaces (usually included as part of a
casting process). The weight and power of the vehicle determines the need for ventilated
discs. The "ventilated" disc design helps to dissipate the generated heat and is commonly
used on the more-heavily loaded front discs.

Discs for motorcycles, bicycles, and many cars often have holes or slots cut through the disc.
This is done for better heat dissipation, to aid surface-water dispersal, to reduce noise, to
reduce mass, or for marketing cosmetics.

Slotted discs have shallow channels machined into the disc to aid in removing dust and gas.
Slotting is the preferred method in most racing environments to remove gas and water and to
deglaze brake pads. Some discs are both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not
used on standard vehicles because they quickly wear down brake pads; however, this removal
of material is beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps the pads soft and avoids vitrification
of their surface.
A floating disc is splined, rather than rigidly fixed, to the hub as a way of avoiding thermal
stress, cracking and warping. This allows the disc to expand in a controlled symmetrical way
and with less unwanted heat transfer to the hub.

Calipers

The brake caliper is the assembly which houses the brake pads and pistons. The pistons are
usually made of plastic, aluminium or chrome-plated steel.

Calipers are of two types, floating or fixed. A fixed caliper does not move relative to the
disc and is thus less tolerant of disc imperfections. It uses one or more pairs of opposing
pistons to clamp from each side of the disc, and is more complex and expensive than a
floating caliper.

A floating caliper (also called a "sliding caliper") moves with respect to the disc, along a line
parallel to the axis of rotation of the disc; a piston on one side of the disc pushes the inner
brake pad until it makes contact with the braking surface, then pulls the caliper body with the
outer brake pad so pressure is applied to both sides of the disc. Floating caliper (single piston)
designs are subject to sticking failure, caused by dirt or corrosion entering at least one
mounting mechanism and stopping its normal movement. This can lead to the caliper's pads
rubbing on the disc when the brake is not engaged or engaging it at an angle. Sticking can
result from infrequent vehicle use, failure of a seal or rubber protection boot allowing debris
entry, dry-out of the grease in the mounting mechanism and subsequent moisture incursion
leading to corrosion, or some combination of these factors. Consequences may include
reduced fuel efficiency, extreme heating of the disc or excessive wear on the affected pad. A
sticking front caliper may also cause steering vibration.
Brake pads

Brake pads are designed for high friction with brake pad material embedded in the disc in
the process of bedding while wearing evenly. Friction can be divided into two parts. They
are: adhesive and abrasive.

Depending on the properties of the material of both the pad and the disc and the configuration
and the usage, pad and disc wear rates will vary considerably. The properties that determine
material wear involve trade-offs between performance and longevity.

The brake pads must usually be replaced regularly (depending on pad material, and
drivestyle), and some are equipped with a mechanism that alerts drivers that replacement is
needed, such as a thin piece of soft metal that rubs against the disc when the pads are too thin
causing the brakes to squeal, a soft metal tab embedded in the pad material that closes an
electric circuit and lights a warning light when the brake pad gets thin, or an electronic
sensor.

Generally road-going vehicles have two brake pads per caliper, while up to six are installed
on each racing caliper, with varying frictional properties in a staggered pattern for optimum
performance.
Hydraulic lift

A two post above ground lift is designed to raise cars and trucks for easy access to wheel
assemblies and the underside of the vehicle. A two post above ground lift is normally
mounted to an existing concrete surface. Minimal concrete depth required for a two post
above ground lift is four inches. Thicker concrete is required for two post lifts exceeding a
12,000 LB.

The lift consists of two upright columns, four adjustable arms attached to a carriage
assembly, two hydraulic cylinders, an electric/hydraulic power unit, and a variety of hoses,
pulleys, and cables. This is the most common style of two post above ground lift found in the
USA. There are several European manufacturers building above ground lifts that use an
extruded screw/nut configuration powered by an electric motor. (These are not popular in the
USA) This discussion will focus on the more popular electric/hydraulic two post above
ground lifts sold in the USA.

