Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Introduction to robotics

Automation

There are several examples of automation one comes across daily, simple examples being sewing
machines, packaging machines. Such machines are generally equipped to perform in a specific
way or to execute specific tasks. A sewing machine is designed to produce specific stitch lengths
and likewise a packaging machine is designed to wrap a specific size of the product. When
product sizes change some parts of the machine are to be manually changed to accommodate the
new size. Such machines are essentially designed to package millions of products of a specific
size and are hence special purpose machines. The cost of such a machine is distributed over large
sales volumes.

More recently there is a demand for variety. A good example is shirts of a size suiting a given
individual. Likewise there is a demand for soaps of various sizes and shapes. This requires
machines that can handle various shapes and sizes and every time such a requirement arises one
has to stop the machine and readjust or reset some of the links or components to handle the new
product. This is a task that is not only time consuming but also requires skill.

Human beings, unlike machines can not only handle tools and products of different sizes and
shapes but are also capable of executing a variety of tasks. Engineers have often sought similar
capabilities in machines and this has been possible now with the availability of inexpensive
microprocessors. Used in conjunction with special servo-motors, actuators and sensors, the
microprocessor has revolutionized automation. It is now possible to build automation devices
that can be operated under the guidance of a program. A familiar example is a printer that can be
programmed to print the alphabet. A few key strokes would enable the user to change over to a
program that enables one to draw diagrams. This capability is extended further through the use of
sensors. For example a sensor in the printer does not permit the printing to begin unless a paper
is present. These capabilities are extended further and when the machine is able to change its
activity to suit a given situation it is called “autonomous”.

Robots
An important part of the automation scene is the area of “Robotics” a multidisciplinary field that
involves mechanical, electronics and several other engineering disciplines. Though the ultimate
aim is to attempt emulate human activities, something which is extremely difficult to attain, these
attempts have resulted in development of robots. These are beneficial in handling hazardous
tasks and for operating in hazardous areas like chemical or nuclear plants. Examples of such
tasks include plates being x-rayed for inspection of internal cracks and flaws, a routine but
hazardous operation.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Where complex movements are involved as in welding along a 3D profile, robots can be used for
assuring quality and consistency. In assembly operation of precision and tiny parts, like in
watches, robots perform with accuracy and repeatability. (The SCARA robot developed in Japan
is one such robot specifically suitable for precision assembly tasks.) Painting is hazardous to
humans and also complex movements are involved (for example in painting a car body) and in
such applications robots may replace human beings. Robots have certain inherent capabilities
and limitations, just as any other machine or human being does, and these should be borne in
mind when attempting to use them in a given application. A lathe is best used for generating
cylindrical objects and milling machines are ideal for producing prismatic parts. One would not
attempt to use a lathe for manufacture of prismatic parts or a milling machine to produce
cylinders. Thus manufacturing processes are chosen to suit the product and conversely, products
should be designed to suit the manufacturing process. This philosophy applies to robotics also.
One cannot expect a given robot to execute any arbitrary task or handle any product. Some times
it may be beneficial to redesign the product to enable robots to handle them with ease. A
wellknown example of designing a product to suit robots is the SONY “Walkman” which has
been designed for ease of assembly by robots. Today robot finds applications in industries,
medical and other fields. For example, in eye surgery (replacement of retina), where a cylindrical
portion needs to be replaced, the operation is best done by robots. Mobile robots like walking
machines, hopping machines are examples of robots, and so also are robotic aircraft and ships.

Nuclear and power plants uses fish like robots which move inside pipes for purpose of inspection
Computers are required for higher level control of such complex systems. Computers convert
higher level commands to lower level commands for purpose of interpreting sensor outputs and
controlling motors in these machines.

Anatomy of industrial robots

There are several classes of robots: robotic aircraft, robotic ships, mobile robots and others. An
important application of robots is in industry – for machine tending, welding, painting, assembly
and etc. These “industrial robots” can be viewed as consisting of a mechanical portion “the
manipulator” controlled by a microprocessor. Subsystems of industrial robots include:
 Actuators
 Transmission systems
 Power supplies & power storage system
 Sensors
 Microprocessors & controllers
 Algorithms & Softwares (higher level & lower level)

Actuators:
Actuators are basically prime movers providing both force and motion. Pneumatic cylinders,
hydraulics, permanent magnet motors, stepper motors, linear motors are some conventional
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

actuators. Moreadvanced ones are based on hi-tech polymers, shape memory alloys, piezo
patches, and pneumatic muscles. Brushless servo motors also exist for low noise levels, and
printed armature motors are used for quick response.

