PHOTOGRAPHY – DEFINITIONS, HISTORICAL, BACKGROUND AND PRINCIPLES

DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Literal definition:
The word photography is a derivative of two Greek words “phos” which means light and “graphia”
meaning write. Therefore photography best translate to write with light (John FW Hershel)
2. Modern definition:
Photography is an art of science which deals with the reproduction of images through the action of
light, upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, in the chemical processes
involve there in.
3. Technical/ Legal definition
modern photography may be defined as any means for the chemical, thermal, electrical and electronic
recording of images of scene or the object formed by some type of radiant energy including gamma
rays, x-rays, ultra violet rays, visible lights and infrared rays. This definition is a broad enough to
include not only the conventional method of photography but almost any new process that may be
developed.
B. POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
Police photography is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of
photography, the preparation of photographic evidence and its application to police work.
C. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
It is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory
examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
A. The Basic Components of Photography
1. Light- the days of creation
2. Equipment – the portable camera obscura was used by artist or painters to get accurate perspective of
natural scene and scale of their subjects.
3. Chemicals – light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride solution was discovered and
investigated.
B. TRUE PHOTOGRAPHY
William Henry Fox Talbot explained a process he had invented (calotype) at the royal society of
London.
“calotype” used paper with its surface fiber impregnated with light sensitive compound.
C. CRIMINAL APPLICATION
The history of forensic science and criminal investigation is both rich and exciting.

I. Introduction and Concept

In modern scientific crime detection, photography is, indeed, an excellent aid of the investigator. The investigator
could not just rely on his memories and therefore need an artificial recorder for him to remember all things and facts
that he had investigated. Aside from the notes of the investigator, he needs a camera because there are things, which
require accurate descriptions of subjects or objects being investigated, hence photographs will serve the purpose.

Photography was not discovered by one man. It was the consequence of the observations made by chemists,
physicists and scientists. However, the basis of modern photography was introduced in 1839 by Fox Talbot. Since
then everything can be photographed and permanently recorded.

The first application of photography in law enforcement was confined to the problems of personal identification.
The photographs of the criminal was taken and used to supplement the classification made under the Alphonse
Bertillon (French Criminologist) system of personal identification.

Presently, the application of photography in law enforcement is of vital importance. The utmost use of it is for
record purposes. Photography will record the scene of the crime permanently. The scene of the crime will not be
there forever as it will be re-arranged after the investigation was over. Photography can preserve all perishable
evidences like contusion in cases of physical injuries or rape. Latent fingerprints can be destroyed in the purpose of
lifting. Fingerprints developed through iodine fuming process will vanish after several minutes and other things that
would change naturally or artificially. Therefore, to preserve them permanently, photography must be availed of.
Photography can be used not only in the identification of persons but also in the identification of articles and things
which may be the objects of investigation. Articles stolen in case of theft and robbery can be identified by the
investigation through the photographs or description furnished by the owners of the stolen articles. Photography is
necessary in the interrogation of suspects. A series of photographs will show the action or reactions of the suspects
at the time he made a confession very often, the suspect will cooperate during the interrogation and investigation but
at the trial, the suspect would allege that he was maltreated and tortured during the interrogation which compelled
him to confess and admit the commission of the crime. Under the present laws, a confession and admission can only
be admitted in court as evidence against the suspect if they were given voluntarily and intelligently.

Photography can provide a system or techniques in making visible those things that cannot be seen by the naked eye.
There is a saying that what man could see can be recorded through photography while in the contrary, there are
things that can only be visible through photography. Objects at distant position are no longer identifiable to human

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eye but through the application of photography, such objects can be identified. Invisible writings, alteration,
obliteration and erased writings can be visible to the human eye through the application of ultra-violet or infrared
photography. Photography can be useful in court in the determination of the truth respecting a matter of fact.
Evidences that cannot be brought inside the courtroom can be presented by means of photographs. To prove the
extent of damages sustained by the victim in a vehicular accident, the vehicle is too bulky to be brought inside the
courtroom but photographs of the vehicles can be presented in court. However, the photographs to be admitted as
evidences in court must be the faithful representation of the original. Faithful representation means the same likeness
and accurateness as seem by the naked eye. Photographs are also a means of communication. It is a language
sometimes defined as “the most universal of all languages.” Photography has an advantage as a language because it
does not rely upon abstract symbols – words. Photography, thus, is more direct and less subject to misunderstanding.
As a communication medium has few, if any, equal.

II. Historical Development: Police Photography – A Short History

Photography is most obviously useful in police work when photographs serve as evidence that can and often does
prove invaluable to investigators, attorneys, judges, witnesses, juries and defendants. Often, a good photograph can
be the deciding factor in a conviction or acquittal when no other form of real evidence is available.

As early as 1859, a photograph was used in the case of Luco vs. US to prove that a document of title for a land grant
was, in fact, a forgery. The first recorded use of accident photography was in 1875, “Plaintiff in a horse and buggy,
was injured when an attempting to go around a mudhole in the center of a road he drove off an unguarded
embankment. The photograph was admitted in evidence to assist the jury in understanding the case.”