The two post above ground lift was developed for automotive facilities that were unable to
install in-ground lifts. Many automotive service centers are built over rock (and excavation is
impossible or impractical) or buildings located on property with a high ground water table.
The two post above ground lifts is also the perfect choice to replace an inoperable in-ground
lift, thereby avoiding down-time and the removal/installation mess created with an in-ground
lift.

Most two post above ground lifts are powered by an electric/hydraulic power unit.

The power unit is an assembly of the following main component parts:

Electric motor (usually 220 Volt single phase 60 HZ).

The preferred electric motor should offer maximum torque while drawing the least amount of
amperage.

A high horsepower motor is NOT an advantage over a lower horsepower motor delivering the
same torque.

Hydraulic pump mounted below the motor assembly (with preset valve pressure limit)

Plastic reservoir for the hydraulic fluid

Dump valve handle to allow hydraulic fluid to flow into the reservoir from the hydraulic
system.

When the power button on the electric motor is pressed, the electric/hydraulic power unit
delivers pressurized hydraulic fluid (through hydraulic hoses) to the two cylinders (one is
located in each of the opposing columns). The pressure of the hydraulic fluid is regulated by
the factory preset pump valve.
The lifts (although capable of lifting a weight more than the rated lift capacity) are limited to
their rated capacity by the pre

ssure valve located in the electric/hydraulic power unit. This pressure valve is FACTORY
installed and adjusted to PROTECT the operator from OVERLOADING the lift. DO NOT
ADJUST THE PRESSURE VALVE!

(Important: The weight of the vehicle to be lifted must be evenly distributed on the four arm
pads. A 10,000 two post above ground lift will easily lift 10,000 LB. of evenly distributed
vehicle weight. That means 2,500 LB. per arm. An unsafe lifting condition would exist if a
10,000 LB. vehicle was positioned so that the rear arms supported 4,000 LB. each.)

The pressurized hydraulic fluid flows to both hydraulic cylinders through the set of hydraulic
hoses. These hoses are routed either over the top of the lift (through the overhead beam found
on an overhead two post above ground hoist) or on the floor (covered by the diamond plate
base plate found on base plate two post above ground lifts). Hydraulic fluid DOES NOT
MOVE at the speed of light. The hydraulic cylinder on the "smart" column (the column with
the power unit attached) will receive hydraulic fluid before the hydraulic cylinder on the "off"
column.

To ensure that both carriages and all four arms move at the same time; a set of equalization
cables is installed between the carriages. These equalization cables are routed in the same
manner as the hydraulic lines. The equalization cables

DO NOT do the lifting of the carriages. The equalization cables are used to make sure that all
arms are level and locks inside both columns are engaging simultaneously. Yes, the cables
apply pressure and are exerting a "force" on the carriages, but their primary job is to equalize
the rise and descent of the lift arms (carriages). The hydraulically pressurized pistons
(encased in the twin hydraulic cylinders) are responsible for lifting the vehicle. A few
manufacturers use a hydraulic system for equalization. It is believed that the aircraft cable
equalization system provides the most positive results and use this system exclusively on all
two post above ground lifts.

The two post lifts have automatic safety arm locks. These locks are designed to secure the lift
arms, once the arm pads have been properly positioned under the vehicle. These automatic
arms locks engage once when the vehicle is lifted two inches off the ground, and then
automatically disengage when the vehicle is lowered to the ground.
 Tire balance

Tire balance, also called tire unbalance or tire imbalance, describes the distribution of mass
within an automobile tire or the entire wheel (including the rim) on which it is mounted

When the wheel rotates, asymmetries in its mass distribution may cause it to apply periodic
forces and torques to the axle, which can cause ride disturbances, usually as vertical and
lateral vibrations, and this may also cause the steering wheel to oscillate. The frequency and
magnitude of this ride disturbance usually increases with speed, and vehicle suspensions may
become excited when the rotating frequency of the wheel equals the resonant frequency of
the suspension.

Tire balance is measured in factories and repair shops by two methods: with static balancers
and with dynamic balancers. Tires with large unbalances are downgraded or rejected. When
tires are fitted to wheels at the point of sale, they are measured again on a balancing machine,
and correction weights are applied to counteract their combined unbalance. Tires may be
rebalanced if driver perceives excessive vibration. Tire b

alancing is distinct from wheel alignment.