Transmission systems:
The transmission system used in robot to transmit power and motion consists of chains, timing
belts, metal belts, cables and pulleys and linkages. Gear boxes and harmonic drives serve to
provide speed reduction. Ball screws are used with suitable mechanisms to convert rotary motion
to linear motion and if needed back to oscillatory motion. Drive stiffness is an important
consideration in robotics and so also is backlash.

Power supplies:
Hydraulic and Pneumatic power packs: These consist of a motor driving a positive displacement
pump or compressor to generate the high pressure fluid flow. In using hydraulic systems the
necessity of having an oil tank increases the weight of the system, additionally the issue of
ensuring that the oil is free of contaminants is to be handled. In pneumatics power pack dry air is
desired. Electric motors use what are known as PWM (pulse width modulation) amplifiers.
These are electronic devices, consisting of transistors used as switches to rapidly switch on and
off the supply in a controlled manner to control motor speeds. Such drives have higher
efficiency.

Sensors and other electronics:

The sensors for feedback in robots consists of tachometers and encoders and potentiometers to
sense motor motions, simple switches, force sensors, acceleration sensors, optical systems,
special cameras and vision systems.

Electronics:
There are a host of electronic circuits, motor controllers, analog to digital converters and digital
to analogue converters, frame grabbers and so on utilized to handle sensors and vision systems
and convert the inputs from them into a form usable by the processor for control of the entire
system in conjunction with the algorithms and software developed specifically for the purpose.

Software:
The software used consists of several levels. Motor control software consists of algorithms which
help the servo to move smoothly utilizing the data from feed-back units. At the next level there is
software to plan the trajectory of the end effector and translate the same into commands to
individual motor controllers.
The output of sensors is also to be interpreted and decisions made. At the highest level there is
software which accepts commands from the user of the robot and translates it into appropriate
actions at the lower level.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

 Control of individual motors and actuators.

 Planning trajectory & individual actuators in motion.
 Planning trajectories of end effector.
 Acting upon sensors input
 Planning tasks

History of robots :
 1954- Devol & Engleburger – establish Unimation Incorporation.
 1961- Robots are used in die casting application.
 1968- AGVs (automated guided vehicles) implemented.
 1970- Stanford arm developed.
 1979- SCARA robot for assembly developed in Japan .

Main bodies and wrists

Figure shows a typical industrial robot with a main body and a wrist.

Figure shows PUMA robot (the manipulator). A total of 6 variables are required, for specifying
the position and orientation of a rigid body in space. Therefore PUMA has 6 axis of rotation with
1 DOF (degree of freedom) per axis. The functioning of this robot is like a human arm. Each
DOF has an actuator for motion.

Types of Main bodies type

One generalization is that the main body of the robot is used to position an object (or tool) while
the wrist is used to orient it. Grippers are used to grasp objects.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Cartesian Robot On several shop floors “Gantry” type of Cartesian robots (consisting of
overhead rails) are used for operations over large spaces.

Cylindrical main body. Such motions are found typically in drilling machines. A similar main
body is used in robots to access points in a cylindrical volume. (Essentially R- q motion in a
plane – which in turn translates along the Z axis.)

Spherical Main Body

Spherical main body (RRP - Figure 3.2.3) There is a base rotation and a portion of the arm
moves in and out (a telescopic motion). The work volume is a portion of a hollow sphere.
(Essentially R- q - f motions)
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Articulated Arm

Articulated type main body robot(typical human arm) (RRR Type )

SCARA Robot.

SCARA robot – This also has a cylindrical work space. RRP main body. Such robots were used
to assemble the SONY walkman. The “P” is for raising and lowering the end effector. Otherwise
all the motion is in a horizontal plane.

Wrists
WRISTS : Wrist roll, yaw, and pitch. There are 3 motions and 3 actuators are required for
motion.

End Effectors: Welding head, riveter, spot welder.

Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Robot Working Envelopes

Different Robot configurations generate characteristic working envelope shapes. This working
envelope is important when selecting a Robot for a particular application since it dictates:-

Care should be exercised when interpreting the working envelope of a Robot, for a number of
reasons.

a. The working envelope refers to the working volume which can be reached by some point
at the end of the Robot arm, this point is usually the centre of the end effector mounting
plate. It excludes any tools or workpiece which the end effector may hold.
b. There are often areas within the working envelope which cannot be reached by the end of
the Robot arm. Such areas are termed dead zones.
c. The maximum quoted payload capacity can only be achieved at certain arm spans this
may not necessarily be at maximum reach.

