Simple Sorting

Goal: clean water

Source: (contaminated) surface water
Solution: separate contaminants from water
How?
 Where are we going?

 Unit processes* designed to

 remove ___________
particles
 remove __________
dissolved chemicals
___________
 inactivate __________
pathogens
 *Unit process: a process that is used in similar
ways in many different applications
 sedimentation
 filtration
 ...
 Unit Processes Designed to
Remove Particulate Matter
Screening
Sedimentation
Coagulation/flocculation
Filtration
slow sand filters
rapid sand filters
diatomaceous earth filters
membrane filters
 Conventional Surface Water
Treatment
Raw water
Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge
 Screening

 Removes large solids

 logs
 branches
 rags
 fish
 Simple process
 may incorporate a mechanized trash
removal system
 Protects pumps and pipes in WTP
 Sedimentation

the oldest form of water treatment

uses gravity to separate particles from water
often follows coagulation and flocculation
 Sedimentation: Effect of the
particle concentration
Dilute suspensions
Particles act independently
Concentrated suspensions
Particle-particle interactions are significant
Particles may collide and stick together
(form flocs)
Particle flocs may settle more quickly
Particle-particle forces may prevent further
consolidation
 How fast do particles fall in
dilute suspensions?
What are the important
parameters?
Initial conditions
After falling for some time...
What are the important
forces?
_________
Gravity
__________
Fluid drag
 Sedimentation:
Particle Terminal Fall Velocity
 p  particle volume
 F  ma
Identify forces projected
Fb Ap  particle cross sectional area
Fd  Fb  W  0
Fd ρ p  particle density

ppg ρw  water density

W  _______
g  acceleration due to gravity
C D  drag coefficient
prwg
Fb = "________
Vt  particle terminal velocity

Vt 2 W
Fd  C D AP  w
2
 Sedimentation Basin:
Critical Path
Horizontal velocity

Outlet zone
Vh

Inlet zone
Q Q = flow rate H
Vh  Vt
Sludge zone
A A = WH
Vertical velocity
L
d g  p   w 
2
Sludge out
Vt 
18 (property of the particle)

Vc  terminal velocity that just barely gets captured (property of the tank)
 Sedimentation Basin:
Importance of Tank Surface Area
  residence time
 Time in tank
   WHL  volume of tank
Q
A s  top surface area of tank
W
H HQ Q Q Vh H
Vc = = = =
q " LW As
Vc

L
Want a _____
small Vc, ______
large As, _______ large .
small H, _______
Suppose water were flowing up through a sedimentation tank. What Q
would be the velocity of a particle that is just barely removed? Vc =
As
 Conventional Sedimentation Basin

 long rectangular What is Vc for this sedimentation tank?

basins Settling zone

Outlet
 4-6 hour

zone
zone
Inlet
retention time Sludge zone

 3-4 m deep
 max of 12 m Sludge out
wide
 max of 48 m
long H 3 m 24 hr
Vc    18 m / day
 4 hr day
We can’t do this in our laboratory scale plants!
 Settling zone
Design Criteria for

Outlet
zone
zone
Inlet
Sedimentation Tanks Sludge zone

_______________________________
Minimal turbulence (inlet baffles)
_______________________________
Uniform velocity (small dimensions normal to velocity)
_______________________________
No scour of settled particles
_______________________________
Slow moving particle collection system
_______________________________
Q/As must be small (to capture small particles)

This will be one of the ways you can improve the

performance of your water treatment plant.
 Lamella

 Sedimentation tanks are

commonly divided into
layers of shallow tanks
(lamella)
 The flow rate can be
increased while still
obtaining excellent
particle removal
Lamella decrease distance particle
has to fall in order to be removed
 Lamella

Design needs improvement! Need method to transport

particles to bottom of tank.
 Lamella Closeup
Q Qlamella
Vc = vc 
As wL cos a  wb sin a
w = width of lamella
Vlamella
vc 
L
L cos a  sin a
b b
 Region of particle-free fluid above the
suspension
 Suspension
 Thin particle-free fluid layer beneath
a the downward-facing surface
 Concentrated sediment
 Lamella Design Strategy