Static balance

Static balance requires the wheel center of mass to be located on its axis of rotation, usually
at the center of the axle on which it is mounted. Static balance can be measured by a static
balancing machine where the tire is placed on a vertical, non-rotating spindle. If the center of
mass of the tire is not located on this vertical axis, then gravity will cause the axis to deflect.
The amount of deflection indicates the magnitude of the unbalance, and the orientation of the
deflection indicates the angular location of the unbalance. In tire manufacturing factories,
static balancers use sensors mounted to the spindle assembly. In tire retail shops, static
balancers are usually non-rotating bubble balancers, where the magnitude and angle of the
unbalance is indicated by the center bubble in an oil-filled glass sighting gauge. While some
very small shops that lack specialized machines still do this process, they have been largely
replaced in larger shops with machines.

Dynamic balance

Dynamic balance requires that a principal axis of the tire's moment of inertia be aligned with
the axis about which the tire rotates, usually the axle on which it is mounted. In the tire
factory, the tire and wheel are mounted on a balancing machine test wheel, the assembly is
rotated at 100 RPM (10 to 15 mph with recent high sensitivity sensors) or higher, 300 RPM
(55 to 60 mph with typical low sensitivity sensors), and forces of unbalance are measured by
sensors. These forces are resolved into static and couple values for the inner and outer planes
of the wheel, and compared to the unbalance tolerance (the maximum allowable
manufacturing limits). If the tire is not checked, it has the potential to cause vibration in the
suspension of the vehicle on which it is mounted. In tire retail shops, tire/wheel assemblies
are checked on a spin-balancer, which determines the amount and angle of unbalance.
Balance weights are then fitted to the outer and inner flanges of the wheel.

Although dynamic balance is theoretically better than static balance, because both dynamic
and static imbalances can be measured and corrected, its effectiveness is disputed because of
the flexible nature of the rubber. A tire in a free spinning machine may not experience the
same centrifugal distortion, heat distortion, nor weight and camber that it would on a vehicle.
Dynamic balancing may therefore create new unintended imbalances.

Dynamic balancing has traditionally required removing the wheel from the vehicle, but
sensors installed in modern cars, such as for anti-lock brakes, enable estimating the
imbalance while driving.
The physics of dynamic balance

To a first approximation, which neglects deformations due to its elasticity, the wheel is a
rigid rotor that is constrained to rotate about its axle. If a principal axis of the wheel's moment
of inertia is not aligned with the axle, due to an asymmetric mass distribution, then an
external torque, perpendicular to the axle, is necessary to force the wheel to rotate about the
axle. This additional torque must be provided by the axle and its orientation rotates
continuously with the wheel. The reaction to this torque, by Newton's Third Law is applied to
the axle, which transfers it to the suspension and can cause it vibrate. Automotive technicians
can reduce this vibration to an acceptable level when balancing the wheel by adding small
masses to the inner and outer wheel rims that bring the principal axis into alignment with the
axle.

Vehicle vibration

Vibration in automobiles may occur for many reasons, such as wheel unbalance, imperfect
tire or wheel shape, brake pulsation, and worn or loose driveline, suspension, or steering
components. Foreign material, such as road tar, stones, ice, or snow, that is stuck in a tire's
tread or otherwise adhered to the tire or wheel may also cause a temporary unbalance and
subsequent vibration.

Environmental consequences

Every year, millions of small weights are attached to tires by automotive technicians
balancing them. Traditionally, these weights have been made of lead; it is estimated that up to
500,000 pounds of lead, having fallen off car wheels, ended up in the environment.
According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, worldwide these total more than
20,000 tonnes of lead annually and therefore the use of less-toxic materials is encouraged. In
Europe, lead weights have been banned since 2005; in the US, some states have also banned
them. Alternatives are weights made of lead alloys that include zinc or copper, or weights
that are altogether lead-free.[8] In addition, internal tire balancing products are a feasible
alternative to tire balancing. They are products which are inserted into the tire when it is
mounted to the rim, thus, eliminating the use of hammer on weights or tape weights