Standard Working Envelope Shapes

1. Cartesian Configuration

The working envelope of the Cartesian configuration

is a rectangular prism. There are no dead zones within
the working envelope and the Robot can manipulate
its maximum payload throughout the working volume.

2. Cylindrical Configuration

The working envelope of this configuration is as its name

suggests a cylinder. The cylinder is hollow, since there is a
limit to how far the arm can retract, this creates a
cylindrical dead zone around the Robot structure.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

3. PolarConfiguration
The working envelope of this configuration sweeps out a
volume between two partial spheres. There are physical
limits imposed by the design on the amount of angular
movement in both the vertical and horizontal planes. These
restrictions create conical dead zones both above and below
the Robot structure.

4. RevoluteConfiguration
This configuration has a large
working envelope relative to the
floor space it occupies. The shape
of the working envelope depends
on the individual design. The two
most common designs are shown
below. The design in b) allows
almost a true sphere to be reached, whilst the design in a) has a complex cusp shaped
envelope.

5. SCARAConfiguration
The SCARA configuration has a working envelope that
can be loosely described as a heart or kidney shaped
prism, having a circular hole passing through the
middle. This allow a large area coverage in the
horizontal plane but relatively little in the vertical
plane.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

6. Spine Configuration

The envelope of the spine Robot will approximate that

of a true hemisphere the size being dependent on the
number of articulations in the spine.

7. Pendulum Configuration

The working envelope of the pendulum configuration

resembles that of a simple horseshoe having a
segmented shaped cross section. The limited working
envelope is offset by the fact that this Robot can be
mounted in almost any position, allowing the envelope
to be finely positioned in relation to its task.

Ref. http://thnet.co.uk/thnet/robots/25.htm

Robot Control Systems

Basic Concepts of Robot control

Robot Control System Task

The task of a robot control system is to execute the planned sequence of motions and forces in
the presence of unforeseen errors.

Errors can arise from:

– inaccuracies in the model of the robot,

Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

– tolerances in the workpiece,

– static friction in joints,

– mechanical compliance in linkages,

– electrical noise on transducer signals, and

– limitations in the precision of computation.

Controlled Variables

In both Cartesian and joint spaces, we require precise control of: Position, Velocity, Force and
Torque.

Robot Control Techniques

Open Loop Control (Nonservo Control)

No Feedback! Basic control suitable for systems with simple loads,

Tight speed control is not required, no position or rate-of-change sensors, on each axis, there is a
fixed mechanical stop to set the endpoint of the robot, its called “stop-to-stop” or “pick-and-
place” systems.

The desired change in a parameter is calculated (joint angles), The actuator energy needed to
achieve that change is determined, and the amount of energy is applied to the actuator. If the
model is correct and there are no disturbances, the desired change is achieved.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Feedback Control Loop

Determine rotor position and/or speed from one or more sensors. Position of robot arm is
monitored by a position sensor, power to the actuator is altered so that the movement of the arm
conforms to the desired path in terms of direction and/or velocity. Errors in positioning are
corrected.

Feed forward Control

It is a control, where a model is used to predict how much action to take, or the amount of energy
to use. It is used to predict actuator settings for processes where feedback signals are delayed and
in processes where the dynamic effects of disturbances must be reduced.

Adaptive Control

This control uses feedback to update the model of the process based upon the results of previous
actions. The measurements of the results of previous actions are used to adapt the process model
to correct for changes in the process and errors in the model. This type of adaption corrects for
errors in the model due to long-term variations in the environment but it cannot correct for
dynamic changes caused by local disturbances.

Grippers in manipulators
Grippers are used to grip, pick, place, and release the object. There may be single gripper and / or
multiple grippers. Many a time grippers are actuated by pneumatic systems.

EE types

: spot welding gun for different position weld on automotive assembly line. Following
figure shows typical End Effectors used on assembly, machining line.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Gripper

This pneumatic gripper (balloon shaped) is being used to pickup hollow cylindrical objects by
gripping them on the inside surface. In this gripper the gripper faces move parallel to each other
using a parallel bar mechanism.

Ultrasonic waves detect whether the object is present and then the fingers close to pick the
object.