Q
 Angle is approximately 60° to get Qlamella 
N lamella
solids to slide down the incline
Ltan k  L cos a 
 Re must be less than 2000 N lamella 
b sin a 
 Shear doesn’t cause resuspension if
flow is laminar Vlamella b
Re 
 Lamella spacing must be large 
relative to floc size (flocs can be
several mm in diameter)
 Upflow velocity (Q/As) can be as
large as 100 m/day
 Sedimentation of Small
Particles?
How could we increase the sedimentation
rate of small particles? Increase d (stick
particles together)

d g  p   w  Increase density difference

Increase g (centrifuge)
2

Vt 
18
(dissolved air flotation)

Decrease viscosity
(increase temperature)
 Particle/particle interactions

 Electrostatic repulsion
 In most surface waters, colloidal surfaces are negatively
charged
stable suspension
 like charges repel __________________
 van der Waals force
 an attractive force
 decays more rapidly with distance than the electrostatic
force
 is a stronger force at very close distances
Electrostatic
Energy Barrier
Increase kinetic energy of
Layer of
particles
counter ions
increase temperature
stir
+ ++ + ++
+ + + +
+ ++ + ++
+ +
Decrease magnitude of energy
barrier
change the charge of the particles
van der introduce positively charged
Waals particles
 Chemical Coagulation-Flocculation

Removes suspended particulate and colloidal substances from

water, including microorganisms.
Coagulation: colloidal destabilization
 Typically, add alum (aluminum sulfate) or ferric chloride or
sulfate to the water with rapid mixing and controlled pH
conditions
 Insoluble aluminum or ferric hydroxide and aluminum or iron
hydroxo complexes form
 These complexes entrap and adsorb suspended particulate and
colloidal material.
 Coagulation-Flocculation, Continued

Flocculation:
 Slow mixing (flocculation) that provides for for a
period of time to promote the aggregation and
growth of the insoluble particles (flocs).
 The particles collide, stick together and grow larger
 The resulting large floc particles are subsequently
removed by gravity sedimentation (or direct
filtration)
 Smaller floc particles are too small to settle and are
removed by filtration
 Microbe Reductions by Chemical Coagulation-
Flocculation

 Considerable reductions of enteric microbe concentrations.

 Reductions In laboratory and pilot scale field studies:
 >99 percent using alum or ferric salts as coagulants
 Some studies report much lower removal efficiencies (<90%)
 Conflicting information may be related to process control
 coagulant concentration, pH and mixing speed during flocculation.
 Expected microbe reductions bof 90-99%, if critical process variables are
adequately controlled
 No microbe inactivation by alum or iron coagulation
 Infectious microbes remain in the chemical floc
 The floc removed by settling and/or filtration must be properly managed to
prevent pathogen exposure.
 Recycling back through the plant is undesirable
 Filter backwash must be disinfected/disposed of properly.
 Coagulation

 Coagulation is a physical-chemical process whereby

particles are destabilized
 Several mechanisms
 adsorption of cations onto negatively charged particles
 decrease the thickness of the layer of counter ions –
addition of ions of different charges
 sweep coagulation – addition of coagulant in large
doses – entrap particles
 interparticle bridging – large polymeric coagulants can
bridge between particles
 Coagulation Chemistry

The standard coagulant for water supply is

Alum [Al2(SO4)3*14.3H2O]
Typically 5 mg/L to 50 mg/L alum is used
The chemistry is complex with many
possible species formed such as AlOH+2,
Al(OH)2+, and Al7(OH)17+4
The primary reaction produces Al(OH)3
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O2Al(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO4-2
pH = -log[H+]
 Coagulation Chemistry

Aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3] forms

amorphous, gelatinous flocs that are heavier
than water
The flocs look like snow in water
These flocs entrap particles as the flocs
settle (sweep coagulation)
 Coagulant introduction with
rapid mixing
 The coagulant must be mixed with the water
 Retention times in the mixing zone are typically
between 1 and 10 seconds
 Types of rapid mix units
 pumps
 hydraulic jumps
 flow-through basins with many baffles
 In-line blenders
 In-line static mixers
 Flocculation

Coagulation has destabilized the particles

by reducing the energy barrier
Now we want to get the particles to collide
We need relative motion between particles
________ ________ (effective for particles
Brownian motion
smaller than 1 m)
_________
Differential _____________
sedimentation (big particles hit
smaller particles)
_______
Shear
 Mechanical Flocculation

 Shear provided by turbulence

created by gentle stirring
 Turbulence also keeps large flocs
from settling so they can grow
even larger!
 Retention time of 10 - 30 minutes
 Advantage is that amount of
shear can be varied independent
of flow rate
 Disadvantage is the tanks are far
from plug flow
 Hydraulic Flocculators