While neither of these early photographs for use as evidence was taken by police photographers, the use of
photography in police work is well-established in the early annals of photography. In 1841, eighteen years before
Luco vs. United States, the French Police were making daguerreotypes (an early form photograph) of known
criminals for purpose of identification.

In auto accidents, usually there are injured persons. One of the first cases to hold that a relevant photograph of an
injured person was admissible in evidence was Redden V. Gates in 1879. The photograph was a tintype, a
photography made on a thin iron plate by the collodion process. It showed whip marks on the plaintiff’s back three
days after the assault. In 1907 in Denver, Colorado, all intoxicated persons were photographed at the police station.

Automobile speeders were being trapped with photographic speed recorders by 1900. In Massachusetts, they
approved the use of such devices and gave a full description of their operation. Radar seems to be more popular
device for this operation today.

The use of fingerprint photographs for identification purposes was approved in 1911 in People vs. Jennings,
although in 1882 was the year in which fingerprints were officially used in the United States. Mr. Gilbert Thompson
of the United States Geological Survey in New Mexico used his fingerprint on commissary orders to prevent their
forgery. In 1902, New York Civil Service began fingerprinting applicants to discourage the criminal element from
entering civil service and also to prevent applicants from having better qualified persons taking the test for them.
The fallibility of the three systems of personal identification – photographs, Bertillon measurements and names.

One of the early uses of firearms identification is recorded in 1902 case, Commonwealth vs. Best. Photographs of
bullets taken from the body of a murdered man were put in evidence along with a photograph of a test bullet pushed
through the defendant’s rifle. This method of obtaining a test bullet is not proper according to modern authorities but
the use made of the comparison photographs was to be followed in many subsequent firearms identification cases.

Prior to the modern strobe units of today, photoflash bulbs were used and they were readily accepted by the public in
1930. Prior to the flash bulb, people used flash powders which were dangerous explosives which produced a great
deal of objectionable smoke. The photoflash bulb was a revolutionary development that made possible the taking of
many evidence pictures that were otherwise unobtainable. Undoubtedly, their use has contributed greatly to the
development of police photography.

Ultra-violet photography was approved in a decision handed down in 1943 in State vs. Thorp. The picture showed
footprints in blood on a linoleum floor and brought out distinctive marks of the soles of the shoes worn by defendant
corresponding to the marks shown in the ultra-violet photograph.

In 1943, another historic event in police photography happened. The first appellate court passing upon the
admissibility of color photographs as evidence was Green vs. Country of Denver.

Eastman Kodak Company introduced a color transparency using sheet film in 1953. Kodachrome quickly become
extremely popular resulting in the widespread use of color photographs in police photography. Then in 1941, a color
process known as Kodacolor made it possible to make color slides, color prints or black and white prints from a
color negative.

In 1963, a banner event for the police photographer took place. That year the Polaroid Company introduced their
Polacolor film making it possible to take finished pictures in colors in less than one minute. This was one of the
most significant developments in the history of photography and had led to the greater use of color photographs as
evidence. For police work, Polaroid also puts out many films that can be great tools for the police such as the Type

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55 PN, which gives you an instant picture along with a good negative; then there is Type 52, which has an ASA/ISO
of 400, giving you all the speed in a film that you would desire. These Polaroid materials are all great tools for the
police photographer.

Then in 1965, another great invention was placed on the market. It was the introduction of a fully automatic
electronic flash unit making it possible to take exposed strobe flash photographs at distances from two feet to twenty
feet without changing the lens opening or shutter speed. Automation was thus achieved by means of the lighting
equipment rather than the camera.

In 1967, we saw the beginning of the use of videotapes as legal evidence. Today’s cameras are automatic to an
extent. The Police Photographer can now concentrate more on the subject of his picture than on the intricacies of the
camera. Professionals and amateurs now use cameras equipped with semi-automatic or fully automatic controls.
With the good cameras of today, there is no excuse for a police photographer not getting suitable pictures for
evidence.

III. Aims and Purposes of Photography in Law Enforcement Work

1. Identification
a. Criminal
b. Missing person
c. Lost and stolen properties
d. Civilian

2. Communication and Microfilm Files

a. Transmission of photos (wire or radio photo)
b. Investigative report files

3. Evidence
a. Recording and preserving
(a) Crimes scenes
(b) Vehicular accident
(c) Homicide or murder
(d) Robbery cases
(e) Fires or arson
(f) Object of evidence
(g) Evidential traces
b. Discovering and Proving
(a) By contrast control (lighting, film, and paper, filter)
(b) By magnification (photomicrography, photomacrography)
(c) By invisible radiation (infra-red, ultra-violet, X-ray)

4. Action of Offenders (Recording)

a. Surveillance
b. Burglary traps
c. Confessions
d. Re-enactment of crime

5. Court Exhibits
a. Demonstration enlargements
b. Individual photos
c. Projection slides
d. Motion pictures

6. Crime prevention
a. Security clearance

7. Public Relations

8. Police Training
a. Prepared training films (police tactics, investigation technique)
b. Traffic studies
c. Documentaries

9. Reproduction and Copying

a. Photographs
b. Official records

IV. Care of Handling Camera

In the care of handling camera, the photographer in order to attain this, must know all the parts of the camera, its
camera accessories and the function of each, regardless of the types of camera or kinds of camera.

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V. Basic Parts of the Camera and Their Functions

1. Four Essential Parts of the Camera

a. Body or Light Tight Box – this part of the camera is very essential because of its capability to exclude all
unwanted light that might expose the sensitized material or film.

Suggests an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure which would prevent light from exposing the
sensitized material inside the camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or enclosure to always
light tight at all times because if it does, then no light could reach the sensitized material during exposure. It
means that before and after the extraneous light which is not necessary to form the final images.

b. Lens – is the one responsible in focusing the rays of light coming from the subject, or it is one of the most
essential parts of the camera. Without a lens, it is impossible to form an image in the film.

The function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It is chiefly responsible for the
sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure.

c. Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the lens and reach the film for pre-determined intervals of
time, which light is again blocked off from the film.

Serves as the barrier of the rays of light that will enter and affect the film inside the camera.

d. Film-holder or Holder of Sensitized Material – the film holder holds the film firmly inside the camera. It is
always located at the opposite side of the lens of the camera.

2. Other Parts of the Camera

a. Viewing System – serves as the viewing of all cameras. This will show the entire scene coverage that can
be recorded in the film inside the camera. It is usually attached on the top or side of the camera of the
viewing lens is the taking lens itself when the camera is a single lens reflex type.

b. Film Advancer – The film advancer of the camera is necessary so that the exposed film can be transferred
in order to take another shot on the unexposed film. The unexposed film will be on the opposite side of the
lens for another exposure.

c. Shutter Speed – The shutter speed will control the duration between the opening and the closing of the
shutter. It will regulate the quantity of light that will reach and affect the film inside the camera.

d. Lens Aperture – The ratio between the diameter and the focal length of the lens is called the lens aperture.
It is the light gathering power of the lens. The rays of light passing thru the lens aperture can be controlled
by its lens opening.

e. Focusing Mechanism – The sharpness or clearness of the object being photographed will depend upon the
focusing system of the camera. This mechanism will estimate the object distance from the camera and a
sharp or clear image formed in the photograph.

3. Part of the Camera Necessary to Photograph an Object

The following are the parts of the camera necessary to photograph an object

a. Body or light tight box

b. Lens
c. Film holder
d. Shutter
e. Viewfinder

4. Types of Camera

Four Major types of Camera according to its viewing system

a. Viewfinder type – the smallest and the simplest type of camera is the viewfinder type. Its viewfinder
frames the objects that will be recorded on the film. Usually, it is made of a simple lens located at the
peephole of the camera. Very often the focusing system of this type of camera is the viewfinder itself.
However, this type of camera suffers from an inherent defect called “parallax error” that prevents the
recording of some of the objects photographed as seen in the viewfinder of the camera. This type of camera
will not produce a good result in close-up work.

b. Single Lens Reflex type – in this type of camera, the best way to determine the entire coverage of the
camera is to look directly behind the lens of the camera; the image of the objects are reflected to viewer and

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 it enables the photographer to compose and focus the objects being photographed. This type of camera will
eliminate the parallax error and it will work well with all lenses. Nevertheless, the single reflex type of
camera is more complex and liable to breakdown due to the mirror which give way everytime an exposure
is made. It is difficult to focus especially under dim light conditions.

c. Twin Lens Reflex type – basically, the twin lens reflex type of camera has two lenses, one for the viewing
and focusing of the objects and the other one is the taking lens. In this type of camera, the image being
photographed can be seen in flat surface as reflected by the mirror behind the viewing lens, the viewing
screen will help the photographer in the accurate composition of the object to be photographed as he look at
the camera at his waist level. This type of camera also suffers from parallax error.

d. View or Press Camera Type – the biggest and the most sophisticated camera among the different types of
camera. This type of camera is practically useless for candid or action photography however, it is very
useful in law enforcement photography especially in the reproduction of document and in photo-
micrography, minute objects can be enlarged and composed accurately in the large viewing screen of this
type of camera.

5. Special Types of Camera

a. Fixed Focus Camera - In this type of camera the lens is fixed, it cannot be removed, replaced or even
moved back and forth because it is permanently placed.

b. Variable Focus Camera – The lens can be moved back and forth and focus over a range of different
distances.

c. Interchangeable Camera Lens – The lens can be removed so that other lenses can be inserted. This is the
most versatile camera since it lets you use different lenses to do different jobs and to focus the lens even for
the greatest sharpness at varying distance.

6. Special Types of Camera

a. Polaroid Camera – It is possible to finish black and white print within 10 seconds and a color print at about
one minute after exposure.

b. High Speed Motion Analysis Camera – Used to take pictures at extremely high speed from 200 frames per
second to 100,000 frames per second. These are used for motion studies and for instrumentation to record
what is taking place during missile or satellite flight.

c. Underwater Camera – Capable of taking photographs underwater by divers on a especially constructed

camera that are lowered to great depth and take photographs automatically by remote control.

d. Video Tape Camera – It is used for betamax, VHS, and circuit television.

7. Kinds of Camera

a. Box Camera – this is the very early box camera. It uses glass plate for lenses as passageway of light that
will affect the film inside the camera. Box camera is simple to operate since sharp enlargement cannot be
made from sharp camera negatives due to lack of high quality lens and focusing device.

b. Folding Camera – Lenses and shutter mechanisms are added.

c. Miniature Camera – It is known as the most popular camera for extreme compactness or a camera intended
to produce a clear or sharp image of an object being photographed.

d. Motion Picture Camera – This camera is used to take more pictures or to take photographs to a moving
object.

8. Camera Accessories

a. Tripod – It is a triple leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable extension. This can be used in
holding the camera when the camera is bulky or when using a shutter speed lower than one twenty five of a
second (1/25), to prevent the movement that will produce a blurred image in the photograph.

b. Cable Release – This is attached to the shutter release of the camera and used in releasing and closing the
shutter to prevent accidental movement of the camera during the exposure period especially when longer
exposure is made.

c. Flash Units – Flash bulbs or electric flash which synchronizes with the opening and closing of shutter. This
is very effective to augment the adverse lighting condition of the object(s) being photographed.

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 d. Light Meter – Is a devise used in determining the intensity of light that strike the subject and affect the film
inside the camera.

Light meter can be:

(a) Extinction Meter – The reflected light from the shadow as seen by the naked eye is estimated or
calculated by direct observation of the photographer.

(b) Photoelectric Meter – The most dependable device that will measure the brightness of light. It is
pointed toward the subject(s) to be photographed and converted the light into electric energy that
makes the needle of the meter to move across the scale, the reading is taken to the conversion table
given the proper exposure.

e. Extension Tube – a devise used in photographing a minute object. It is attached to the lens board of the
camera and the lens is attached to it when close-up photography is necessary.

f. Filter – A transparent medium which transmits and absorbs different wavelength of lights usually made of
glass or gelatin material placed infront of the camera lens.

Types of Filter
(a) Correction Filter – Used to change the response of the film so that all colors are recorded at
approximately the relative brightness values seen by the eye (or used to correct lens defects)

(b) Contrast Filter – Used to change the relative brightness values so that the two colors which would
otherwise be recorded as nearly the same will have decidedly different brightness in the picture of
used to differentiate color.

(c) Haze Filter – Used to eliminate or reduce the effect of serial haze during cloudiness or foggy
conditions.

(d) Neutral Density Filter – Used for reducing the amount of light transmitted without changing the
color value.

(e) Polarizing Filter – Used to reduce or eliminate reflections on highly reflective surface.

g. Camera Grip – A devise used to hold firmly the camera so as to prevent the vibration or movement of the
camera during the exposure period. It is attached to the body of the camera and sometimes the flash unit is
attached to it.

h. Lens Hood – a device used to eliminate some reflections of light which might destroy the image cast of the
object(s) especially when the light is coming from the top or side position of the camera. It is usually
mounted infront of the lens barrel.

9. Control on a Camera

1. Focusing Control – Considered as the most important control on a camera.

Focus – is the means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to forma sharp or clear image.

2. Shutter Speed Control – The length of time that the rays of light will reach and affect the sensitized
material can be controlled by the shutter speed control.

Factors to be considered in using this control

a. Depends on the light sensitivity of the film which can be determined through its ASA, DIN, or ISO
numbers. Based on these factors, the photographer must set the shutter speed control of the camera
before photographing the object(s).

b. It is also known as the controlling system of the rays of light.

Shutter Speed Control Guidelines

00 - to infinity – end
T - time setting
B - Bulb setting
1 - One full second exposure
2 - ½ full second of exposure
4 - ¼ full second of exposure
8 - 1/8 full second of exposure
15 - 1/15 full second of exposure
30 - 1/30 full second of exposure
60 - 1/60 full second of exposure
120 - 1/120 full second of exposure

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 250 - 1/250 full second of exposure
500 - 1/500 full second of exposure
1000 - 1/1000 full second of exposure
2000 - 1/2000 full second of exposure

3. Diaphragm Control – Works like the pupil of the eye. It may be enlarged or contracted

If it is enlarged, it allows more light to enter the lens

If it is contracted, it allows a lesser amount of light to enter the lens.

How adjustment is done

This is done by moving the right of the diaphragm towards the desired size of opening. It is usually
represented or generally represented by numbers known as F-stop.

Uses of F-stop
a. Acts as a partial control of exposure
b. To control the depth of the field
c. To allow the photographer to close the aperture to the point of the sharp focusing of the lens

Diaphragm Control Guidelines

a. F# 2.8
b. F# 4
c. F# 5.6
d. F# 8
e. F# 11
f. F# 16
g. F# 22

VI. The Lens

Lens – It is a medium or system which converge or diverge rays of light passing through the lens and affect the film
inside the camera to form an image. It can be a glass or a transparent material which permits light to pass through
and change the direction of light. The function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It is chiefly
responsible for the sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure.

1. Types of Lens

Lens are classified according to the type of image they produced

a. Positive Lens or Converging Lens – Is a convex lens which is characterized by the fact that it is thicker on
the middle than the edge and form a real image on the opposite side of the lens. It has a positive focal
length and bends the light rays together which makes it as a converging lens. In using this type of lens, it
will require a proper distance between the object and the lens; otherwise, the image that it will produce will
be blurred or fuzzy. Focusing on this type of lens can be done by moving the nearer or farther from the
object until the zone of the best definition is attained.

b. Negative lens or Diverging Lens – is a concave lens which is characterized by the fact that it is thinner on
the middle than the edge and form a virtual image on the opposite side of the lens. It does not require
focusing at all as everything will be sharp, upright, and clear no matter how close or far away the subject is.
It also known as a diverging lens because of its power to diverge rays of light that passes through it.
Practically, this type of lens is exactly what is needed in the viewing mechanism of a viewfinder camera (it
produces a clear image for the eye, if not for the film).

2. Other types of Lens Produced for Different Cameras (Types of Lenses According to their Degree of Correction)

a. Simple Miniscous Lens – this lens is usually found in simple or box camera. It is uncorrected lens and
therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – it is a combination of two achromatic lenses with almost the same focal length.
This is corrected from some kinds of lens defects but not on astigmatism defect.
c. Anastigmatic Lens – a lens which is free from astigmatism defect and other types of lens defects.
d. Achromatic Lens – A lens which is partly corrected for achromatic aberration.
e. Process Lens – a super corrected lens for astigmatism. It has a better color correction and has the ability to
produce the best definition of the image in the photograph.
f. Fixed Focus Lens – a lens used in all fixed focus camera. Basically, it has a short focal length and grater
depth of field.

3. Lens Defects (Aberrations)

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 a. Astigmatism Lens Defect – is the failure of the lens to produce the point image of an object where the lens
surface is not balance in shape or position with respect to the principal axis of the lens. This aberration
occurs like for instance, if the surface is spherical and the rays of light from the object point passes through
the lens very obliquely. Decreasing the size of the lens opening will minimize the astigmatism defect of the
lens

b. Chromatic Aberration – is the failure of the lens to focus all the visible rays of light, the lens reflects rays of
short wavelength more strongly than those of stronger wavelength and therefore brings blue rays to a
shorter focus than red or the resulting image of a point of white light is not a white point but a blurred circle
bordered with colors.

c. Coma – occurs because of the unequal magnifying power of the different concentric zones of lens

d. Curvature of the Field – in this lens aberration or lens defect, the relation of the image(s) of the different
points of the same distance are incorrect with respect to one another. The image of a flat subject does not
appear flat because of the sharpness of the center and the edge is out of focus therefore, direct focusing of
the center will make the edge blurred. And in curvature, the image distance is different for different points
of the same object because of their different distance from the axis of the lens; fuzziness increases towards
the edge of the film.

e. Distortion – causes malformation or mutilation of the image in the photograph. This lens defect exists when
there are different magnification for the rays of light at different angles.

Distortion can be
(a) Barrel distortion – diaphragm is placed infront of the lens.
(b) Pincushion distortion – diaphragm is placed behind the lens.

f. Spherical aberration – it is the failure of the lens to bring all the rays of light in focus at the same time.
Here, the marginal portion of the lens will bring the rays of light to a shorter focus than the central region.
The image point produced will not be the exact point but a blurred image.

4. Classification of Lens According to Focal Length

Focal length – is the distance measured from the axis of the lens through the film plane.

Functions

a. Lens is often described in term of its focal length (50mm lens) or in terms of its relative focal length (short,
normal, long)
b. Control magnification (the size of the image formed in the film through lens).
c. It is an indication of its range (how near it makes an image of object seen).
d. The focal length is the distance between the back of the camera where the film and the lens is
e. A lens of short focal length – capable of forming a small image of an object(s)
f. A lens of long focal point – capable of forming a larger image of an object(s)

The following are the classification of lenses according to its focal length

a. Wide Angle Lens – a lens with a focal length less than the diagonal of the negative material. It has a shorter
focal length but with a large or wide area coverage. This lens is very useful in photographing an object(s) in
a narrow, restricted, or small area. In this type of lens, the object(s) will appear far to the lens and the
resulting image of the object(s) in the negative will be small. The drawback of this lens is that it will
increase distortion towards the edge of the negative material.

b. Normal Lens – A lens with a focal length approximately equal but not more than twice the length of the
diagonal of the negative material. The angle view of this lens is 75 degrees but not less than 45 degrees.
This lens has the best area of coverage and the resulting image of the object(s) produced will be the same as
seen by the naked eye in the viewing.

c. Telephoto Lens – A lens with focal length more than twice the diagonal of the negative material, it has a
longer focal length with small area coverage. This lens is useful in photographing an abject(s) at a far
distance. In this type of lens, the object(s) will appear close to the lens and the resulting image of the
object(s) in the negative will appear larger. The disadvantage of this lens is that the image quality in the
photograph usually deteriorates which is apparent when the subject is in great motion.

d. Zoom Lens – This lens has a variable focal length which can be adjusted continuously by the movement of
one or more elements in the lens system, known as the variable focus lens.

5. Other Classification of Lenses

a. Close-up Lens – it is a supplementary lens which is placed over the regular lens in order to allow the
photographer to take pictures closer to an object that the camera will ordinarily permit.

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 b. Varifocal Lens – as alternative to a zoom lens. While a zoom lens stays in a focus as you change the focal
length, the varifocal lens must be refocused at its new focal length.

c. Catadioptric Lens – is a long focus lens that employs a curve mirror to increase the size of the image.
d. Macro Lens – a lens that can be focused so close to an object that the image it forms in the film is about the
same size as the real life or as that object itself.
e. Portrait Lens – is a lens that has a focal length that is long enough to avoid perspective distortion.
f. Fish Eye Lens – is a lens of such extremely short focal length that its angle of view is close to or equal to
180 degrees.
g. Enlarging Lens – these are especially designed at close distances and with a flat field. This means that the
lens must yield a sharp image not only at the center but the edge as well.

VII. Films, Filters and Exposure

Film – it is a material which is essentially affected once exposed to a light at a given time.

Two Kinds of Surfaces Sensitive to Light

a. Film – produces the negative material after chemical development.
b. Photographic paper – a paper used for positive print.

Two Parts of a Film

a. Emulsion – it is a surface which is capable of retaining a latent image.
b. Base – acts as the support of the emulsion

Four Various Layers of a Film

a. This Coat of Animal Gelatin – Clear gelatin is essential. (A film contains minute grains of silver hallide
suspended in animal gelatin and coated on celluloid materials).
b. Emulsion
c. Base
d. Anti-Halation Backing – necessary to prevent halation.

Films are Classified According to its Forms

a. Roll film
b. Cartridges film
c. Cut sheet (usually used in Polaroid camera)

Types of Film
a. Fast film
b. Slow film

Speed of the Film is Determined through its

a. ASA Number
b. DIN Number
c. ISO Number

Types of Film according to Spectral Sensitivity

Perhaps the most important characteristic of a film is its variation response to the different wavelength of light
source which is called spectral sensitivity.

1. Blue Sensitivity Film – sensitive to ultra-violet rays and blue color only.
2. Orthrochromatic – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, to blue and green color. It is not sensitive to red color.
3. Panchromatic – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, to blue, green, and red color.
4. Infra-red – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, to all the colors and also infra-red rays.
5. X-ray Film – it is a material which is sensitive to x-ray regions of the electro-magnetic spectrum.
6. Ultra-violet Film – is a film sensitive to ultra-violet light.

Purpose of Filter

The purpose of a filter is to minimize, reduce, correct, or prevent lens defects or aberration during the exposure
period or to be used during the different or unusual climate or weather conditions.

What is correct exposure?

Taking photograph with the camera is exposing the film in the said camera by the action of light.

It is the product of illumination and time. Exposure is computed by any of the following methods:

1. Use of Light or Exposure Meter – the amount of light coming from a source or the amount of light being
reflected by the subject is measured by the light meter. Proper adjustment therefore becomes simplified.

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 2. By taking into consideration exposure factors like emulsion speed of film sensitivity, lighting condition,
kind of subject.

Example: when using a film with an ASA rating of 100, for a normal subject, set the shutter speed at 1/25
of a second and adjust the diaphragm opening in accordance with the following lighting conditions:

Bright sunlight - F# 11
Hazy sunlight - F# 8
Dull sunlight - F# 5.6

Exposure error affects

a. detail
b. tone reduction
c. contrast

VIII. Light, Its Characteristics and Sources

Light – is brightness or an energy which is needed to produce a photography or light makes things visible.
- is a form of energy and that energy is electro-magnetic in radiation.

Light can be: a) visible; b) invisible

Characteristics of Light
a. Light is colorless except to an artificial light because it has a variation of colors.
b. Light has heat
c. Light makes things visible

Importance of Light
a. Light makes things visible
b. Man cannot live without light
c. Light is needed to produce a photograph

Sources of Light
1. Natural Light – is a light which come to natural existence without the intervention of man. Example:
sunlight.
2. Artificial Light – is a light which is man-made and is commonly used in-door photography to augment the
adverse lighting condition. Examples: photoflood lamp, flash bulbs, electronic flash, fluorescent lamps,
infra-red lamp, ultra-violet lamp, etc.

Basic Outlines of Light

1. Intensity – refers to the relative strength of light. This varies according to the output of light source and the
distance from the source.
2. Direction – where there is a single source, the direction is clearly defined. Where there are many sources or
the light is diffused as on a cloudy day, the direction is less evident (not clear to the eye) or totally absent.
3. Color of Light – this varies in color depending upon its source and the substances through which it passes.
Natural light or sunlight has different color mix from incandescent lighting or electronic flash and the color
of the sunlight itself varies depending upon atmospheric condition and time of day.

Basic Directions of Light

1. Front lighting - front position

2. 45’ side lighting - 1/3 of a whole
3. 90’ side lighting - ½ of a whole
4. Back lighting - back position

IX. Developing, Printing and Enlarging

1. Development – is the process of reduction. Exposed silver halides are reduced into metallic silver. There is a
separate developer for film (D-76) and another for paper (Dektol). The factors that affect developing time are:
agitation, temperature, concentration, concentration of chemical and exposure.

Exposed film is removed from the camera is total darkness to prevent further exposure. It is placed in a liquid
known as developer which causes those particles in the emulsion which were struck by light to be changed to
metallic silver.

2. Stop-bath – an intermediate bath between the developer and the fixer. It is usually a combination of water plus
acetic acid or just plain water. Primarily, its function is to prevent the combination of the two chemical solutions

3. Fixation – The process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the emulsion after the first stage of
development of the latent image. The usual composition of a fixing solution are a solvent silver halide known as

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 hypo, an anti-staining agent like acetic acid, a preservative like sodium sulfide and a hardening agent like
potassium alum.

After development, the film is placed in a liquid known as fixer, this changes the remaining unexposed particles
in the emulsion which were struck by light to be changed to metallic silver.

4. Washing – after the fixing is completed, the film is rinsed in running water to remove all of the unexposed
silver (Ag compound and other chemicals).

5. Drying – the emulsion is composed of gelatin which softens when submerged in water.

Printing

The negative is used in the process of producing positive print or photograph.

Enlarging Techniques

After processing an exposed film into a negative, the next step would be to turn the negative into a positive print or
copy. This could be done by either contact printing or projection printing. For contact printing, a contact printer is
used while in projection printing an enlarger is needed. There are four essential parts of an enlarger: a base and
stand, a lamphouse, a condenser or diffuser and a lens. Accessories of the enlarger are: negative holder, and an easel
(paper holder).

Steps in Enlarging
1. Preparation of the darkroom, chemicals and the enlarger.
2. Put off light, switch on red light.
3. Place the negative in the negative holder with the dull side of the negative facing down.
4. Insert the negative holder into the enlarger.
5. Switch on the enlarger’s light.
6. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the photograph.
7. Focus the lens of the enlarger. Focusing is done by first opening the lens diaphragm fully. If after the image
has been focused and the density of the negative permits, the lens of the enlarger must be stopped down a
little bit.
8. Switch off the light of the enlarger.
9. Insert the photographic paper in the easel with the shiny side facing up
10. Make the exposure
11. Immerse the exposed photographic paper in the developer. The usual developing time for a normally
exposed paper is about 1 to 1 ½ minutes.
12. Transfer the developed print in the stop-bath for about 30 minutes.
13. Place the prints in the acid fixer.
14. Wash the print in running water for about 20 to 30 minutes.
15. Drying.

X. Application of Photography in Law Enforcement

1. Infra-red photography – is a process of recording unseen object(s) by the use of infra-red film and infra-red
light.

Uses:
a. document examination
b. differentiation or comparison of dyes, paints, or inks
c. deciphering writing on charred documents, fabrics, or leather
d. emphasizing scars, skin bruises and tattoos

2. Ultra-violet photography – is the art or process of photographing unseen object(s) by the use of ultra-violet light
and film.

Uses:
a. document examination
b. photographing fingerprints over multi-colored of photographing
c. photographing body fluids such as seminal fluid, urine, etc.
d. photographing invisible inks, etc.

3. X-ray photography – is defined as the process of photographing or recording the internal structure of the body.

Uses:
a. Fractures
1) capable of locating the fractured bones suspected after the assault.
2) The nature of the force used
b. Foreign Body (Identification or search of foreign body)

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 c. Identification of older or healed fracture or deformation
d. Custom Evasion – detection which involves custom evasion of a contraband or objects or clothes.

4. Macro/Micro photography – used to record or photograph minute object(s)

5. Police photography – is the process of photographing or recording the crime scene or any other subject for court
presentation.

Crime Scene Photography

In certain types of crime, particularly those involving physical violence, the crime scene including the location of
relevant object within it is of vital importance in establishing points of proof. A permanent record of such a crime
scene is indispensable to a successful presentation of the case in court. If the scene altered through carelessness or
haste, it can never be restored to its exact original condition and vital elements of proof may thereby be lost.
Moreover, in the initial stages of the investigation, the significance of certain aspects of the same may not be evident
although later they may affect vitally the issues in the case, hence, the first step in the investigation of any crime is
to photograph completely and accurately all the aspects of the scene before any of the objects of evidence are
removed or otherwise disturbed. Similar photographs should also be made after the body or bodies have been
removed. It is always wise to take to many photographs rather than too few.

Since crime scene photographs are designed to provide such views of the area as would have met the eye of an
observer, the procedure of taking crime photographs is straightforward. A set of front photographs is the usual
minimum to show a room adequately and many more maybe made in the case of major crime. Medium distant view
as well as close-up photographs should be made of important objects. Two lenses are sufficiently sufficient. A wide
angle lens for interior photographs and a normal lens for outdoor photographs and other purposes. Rarely is a
telephoto lens is required in crime scene photography.

Occasionally, existing room light maybe satisfactory for photographic purposes. However, the photographer will
usually have to provide additional illumination for interior shots, photoflood, or electric flash lamps can be used.

For general view of the scene, use the camera at eye level. These photographs provide a representation of the scene
as the average eyewitness might have observed it naturally. If you wish to show an object not in the normal line of
vision, you must place the camera elsewhere.

Measuring devices such as rulers, yardstick, or tape measure can be used to show the relative size of and distance
between objects of the degree of magnification of an enlargement. They should not obscure any important part of the
evidence. In document and small object photographs, a 6-inch or 15-centimeter ruler placed at the bottom of just
below the object will show the relative size of objects in a photographic exhibit.

Photography proves itself as a vital necessary aid to the investigation, solution and prosecution of a crime.
Photography affords a permanent visual record of the crime scenes, persons, places, and things.

Remember that photographs are often necessary to corroborate testimony of certain witnesses and usually add
weight and credibility to their testimony.

In photographing the scene, the photographer should attempt to record all useful information in series of
photographs that will help the viewer to understand where and how the crime was committed. The term crime scene
refers not only to the immediate site of the crime but also to adjacent areas which may be important in establishing
the location and surrounding of the immediate site.

Each crime has individual feature that should be photographed. Keep in mind the nature of the offense and try to
show those features that establish the elements of the offense.

XI. Preparation and Presentation of Photographic Evidence.

Preparing the Court for Exhibit

A picture offered in evidence should be the faithful representation of the subject matter. From the study of the
photographs, the viewer should perceive an impression of the scene as object which does not mislead him an
important respect. It should be free of any unusual distortion of lines or shapes and of any tone relationship.
Important subject matter should be in sharp focus.

Admissibility

Evidence photographs may be divided into two categories.

1. Those which represent objects of evidence and simply serve in place of an object or a verbal description of
it.
2. Those which are designed to prove a point bearing as an issue in the case such as a comparison photograph
of the evidence (FP, test bullets, handwritings).

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Although photographs of severe body injuries may arouse emotions of horror or indignation in the minds of the
observer, they are considered admissible provided the intent is simply to illustrate relevant facts and not to prejudice
the judge against the defendant. The photographer should be interested only in portraying the facts accurately.

The Photographer in Court

In testifying, his purpose should be to explain not defend his photographs. His replies to queries should be directly
responsive at all times. If he does not understand the question, he should request clarification. When the nature of
questions requires the he will consult his notes, he should request permission from the judge.

Qualifications

Since the photographer is giving opinion evidence, he is technically regarded by the court as an “Expert Witness,”
nevertheless, he need not to be an expert photographer in the professional sense and should not represent himself as
such. He should be presented an as experienced photographer, proficient in the techniques that were used in
producing the evidence photographs.

Before his pictures are admitted in evidence, the photographer may be asked certain questions to establish his
competence on the basis of his experience and training. Hence, he must be prepared to prove to the satisfaction of
the court that his training and experience have qualified him for the work related to the physical evidence.

A. Relevance and Materiality

Test for Determining Relevancy

1. The photographs are admissible whenever they assist the court to understand the case.
2. Photographs are admissible when they assist a witness in explaining his testimony.

B. Necessity of Preliminary Proof of Accuracy

A photograph taken in the ordinary way usually is an accurate record of the image cast by the lens upon the film but
as distortion is possible through the manner in which the camera or negative is used. Before a photograph is
admitted in evidence, there must always be preliminary proof that it is a correct representation of the subject.

C. Judicial Notice

The courts cannot refuse to take judicial notice of the photographic process as a proper means of producing correct
likenesses. There are several cases recognizing that in experienced, trustworthy and disinterested hands.
Photography is capable of a very high degree of accuracy or reproduction and acknowledging the indispensability of
photographs as means of presenting evidence. But the courts also take judicial cognizance of the fact that in careless,
unskilled or interested hands, photography may produce misleading and confusing results.

D. Who May Verify Photographs?

1. The better practice is to show the accuracy of the photographs by the photographer who took them.
2. Any other person having sufficient knowledge of the subject to say that the photograph is a faith
representation of the subject thereof.

E. Effects of Various Photographic Conditions

1. Experience and skill of photographer

a. Amateur
b. Professional

Photographs are dependent for their accuracy upon the skill of the person making them and the truthfulness of the
one vouching for them.

2. Interested or prejudice of photographer

3. Condition and size of the picture taking apparatus (efficacy of the camera)
4. Marking the subject before photographing

Marking includes the following

a. Chart or sign bearing identification data
b. Ruler of any measuring device
c. Any animate or inanimate thing used as a position marker
d. Any substance used to intensify details which otherwise would not show up in the photograph.

5. Development
6. Method of Printing

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 7. Size of Exhibit
8. Composite Photographs
9. Retouched Photographs

10. Marks and notations written on exhibits

XII. Cases

In the Gomez-Sarmenta rape-murder case, Police photography played a significant role.

While photography was not stressed in the Sanchez, et al. case, photography contributed much in the conviction of
the accused. These statements are based on the following premises:

1. The photographs of the condition of the victims when found speak for the magnitude of the crime
committed.
2. The ocular inspection aided by the photographer produced photographs of the crime scene vital to the court.
3. The photographs of the identical breechblock marks of the armalite shell found in Brgy. Mabacan and the
armalite shell found in the vicinity of the Sanchez rest house made clear that both shells were fired from the
armalite surrendered by one of the Corcolon brothers.
4. Photographs of the tampered and restored serial numbers of the armalite rifle surrendered by the Corcolons
also made clear to the court that something was being hidden.
5. Photographs of physical evidence remains as record of the case and marked as “exhibit,” to help the higher
court in the review.

PUT GOD FIRST IN EVERYTHING YOU DO AND HE WILL DO THE REST!

AIM HIGH AND HIT THE MARK!

GOOD LUCK FUTURE CRIMINOLOGISTS!

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