Transmission
Ball screw drive (motor at base) Ball Screws reduce friction and preloading them reduces
backlash

Motor rotation is converted into linear motion of a nut engaging a screw and this in turn is
converted into oscillation of output.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Linkages for transmission. The actuator (mounted at the base, drives the output through linkage
Mechanisms).
Tasks Planning for robots
1. Point to point tasks (PTP): This requires the robot to carry an object from one position to
another. The end locations (position and orientation) are known. A simple manipulator
for such tasks is the pneumatic manipulator.
2. Continuous Path Motion - Painting application are an example where the end effector has
to move over a desired curve in space. Painting, being hazardous for manual operation
servo controlled electric robots (with fire proof motors) is employed.
3. Palletizing (soft drink bottles to be placed in a crate). This is a special type of Point to
Point task – this occurs when bottles are placed in a crate.

4. Assembly tasks are typically those which involve insertion of a peg into a hole.

Figure Assembly of parts Stiffness and work space are among the parameters for selecting a
robot manipulator. The question as to whether one can position and orient a rigid body in any
way in the work space is of importance. In some portion of the workspace called the dexterous
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

work space wherein a high degree of orientation is possible, elsewhere the range of orientation is
far less.

Part Presentation
Most industrial manipulators do not posses adequate number of sensors to determine whether the
part it has to handle is in the right position and orientation. So part presentation systems are used
to present parts in correct orientation.

In Fig parts are inspected by a camera and if they are wrongly oriented, rejected for example by
blowing a jet of air at them as in Fig.

Industrial Manipulator Kinematics

Introduction
Manipulators are built as serial chains or parallel chains or occasionally a combination of both.
Link and joints (revolute and prismatic), that are mostly used in manipulators, are shown in
Figure.
3R planar manipulator and 2RPR planer manipulator are shown in Figure

In spatial manipulators (open chains) adjacent axes are parallel or perpendicular to each other.

Forward or direct kinematics & inverse kinematics

Direct/Forward kinematics: Here link parameters (link lengths) and joint variables (typically
angles) are given and one has to find out the position and orientation of the end-effector (EE).
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Inverse kinematics: Given link parameters and position and orientation of the end effector, one
has to find joint variables.
Example of 2R & 3R manipulator are given in next sessions, for the forward & inverse
kinematics problem.

Accuracy & Repeatability

Resolution (least-count), accuracy and repeatability are often sought by the user. The resolution
may be called as the least distance the robot end effector could move through. This depends on
the resolution of the actuator system, sensors used to control joint motions, and varies with
position of EE in the workspace. Accuracy is the difference between the position attained and the
desired target position. When a robot is programmed to reach a point repeatedly it may be
reaching a cluster of points close to each other. Such a robot has good repeatability. If this cluster
is close to the targeted point the robot has not only good repeatability but also good accuracy. A
robot could provide good repeatability but poor accuracy if this cluster is far from the targeted
point.

In the above figure the robot EE is required to reach the centre of the circle – the target point.
The circle on extreme left shows the situation when the robot has poor accuracy and poor
repeatability. The circle in the middle shows the EE has been repeatedly reaching positions
which are close together though away from the target point. The third picture shows the robot
has repeatedly reached points close to the target and this is a case of good repeatability and
accuracy.

Degrees Of Freedom
It is required to find DOF for a manipulator which in turn decides the number of actuators
required. The task is relatively straightforward for open chains –serial manipulators. In most of
these, the chain is composed of links connected through revolute or prismatic pairs. The degrees
of freedom simply turn out to be the number of moving links in the open chain - and the number
of actuators will equal the degrees of freedom. The word “axis” is often used instead of degrees
of freedom. Thus a manipulator with six moving links and as many revolute pairs is called a 6-
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

axis manipulator. Note that the actuator used to power the gripper (open and close fingers etc) is
not counted as an “axis” – since the function of the actuator on the gripper is solely to open and
close the fingers. Also, the actuator for the gripper does not contribute to the positioning and
orienting capability of the end-effector.

Closed chains.

To find the DOF of mechanism in robot, Gubler's formula for closed chains or given set of n
links is applied.
1. For the 5R mechanism shown above Figure 5.1.1, let Jr= no of revolute joints; Jp = no of
prismatic joints.
Then Gublers formula states that DOF=3(n-1)-2Jr-2Jp
For above mechanism of 5R; DOF=3(5-1)-2x5=2.

2. For 4RP mechanism, n=5, Jr=4, Jp=1 therefore DOF= 3(5-1)-2x4-2x1=2

3. Figure for 6R bar planer mechanism n=6, Jr= 6, Jp=0

Therefore Mechanism DOF = 3(6-1)-2x6=15-12=3

Work space of closed chains will be less than that of open chains.

Parallel Chains
Stewart platform: Here 2 rings top & bottom are connected together through prismatic links and
having ball & socket joint at bottom and hooks joint at top. Stewart platform finds application in
aircraft simulator where pilots are trained
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Applying Grublers criterion for closed chains,

N=no of links=1
Js=no of spherical joints=6
Jh= no of hook's joint=6
Jr= no of revolute joint=0
Jp= no of prismatic joints=6
DOF = F=6(l-n-1) + S fi
Where l= no. of links
N= no of joints
fi = DOF with ith joint
Therefore, F = 6(14-18-1) + 36 = 6

Teaching and Measurement

Manipulators may be used as measuring tools as shown in figure 5.3.1. With link lengths and
joint angles known we can determine position & orientation of end effector. This technique is
used for “teaching”.

Actuators for robots

Typical commercial / industrial manipulator capabilities.

Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Drives in Manipulators
The term servo derived from phrase “to serve”, has meaning that “the system that can be
controlled.” The electrical actuators that can be controlled are DC servomotors, AC servo motors
and stepper motors.
Following is an explanation of such motors.
 DC servo
 AC servo
 Stepper motor
DC servo conventional motors
A PMDC servo stator has permanent magnets and the rotor is wound. Brushes are used for
commutation. Brushes wear and also cause noise. Brushless motors overcome these limitations.
The electronic circuit and rotor motion is sensed thru Hall's effect sensors.
In robotic applications, the servo motor is required to produce rapid accelerations. In such system
one needs to have motors with low inertia. Low inertia is achieved by reduced armature diameter
with increase in armature length such that desired output power is achieved. Thus except minor
differences in constructional features, DC servo motor is an ordinary DC motor.

Motor Characteristics

PMDC motors have Characteristics as follows

Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

The power consumed by above motor has characteristics is shown in Figure

Application:
1. Continuous duty operation needs check for heat generation
2. Intermittent operation / motion /duty needs calculation of RMS torque as follows

A typical Intermittent operation:

1. From O to A for t1 Acceleration.

2. From A to B for t 2 uniform velocity
3. From B to C for t3 deceleration.
4. From C to D for t4 Dwell, vel=0; Accn=0
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Selection of Motor
The final selection of motor depends on the peak speed and peak torque requirements , where
TPeak Max of (magnitudes) .We use this data and the RMS value of torque to select the motor
from the performance curves provided by the manufacturer. In addition to the above one has to
check the heat generated by the motor as well as the natural frequency of the drive.

Having selected the motor – now we have to determine the basic parameters (current and
voltage) required to select the dive electronics. We use the following formulae to determine the
same:
Current I= T/Kt
Voltage V = RI + KeWm
Wm = motor speed
Kt = torque constant
R = motor resistance
I = Current
V = Voltage

Grippers in manipulators

For assembly easiness RCC type elements are used between the gripper and wrist. (RCC stands
for remote centre compliance.) The RCC consists of flexible elements which take care of small
variation in position of End effector while executing an assembly as shown in figure
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

STEPPER MOTORS
Unlike conventional motors, stepper motors move through steps (of 0.9, 1.8 degrees) in response
to electic pulses applied to them. By sending them a train of n pulses one could make them move
through multiples of the above angle. This permits one to dispense with encoders. Steppers do
miss steps if the load is in excess. Stepper motors can be generally classified as -
 Variable reluctance motors ( soft steel rotor)
 Permanent Magnet (PM) stepper motor
 Hybrid Stepper Motor

The rotor consists of a magnet and the stator poles will depend on voltages / pulses applied to it.
The poles of stator and rotor will either be attracted or repelled depending upon the configuration
of the poles in stator as shown. It is obvious that an electronic circuit is to be used to set the
stator poles to the desired polarity. As these “poles” rotate the rotor moves in steps. The steps
available are 0.9, 1.8,7.5, 15, 30 degrees.

Performance characteristic of stepper motors

The torque Vs Speed graph is shown below Pull in torque (inner curve) is the torque required to
start and accelerate without losing steps. Pull out torque (outer curve) is the maximum torque
that can be applied at a given step-rate without losing steps.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

Holding torque is defined as to hold the load in particular position as shown below

Hydraulic and pneumatic systems and actuators used in manipulators

Hydraulic piston and cylinders are essentially preferred to lift and move heavy loads. A high
pressure positive displacement pump is used to push oil into the cylinder. Valves are used to
regulate the flow and thereby obtain different speeds squash plate mechanism which permits

variable displacement of the piston. Pneumatic systems use air instead of oil. Since air is
compressible the action of these is significantly different from that of hydraulic cylinders.
Hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders are of single acting and double acting type with smooth
cushioning at end of stroke. ( Rod less pneumatic cylinders also exist). These systems use
directional control valves (DCVs) with different modes of operation such as manual or solenoid
operated. Flow control valves are used to control the speed of actuators. Servo valves are used in
the systems for better control of speed. Pneumatic ally operated manipulators execute sequential
motions; one cylinder completes its motion before the next one moves. Valves like pressure
sequence valves, solenoid operated valve, pilot operated valve are used for this purpose.

Machine Vision
Machine vision (MV) is the technology and methods used to provide imaging-based automatic
inspection and analysis for such applications as automatic inspection, process control, and robot
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

guidance in industry.The scope of MV is broad. MV is related to, though distinct from, computer
vision.

While conventional (2D visible light) imaging is most commonly used in MV, alternatives
include imaging various infrared bands,line scan imaging, 3D imaging of surfaces and X-ray
imaging.Key divisions within MV 2D visible light imaging are monochromatic vs. color,
resolution, and whether or not the imaging process is simultaneous over the entire image,
making it suitable for moving processes.

The most commonly used method for 3D imaging is scanning based triangulation which utilizes
motion of the product or image during the imaging process. Other 3D methods used for machine
vision are time of flight, grid based and stereoscopic.

The imaging device (e.g. camera) can either be separate from the main image processing unit or
combined with it in which case the combination is generally called a smart camera or smart
sensor. When separated, the connection may be made to specialized intermediate hardware, a
frame grabber using either a standardized (Camera Link, CoaXPress) or custom interface.MV
implementations also have used digital cameras capable of direct connections (without a
framegrabber) to a computer via FireWire, USB or Gigabit Ethernet interfaces.

Though the vast majority of machine vision applications are solved using two-dimensional
imaging, machine vision applications utilizing 3D imaging are a growing niche within the
industry. One method is grid array based systems using pseudorandom structured light system as
employed by the Microsoft Kinect system circa 2012. Another method of generating a 3D image
is to use laser triangulation, where a laser is projected onto the surfaces of an object and the
deviation of the line is used to calculate the shape. In machine vision this is accomplished with a
scanning motion, either by moving the workpiece, or by moving the camera & laser imaging
system. Stereoscopic vision is used in special cases involving unique features present in both
views of a pair of cameras.

Imaging

After an image is acquired, it is processed. Machine vision image processing methods include

 Stitching/Registration: Combining of adjacent 2D or 3D images.

 Filtering (e.g. morphological filtering)
 Thresholding: Thresholding starts with setting or determining a gray value that will be
useful for the following steps. The value is then used to separate portions of the image,
and sometimes to transform each portion of the image simply black and white based on
whether it is below or above that grayscale value.
 Pixel counting: counts the number of light or dark pixels.
Anupam Thakur (MAIT) Robotics Notes

 Segmentation: Partitioning a digital image into multiple segments to simplify and/or

change the representation of an image into something that is more meaningful and easier
to analyze.
 Edge detection: finding object edges.
 Color Analysis: Identify parts, products and items using color, assess quality from color,
and isolate features using color.
 Blob discovery & manipulation: inspecting an image for discrete blobs of connected
pixels (e.g. a black hole in a grey object) as image landmarks. These blobs frequently
represent optical targets for machining, robotic capture, or manufacturing failure.
 Neural net processing: weighted and self-training multi-variable decision making.
 Pattern recognition including template matching. Finding, matching, and/or counting
specific patterns. This may include location of an object that may be rotated, partially
hidden by another object, or varying in size.
 Barcode, Data Matrix and "2D barcode" reading.
 Optical character recognition: automated reading of text such as serial numbers
 Gauging/Metrology: measurement of object dimensions (e.g. in pixels, inches or
millimeters)
 Comparison against target values to determine a "pass or fail" or "go/no go" result. For
example, with code or bar code verification, the read value is compared to the stored
target value. For gauging, a measurement is compared against the proper value and
tolerances. For verification of alpha-numberic codes, the OCR'd value is compared to the
proper or target value. For inspection for blemishes, the measured size of the blemishes
may be compared to the maximums allowed by quality standards.