Types
Horizontal baffle
Vertical baffle
Pipe flow
Questions for design
How long must the suspension be in the “reactor”
How should the geometry of the reactor be
determined?
 Coagulation/Flocculation

Inject Coagulant in rapid mixer

Water flows from rapid mix unit into
flocculation reactor
Water flows from flocculation reactor into
sedimentation tank
make sure flocs don’t break!
flocs settle and are removed
 Jar Test

Mimics the rapid mix, flocculation,

sedimentation treatment steps in a beaker
Allows operator to test the effect of
different coagulant dosages or of different
coagulants
Low tech water bottle test
 Unit Processes in Conventional
Surface Water Treatment

We’ve covered
Sedimentation
Coagulation/flocculation
Coming up!
Filtration
Disinfection
Removal of Dissolved Substances
 Conventional Surface Water
Treatment
Raw water
Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge
 Filtration

Slow sand filters

Diatomaceous earth filters
Membrane filters
Rapid sand filters (Conventional Treatment)
 Slow Sand Filtration

First filters to be used on a widespread basis

Fine sand with an effective size of 0.2 mm
Low flow rates (10 - 40 cm/hr)
Schmutzdecke (_____ ____) forms on top
filter cake
of the filter
causes high head loss
must be removed periodically
Used without coagulation/flocculation!
 Particle Removal Mechanisms
by medium
Straining
(fluid and
gravitational by
forces) previously
removed
particles
Physical-Chemical
to medium
Attachment
Particle (electrochemical
to previously
Removal forces) removed
Mechanisms particles

Attachment to
biofilms
Biological Suspension
feeders
Capture by
predators
Grazers
 Diatomaceous Earth Filters

 Diatomaceous earth (DE) is made of the silica

skeletons of diatoms
 DE is added to water and then fed to a special
microscreen
 The DE already on the microscreen strains particles
and DE from the water
 The continuous DE feed prevents the gradually
thickening DE cake from developing excessive head
loss
 Membrane Filters

Much like the membrane filters used to

enumerate coliforms
much greater surface area
Produce very high quality water (excellent
particle removal)
Clog rapidly if the influent water is not of
sufficiently high quality
More expensive than sand and DE filters
 Rapid Sand Filter
(Conventional US Treatment)

Size Specific Depth

(mm) Gravity (cm)
0.70 1.6 30
Anthracite
Influent Sand 0.45 - 0.55 2.65 45

Gravel 5 - 60 2.65 45
Drain
Effluent Wash water
Find this presentation and more on: www.ssswm.info.

7. Advantages and Drawbacks

Rapid Sand Filtration Put in a Nutshell

Advantages:
• Very effective in removing
turbidity / large particles (<0.1-
1 NTU)
• High filter rate (4’000 – 12’000
litres per hour per m2)
• Small land requirements
• No limitation regarding initial
turbidity level
• Cleaning time (backwashing)
only takes several minutes
Disadvantages:
• Not effective in removing
bacteria, viruses, protozoa,
fluoride, arsenic, salts, odour
and organic matter (unless
pre- and post-treated)
• High investment and
operational costs
• Frequent cleaning required
(every 24-72h)
• Skilled supervision essential
• Highly energy demanding
• Treatment of backwashing
water and sludge necessary

Rapid Sand Filtration 41

CRITERIA RAPID SAND FILTERS
Improvement of water quality With pre-treated raw water, a filtrate
quality is possible that has less than 1 NTU,
90% removal of coliforms, 50 – 90% removal
of Cryptosporidium and Giardia cysts, 10%
removal of colour, 5% removal of Total
Organic Content (WEDC, 1999 ). As a single
process, rapid sand filtration was
ranked third mosteffective of all treatment
processes, given a range of pathogenic,
chemical and aesthetic factors.
Rate of flow A flow of between 4 – 21 m/h can be Flow rates are usually around 0.1 m/h but
expected from a rapid sand filter, which is can increase up to 0.4 m/h. Check out Flow
somewhere between 20 and 50 times faster Rates for more information.
than the range of slow sand filtration.
Filter media Rapid sand filters are made using graded
sand, sometimes with an additional coarser
layer of material on top of the sand to
increase the flow rate (for example,
anthracite), in which case they become
known as dual-media filters. The effective
size for rapid filters is usually greater than
0.55mm with a Uniformity Coefficient of less
than 1.5.
Penetration of solid matter Penetration of suspended matter into the
sand bed is deeper for rapid sand filters,
which are usually cleaned by backwashing.
Pre-treatment Pre-treatment is usually necessary for rapid
sand filtration. Such treatment could include
coagulation and flocculation, followed by
sedimentation.
SLOW SAND FILTERS
With raw water, a filtrate quality is possible
that has less than 1 NTU, 95% removal of
coliforms, 99% removal of Cryptosporidium
and Giardia cysts, 75% removal of colour,
10% removal of Total Organic Content
(WEDC, 1999 ). As a single process, slow
sand filtration was ranked second
most effective of all treatment processes,
given a range of pathogenic, chemical and
aesthetic factors.
Slow sand filters on the other hand, should
ideally have an effective size of between
0.15 – 0.35mm, and a Uniformity Coefficient
of between 1.5 – 3, but preferably less than
2.
Solids only tend to penetrate slow sand
filter beds by between 0.5 and 2 cm by
comparison, allowing more manual methods
to be employed for cleaning.
No pre-treatment is usually necessary for
raw waters with turbidities of less than 50
NTU. Huisman and Wood (1974 ) suggest
that the best filtration occurs when turbidity
is less than 10 NTU. Note that coagulation
and flocculation are not appropriate pre-
treatments for slow sand filters because floc
carryover is possible, which rapidly blocks
the sand bed.
Particle Removal Mechanisms in
Filters

Transport
Molecular diffusion
Inertia
Gravity
Interception
Attachment
Straining
Surface forces
 Filter Design

 Filter media
 silica sand and anthracite coal
 non-uniform media will stratify with _______
smaller particles
at the top
 Flow rates
 2.5 - 10 m/hr
 Backwash rates
 set to obtain a bed porosity of 0.65 to 0.70
 typically 50 m/hr
 Backwash

Wash water is
treated water!
Anthracite WHY?
Only clean water
should ever be on
Influent Sand
bottom of filter!

Gravel
Drain
Effluent Wash water
 Ways to Improve Filtration

Filter to waste
Extended Terminal Sub-fluidization Wash
Alum feed directly to filter?
Potato starch?
 Disinfection

Disinfection: operations aimed at killing or

inactivating pathogenic microorganisms
____________
Ideal disinfectant
_______________
Toxic to pathogens
_______________
Not toxic to humans
_______________
Fast rate of kill
_______________
Residual protection
_______________
Economical
 Disinfection Options

 Chlorine
 chlorine gas Poisonous gas – risk of a leak
 sodium hypochlorite (bleach)
 Ozone
 Irradiation with Ultraviolet light
 Sonification
 Electric Current
 Gamma-ray irradiation
 Chlorine

 Widely used in Malaysia

 Typical dosage (1-5 mg/L)
 variable, based on the chlorine demand
Chlorine
 goal of 0.2 mg/L residual oxidizes organic
matter

 Trihalomethanes (EPA primary standard is 0.08

mg/L)

Pathogen/carcinogen tradeoff
 Chlorine Reactions
Charges 0 +1 -2 +1 -1
Cl2 + H2O  H+ + HOCl + Cl-
Hypochlorous acid HOCl  H+ + OCl- Hypochlorite ion
The sum of HOCl and OCl- is called the
free chlorine
____ ______ residual
_______
HOCl is the more effective disinfectant
Therefore chlorine disinfection is more
effective at ________
low pH
HOCl and OCl- are in equilibrium at pH 7.5
 Ozone

Widely used in Europe

O3 is chemically unstable
Must be produced on site
More expensive than chlorine (2 - 3 times)
Typical dosages range from 1 to 5 mg/L
Often followed by chlorination so that the
residual
chlorine can provide a protective _______
 Removal of Dissolved
Substances (1)
Aeration (before filtration)
oxidizes iron or manganese in groundwater
oxidized forms are less soluble and thus
precipitate out of solution
removes hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Softening (before filtration)
used to remove Ca+2 and Mg+2
usually not necessary with surface waters
 Removal of Dissolved
Substances (2)
 Activated Carbon (between filtration and
disinfection)
 extremely adsorbent
 used to remove organic contaminants
 spent activated carbon can be regenerated with
superheated steam
 Reverse Osmosis
 semi-permeable membrane allows water molecules
to pass, but not the larger ions and molecules
 primarily used for desalination
 also removes organic materials, bacteria, viruses,
and protozoa
 Conventional Surface Water
Treatment
Raw water
Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge