CHAPTER 1

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid waste management is a major challenge due to the rise in population and
industrialization, leading to larger amount of solid wastes being generated. Solid waste
management is slowly emerging as a growing concern worldwide due to its costliness and
potential of contribution to environmental pollution from landfills, waste collecting,
transport and processin .Solid waste management (SWM) also known as Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW) management is a term that is used to refer to the process of collecting and
treating solid wastes. A substantial amount of money was spent on managing the ever
growing amount of solid waste. Biological process has been widely recognized in
converting solid organic materials into environmental friendly and value added
products.MSW is defined at the national level as wastes consisting of everyday items
such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles and cans, food
scraps, newspapers, appliances, consumer electronics, and batteries. These wastes come
from homes, institutions such as schools and hospitals and commercial sources such as
restaurants and small businesses. Once generated, MSW must be collected and managed.
Common management methods include recovery for recycling or composting,
combustion and landfill disposal. Many wastes that are disposed of in landfills represent a
loss of materials that could be reused, recycled, or converted to energy to displace the use
of virgin materials. Waste management is thus all about how solid waste can be changed
and used as a valuable resource. Industrialization has brought about a lot of good and bad
things. One of the negative effects of industrialization is the creation of solid waste.

According to Daskalopoulos et al. (1997), solid waste management can be classified as a

field related to control of generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing and disposal
of municipal solid waste (MSW), where public health, economics, engineering and
environmental concerns are considered. In general, organic waste produced from
agricultural production and processing industries are categorized as solid waste due to its
potential as environmental hazards.
Waste management systems are influenced by socio-economic, political and
environmental factors such as population growth, consumption pattern and technological
development of waste systems . Due to the abundance of solid wastes for disposal, a
sustainable and ecological approach on reusing the wastes should be proposed and
implemented for pollution abatement by considering economical, health and
environmental factors. Sustainable waste management practices are essential to preserve
the surrounding environment, thus it is desirable to reutilize the waste products in other
industry to create a desired product. However, the standards of waste management in
most parts of the world are still poor. Poor handling of solid waste management could be
due to several factors which include unsystematic and outdated documentation of waste
statistics and characteristics, inadequate storage and collection systems, uncontrolled
disposal of toxic and hazardous waste, uncontrolled disposal or dumping of wastes and
inefficient utilization of disposal site space.
Waste management is a complex process because it involves different principles and
processes. Inadequate waste management contributes to climate change issues due to
methane production and uncontrolled greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, there is a
need to amend or improve the current treatment systems applied in solid waste
management by introducing and implementing sustainable treatment systems. In recent
years, a method known as vermicomposting has been receiving growing interest.
Vermicomposting can be regarded as a green biotechnology using earthworms to process
biodegradable solid wastes. This paper is an attempt to discuss about the recent
development in biodegradable solid waste management; with emphasis on the comparison
between composting (conventional method) and vermicomposting (newer technology) of
organic solid wastes.

Table1: Solid waste generation rates (kg capita-1 day-1) of selected Asian countries.

Countries Income Status Waste generation Reference

rates
(kg capita-1 day-
1)
China Low 0.80 Hoornweg and
Thomas (1999)
India Low 0.79 Hoornweg and
Thomas (1999);
Khajuria et al.
(2010)
Indonesia Middle 0.80 - 1.00 Mukawi (2001)
Malaysia Middle 0.81 Hoornweg and
Thomas (1999)
Phillipines Middle 0.30 - 0.70 World Bank
(2001)
Singapore High 1.10 Hoornweg and
Thomas (1999)
1.1 Current status of solid waste management practices.

Unlike most developed countries, inadequate management of solid wastes still

exists in many parts of the world. As the public slowly recognizes the importance of
proper solid waste management, the global scientific society with the collaboration of
external support is striving to further improve solid waste management, especially in
developing countries. However, several factors such as economic, financial, institutional,
social and technical constraints faced by both recipient and external support party deters
the effort for proper solid waste management. The current solid waste management
system is deemed inefficient due to problems such as uncontrolled open dumping and
burning without pollution control and encourages the breeding of pests. According to
Terazono et al. (2005), Asian countries such as Indonesia, Malaysian and Thailand are not
stringent in solid waste management due to the fact that no strict laws were practiced on
waste management.

1.2 Characterization of waste

Waste can be classified into categories based on its source. In general, solid wastes is
divided into three main categories known as municipal solid waste (MSW), agricultural
waste and construction and demolition .

Municipal solid waste:

Sources of municipal wastes are mostly from residential, Industrial, Commercial, and
Institutional. Every day, tons of solid waste is disposed off at various landfill sites. This
waste comes from homes, offices, industries and various other agricultural related
activities. These landfill sites produce foul smell if waste is not stored and treated
properly. It can pollute the surrounding air and can seriously affect the health of humans,
wildlife and our environment.

Agriculture:

Crop farms, orchards, dairies, vineyards and feedlots are also sources of solid wastes.
Among the wastes they produce include agricultural wastes, spoiled food, pesticide
containers and other hazardous materials.

Construction and Demolition Areas :

Construction sites and demolition sites also contribute to the solid waste problem.
Construction sites include new construction sites for buildings and roads, road repair
sites, building renovation sites and building demolition sites. ("Municipal Solid Waste."
EPA. Environmental Protection Agency.)
 CHAPTER 2

IMPORTANTS OF THE WORKS

2.1 Threats posed by water hyacinth

Water hyacinth is an aquatic plant which can live and reproduce floating freely on the
surface of fresh waters or can be anchored in mud. Plant size ranges from a few inches to
a metre in height. Its rate of proliferation under certain circumstances is extremely rapid
and it can spread to cause infestations over large areas of water causing a variety of
problems. It belongs to the family of Pontedericeae, closely related to the Liliaceae (lily
family). The mature plant consists of long, pendant roots, rhizomes, stolons, leaves,
inflorescences and fruit clusters. It grows in mats up to 2 metres thick which can reduce
light and oxygen, change water chemistry, affect flora and fauna and cause significant
increase in water loss due to evaporation and transpiration. It also causes practical
problems for marine transportation, fishing and at intakes for hydro power and irrigation
schemes. It is now considered a serious threat to biodiversity.

It brings about hindrance in water transport; access to harbors and docking areas can be
seriously hindered by mats of water hyacinth. Canals and freshwater rivers can become
impassable as they clog up with densely intertwined carpets of the weed. It is also
becoming a serious hazard to lake transport on Lake Victoria as large floating islands of
water hyacinth form. It harbours a variety of disease vectors and therefore, a threat to
human living directly. The diseases associated with the presence of aquatic weeds in
tropical developing countries are among those that pose major public health problems
such as malaria, schistosomiasis and lymphatic filariasis.

Problems related to fishing; Water hyacinth can present many problems for the fisherman.
Access to sites becomes difficult when weed infestation is present, loss of fishing
equipment often results when nets or lines become tangled in the root systems of the
weed and the result of these problems is more often than not a reduction in catch and
subsequent loss of livelihood. In areas where fishermen make a living from their trade,
this can present serious socio-economic problems. For example fishermen on lake
Victoria have complained of much water hyacinth infestation. They also complain that
crocodiles and snakes have become more prevalent.

Problems with irrigation, hydropower and water supply systems; many large hydropower
schemes are suffering from the effects of water hyacinth. The Owen Falls hydropower
scheme at Jinja on Lake Victoria is a victim of the weeds rapid reproduction rates and an
increasing amount of time and money is having to be invested in clearing the weed to
prevent it entering the turbine and causing damage and power interruptions. Blockage of
canals and rivers causing flooding. Water hyacinth can grow so densely that a human
being can walk on it. When it takes hold in rivers and canals it can become so dense that
it forms a herbivorous barrage and can cause damaging and dangerous flooding.

Reduction of bio-diversity; where water hyacinth is prolific, other aquatic plants have
difficulty in surviving. This causes an imbalance in the aquatic micro-ecosystem and
often means that a range of fauna that relies on a diversity of plant life for its existence
will become extinct. Diversity of fish stocks is often affected with some benefiting and
others suffering from the proliferation of water hyacinth. People often complain of
localized water quality deterioration. This is of considerable concern where people come
to collect water and to wash. Quantification of the problem is often extremely difficult.
The real effect on fish stocks and flora is unknown. It is hard to calculate the effect on
fishing communities. Even quantifying the coverage of the weed is difficult on bodies of
water which are as large and geographically complex as Lake Victoria. Satellite methods
are the only accurate way of determining the spread of the weed.

Success is hard to measure when the exact scale of the problem is not clearly defined and
is anyway growing rapidly.( https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/93359)

2.2 Threats posed by banana trunk

Banana is an important food crop of the world which is cultivated over an area of
more than four million hectares and its annual production is more than seventy million
tonnes. India is one of the leading producers of banana. After the harvest of the fruits the
whole plant is left in the agriculture field for natural degradation, which takes several
months. Earthworms have been used in the vermiconversion of urban, industrial and agro-
industrial wastes to produced biofertilizers.( http://www.recentscientific.com)

Banana trunk could play a vital role in emerging bio economy. Currently, millions
of tons of banana trunk are damped as waste and most of the farmers are facing huge
problem in disposing the accumulated banana trunk. Therefore an effective and economic
means of reducing the environmental problem by extraction of trunk and production of
valuable bio product from it.
 CHAPTER – 3

VERMICOMPOSTING

3.1 COMPOSTING

The main aim of the project is solid waste management for which composting was
selected as it has numerous advantages over other methods of solid waste treatment, chief
among them no harmful gas production, no harmful residue solids, organic useful
fertilizer production and so on.

3.2 Types of Composting-

Following are the major types of composting:

i) Backyard or Onsite Composting

Backyard or onsite composting can be conducted by residents and other small-quantity

generators of organic waste on their own property. By composting these materials onsite,
homeowners and select businesses can significantly reduce the amount of waste that
needs to be disposed of and thereby save money from avoided disposal costs. Learn how
to create your own compost pile.

• Types of Waste and Waste Generators: Backyard or onsite composting is suitable for
converting yard trimmings and food scraps into compost that can be applied on site. This
method should not be used to compost animal products or large quantities of food scraps.
Households, commercial establishments, and institutions (e.g., universities, schools,
hospitals) can leave grass clippings on the lawn-known as “grass cycling” -where the
cuttings will decompose naturally and return some nutrients back to the soil. Backyard or
onsite composters also might keep leaves in piles for eventual use as mulch around trees
and scrubs to retain moisture.

• Climate or Seasonal Considerations: Climate and seasonal variations do not present

major challenges to backyard or onsite composting because this method typically
involves small quantities of organic waste. When conditions change-for example, if a
rainy season approaches-the process can be adjusted accordingly without many
complications.

• Environmental Concerns: Improper management of food scraps can cause odors and
also might attract unwanted attention from insects or animals.

• Requirements: Backyard or onsite composting requires very little time or equipment.

Education is the most critical aspect of backyard or onsite composting. Local
communities might hold composting demonstrations and seminars to encourage
homeowners or businesses to compost on their own properties.

• Results: The conversion of organic material to compost can take up to two years, but
manual turning can hasten the process considerably (e.g., 3 to 6 months). The resulting
natural fertilizer can be applied to lawns and gardens to help condition the soil and
replenish nutrients. Compost, however, should not be used as potting soil for houseplants
because of the presence of weed and grass seeds.

ii) Vermicomposting

In this method, red worms, night crawlers or field worms found in gardens- are placed in
bins with organic matter in order to break it down into high-value compost called
castings. Worm bins are easy to construct (they are also commercially available) and can
be adapted to accommodate the volume of food scraps generated.

• Types of Waste and Waste Generators: Worms will eat almost anything that is put in a
typical compost pile (e.g., food scraps, paper, and plants). Vermicomposting can be ideal
for apartment dwellers or small offices that want to derive some of the benefits of
composting and reduce solid waste. It is frequently used in schools to teach children
conservation and recycling.

• Climate or Seasonal Considerations: Worms are sensitive to variations in climate.

Extreme temperatures and direct sunlight are not healthy for the worms. The optimal
temperatures for vermicomposting range from 55° F to 77° F. In hot, arid areas, the bin
should be placed under the shade. By vermicomposting indoors, however, one can avoid
many of the problems posed by hot or cold climates. The primary responsibility is to keep
the worms alive and healthy by providing the proper conditions and sufficient food.

• Requirements: Vermicomposting has only a few basic requirements: worms, worm

bedding (e.g., shredded newspaper, cardboard), and a bin to contain the worms and
organic matter. Maintenance procedures include preparing bedding, burying garbage, and
separating worms from their castings.

• Results: One pound of mature worms (approximately 800-1,000 worms) can eat up to
half a pound of organic material per day. It typically takes three to four months for these
worms to produce harvestable castings, which can be used as potting soil.
Vermicomposting also produces compost or “worm” tea, a high-quality liquid fertilizer
for house plants or gardens.

iii) Aerated (Turned) Windrow Composting

Organic waste is formed into rows of long piles called “windrows” and aerated by turning
the pile periodically by either manual or mechanical means. The ideal pile height, which
is between 4 and 8 feet, allows for a pile large enough to generate sufficient heat and
maintain temperatures, yet small enough to allow oxygen to flow to the windrow's core.
The ideal pile width is between 14 and 16 feet.

• Types of Waste and Waste Generators: This method can accommodate large volumes of
diverse wastes, including yard trimmings, grease, liquids, and animal byproducts (such as
fish and poultry wastes), but only with frequent turning and careful monitoring. This
method is suited for large quantities, such as that generated by entire communities and
collected by local governments, and high volume food-processing businesses (e.g.,
restaurants, cafeterias, packing plants).

• Climate or Seasonal Considerations: In a warm, arid climate, windrows are sometimes

covered or placed under a shelter to prevent water from evaporating. In rainy seasons, the
shapes of the pile can be adjusted so that water runs off the top of the pile rather than
being absorbed into the pile. Also, windrow composting can work in cold climates. Often
the outside of the pile might freeze, but in its core, a windrow can reach 140° F.
• Environmental Concerns: Leach ate is liquid released during the composting process.
This can contaminate local ground-water and surface-water supplies and should be
collected and treated. In addition, windrow composting is a large scale operation and
might be subject to regulatory enforcement. Samples of the compost should be tested in a
laboratory for bacterial and heavy metal content. Odor also needs to be controlled. The
public should be informed of the operation and have a method to address any complaints
about animals or bad odors. Other concerns might include zoning and sitting
requirements.

• Requirements: Windrow composting often requires large tracts of land, sturdy

equipment, a continual supply of labour to maintain and operate the facility, and patience
to experiment with various materials mixtures and turning frequencies.

• Results: This method will yield significant amounts of compost, which might require
assistance to market the end-product. Alternatively, local governments can make the
compost available to residents for a low or no cost.

iv) Aerated Static Pile Composting

In aerated static pile composting, organic waste is mixed together in one large pile instead
of rows. To aerate the pile, layers of loosely piled bulking agents (e.g., wood chips,
shredded newspaper) are added so that air can pass from the bottom to the top of the pile.
The piles also can be placed over a network of pipes that deliver air into or draw air out of
the pile. Air blowers might be activated by a timer or a temperature sensor.

• Types of Waste and Waste Generators: Aerated static piles are suitable for a relatively
homogenous mix of organic waste and work well for larger quantity generators of yard
trimmings and compostable municipal solid waste (e.g., food scraps, paper products),
which might include local governments, landscapers, or farms. This method, however,
does not work well for composting animal by-products or grease from food processing
industries.

• Climate or Seasonal Considerations: Like windrow composting, in a warm, arid climate,

aerated static piles are sometimes covered or placed under a shelter to prevent water from
evaporating. In the cold, the core of the pile will retain its warm temperature, but aeration
might be more difficult in the cold because this method involves passive air flowing
rather than active turning. Some aerated static piles are placed indoors with proper
ventilation.

• Environmental Concerns: Since there is no physical turning, this method requires

careful monitoring to ensure that the outside of the pile heats up as much as the core. One
way to alleviate bad odours is to apply a thick layer of finished compost over the pile,
which can help maintain high temperatures throughout the pile. Another way to deal with
odour, provided that the air blower draws air out of the pile, is to filter this air through a
bio filter made from finished compost.

• Requirements: This method typically requires equipment such as blowers, pipes,

sensors, and fans, which might involve significant costs and technical assistance. Having
a controlled supply of air enables construction of large piles, which require less land than
the windrow method.

• Results: This method produces compost relatively quickly-within 3 to 6 months.

v) In-Vessel Composting

Organic materials are fed into a drum, silo, concrete-lined trench, or similar equipment
where the environmental conditions-including temperature, moisture, and aeration-are
closely controlled. The apparatus usually has a mechanism to turn or agitate the material
for proper aeration. In-vessel composters vary in size and capacity.

• Types of Waste and Waste Generators: In-vessel composting can process large amounts
of waste without taking up as much space as the windrow method. In addition, it can
accommodate virtually any type of organic waste (e.g., meat, animal manure, bio-solids,
food scraps). Some in-vessel composters can fit into a school or restaurant kitchen while
others can be as large as a school bus to accommodate large food processing plants.

• Climate or Seasonal Considerations: In-vessel composting can be used year-round in

virtually any climate because the environment is carefully controlled, often by electronic
means. This method can even be used in extremely cold weather if the equipment is
insulated or the processing takes place indoors.

• Environmental Concerns: In-vessel composting produces very little odour and minimal
leachate.

• Requirements: In-vessel composters are expensive and might require technical

assistance to operate properly, but this method uses much less land and manual labour
than windrow composting.

• Results: Conversion of organic material to compost can take as little as a few weeks.
Once the compost comes out of the vessel, however, it still requires a few more weeks or
months for the microbial activity to stabilize and the pile to cool.("Municipal Solid Waste
Generation, Recycling, and Disposal in the United States: Facts and Figures for 2012.")

3.4 Benefits of vermicomposting-

Vermicomposting is essentially the utilization of earthworms for the conversion of

vegetable waste into a cent percent natural fertilizer. Many people make use of worm
farms, which has become a popular method of vermicomposting.But, why
vermicomposting? There are many benefits of vermicomposting, and some of them have
been mentioned below. The purpose of the article is to motivate people to take up
vermicomposting to ensure healthy plants and soil.

1. Organic

The most important aspect of compost produced by earthworms is that it is 100 percent
organic. There are no harmful chemicals and it does not need to be mixed with anything.

2. More Nutritious

Vermicomposting produces a product that is naturally designed to benefit plants in

several different ways. The most significant benefit is that the nutrients in earthworm
compost are very easily absorbed by the roots of plants. Unlike chemical fertilizers,
vermicompost is not easily flushed from the soil because of the worm mucus that it
contains. Plants have longer to obtain the nutrients and get the maximum benefit.

3. Micro-organisms

As the compost is passing through the body of the worms, it is enriched with bacteria and
microbes. These help plants to become more disease resistant and also repel some plant
pests. The presence of increased microbial activity can make the area much more
attractive to birds which also help to remove plant pests.

4. Healthier Plants

As the compost works on the plants and they become healthier, the need for pesticides is
reduced. The reduction in pesticides helps the area to recover faster and can start an
improvement cycle that will run on. This compares with the typical cycle when chemical
fertilizers are used. The chemical fertilizers might increase plant yields, but they do
nothing for plant health. Continued use of chemical fertilizers inevitably leads to a
breakdown in the soil. Ammonia and salts build up which attack the plants making them
less able to withstand disease.

5. Plant Growth

Among the hormones that earthworm compost contains are hormones that help plants to
grow. Germination of seeds is encouraged, the growth of the plant is stronger and the
crop yield improved. This natural support for the plants is not available with chemical
fertilizers. The distribution of the compost through the soil also helps to encourage
healthy root growth.

6. Water Retention

Vermicompost is a colloid and holds up to nine times its own weight in water. This can
make a huge difference when there is a dry spell. The water is held at an organic level so
tends to evaporate slowly while still being available to the plants.
7. Slow Nutrition Release

Chemical fertilizers bombard plants with huge amounts of nutrients that are going to
drain by and eventually be washed out of the soil by the rain. The chemicals can get into
the aquifers and contaminate your drinking water. This can be avoided by using a
compost which is lower in nutrient content but which does not get washed out of the soil.
The nutrients are held in place and released slowly so that the plants receive what they
need over a prolonged period.

Using earthworms creates a product that is natural and behaves naturally. The cycle of
regularly over-dosing the soil is broken. Plant health is promoted by long-term exposure
to nutrients and the soil condition will continue to improve.(http://www.doityourself.com)
 CHAPTER 4

IMPORTANCE OF VERMICOMPOSTING

Organic waste and especially fast degradable food waste is a considerable fraction
of municipal agricultural and some industrial wastes. In many countries food waste is a
big part of daily produced municipal wastes for an example the result of a study showed
that Iran has a potential for production of 4 million tons compost from municipal solid
wastes, annually . Nowadays, public understanding of vermicompost process increased
and its deployment to convert organic waste into vermicompost has been increasingly
expanded. Ease of the vermicompost process and ability of its application in various
scales made the vermicomposting a popular issue almost everywhere. This developed
application of vermicompost requires much knowledge of the process and its effect on
quality of the obtaining fertilizer from the raw waste.
Vermicomposting is the process by which worms are used to convert organic
materials (usually wastes) into a humus like material known as vermicompost . The goal
is to process the materials as quickly and efficiently as possible earthworm consume
biomass and excrete it in digested from called worm costs. Worm cost are rich in nutrient
, growth promoting substances , beneficial soil micro flora and having properties of
inhibiting pathogenic microbes. Vermicompost is suitable fine granular organic process,
which enriches soil equality by improving its physicochemical and biological properties,
it is highly useful in raising seedlings and for crop production. Vermicompost is
becoming popular as a major component of organic farming system .Vermicomposting
has many benefits for the participant, their communities, and the environment. In many
communities garbage collection and disposal is a serious problem. In most areas the
collected garbage is sent to a landfill, or simply an area where it is dumped. By diverting
organic material from the waste stream, this amount can be greatly reduced. The Deccan
Development Society in India has reported that nearly 80% of waste stream is
biodegradable, this material can easily be broken down in vermicomposting system.
Diverting this waste saves the community money that would otherwise be spent on its
collection and disposal. Production of worm costing that are a valuable fertilizer and soil
additive. By using the worm costing and ‘worm tea’ (liquid that leaches through the
worm bin) , they may save money on fertilizers that otherwise would have to be brought.
If the system is large enough , there is the possibility of selling the worm castings
providing an additional income.

In vermicomposting, worms are feed by organic wastes and the worms change it
to fertilizer. In this process, by feeding the worms with organic materials, some of the
bacteria that have useful role in decomposition of organic wastes, added to them and
expedite the organic materials' decomposition. Also these bacteria have positive effects
on stabilization and making minerals applicable for plants . Positive effect of adding
vermicompost to soil for tomato had shown by Federico .In another research the
increasing growth of rice stalks and soil fertility obtained by adding vermicompost. The
worms used in the process can also as a byproduct in the process are discussed because;
they do grow and multiply during the process and these organisms can used for produce
various products, especially in the production of poultry and fish meal. Each earthworm
body is composed of about 60-70% of protein and has much levels of essential amino
acids like methionine and Lysine which the quantities is even much than livestock and
fish. Worms body are consists of 6-11% fat, 5-21%carbohydrate, 2-3% minerals and
some vitamins, particularly niacin and vitamin B12 are notable . The worms' activity has
negative effect on pathogens and some researchers have shown that the vermicompost is
healthier than other organic fertilizers such as compost and manure, Some problem
associated with vermicompost is about the worms, the worms are sensitive to pH,
temperature and moisture content which must be controlled during the process. (
www.researchgate.net/publication/261175164)
 CHAPTER 5

EARTHWORM

5.1 Introduction

An earthworm is a tube-shaped, segmented worm found in the phylum Annelida. They are
commonly found living in soil, feeding on live and dead organic matter. An earthworm's
digestive system runs through the length of its body. It conducts respiration through its
skin. It has a double transport system composed of coelomic fluid that moves within the
fluid-filled coelom and a simple, closed blood circulatory system. It has a central and a
peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of two ganglia above the
mouth, one on either side, connected to a nerve cord running back along its length to motor
neurons and sensory cells in each segment. Large numbers of chemoreceptors are
concentrated near its mouth. Circumferential and longitudinal muscles on the periphery of
each segment enable the worm to move. Similar sets of muscles line the gut, and their
actions move the digesting food toward the worm's anus.

5.2 Types of earthworms

There are three general categories of earthworms: deep burrowing (anecic), soil dwelling
(endogeic), and litter dwelling (epigeic). It’s pretty easy to identify which of these three
categories a worm belongs to based on its size and colour, as long as you’re trying to
identify a fully grown adult worm. You can tell adult worms from juvenile (young) worms
by the thick bump in the middle of the worm called a clitellum. Adult worms have a
clitellum, while juvenile worms do not.

Simple Worm Anatomy

Fig1: simple worm anatomy

Worm Clitellum

Fig2: Worm Clitellum

1. Anecic worms: Anecic worms (a.k.a. nightcrawlers) are deep burrowing worms that
build permanent burrows as deep as 180 cm (6 ft) into the ground. You can identify these
burrows by the pile of excrement around the surface called a midden. Adult anecic worms
are normally larger (up to 15 cm) and pigmented (coloured) on their front end. Anecic
worms feed on dying leaves, grass, and other organic matter, and turn them into humus.
When you use worms as fishing bait, you would normally be using anecic worms. The
word anecic is greek for “out of the earth”.

Fig3:Anecic worms
2. Endogeic worms: Endogeic worms are soil dwelling worms that build complex
horizontal burrows in the upper layers of soil and rarely come to the surface. Adult
endogeic worms are normally small and unpigmented (not coloured). Endogeic worms
feed on soil, which helps to mix minerals and air into the soil. Endogeic worms do not
normally come to the surface unless there has been a heavy rainfall. The word endogeic is
Greek for “within the earth”.

Fig4: Endogeic worm

3. Epigeic worms: Epigeic worms do not build permanent burrows but prefer to remain
in the loose upper layers of soil and even above ground in the forest litter, which is made
up of decaying leaves, branches, pine needles and other organic matter. Adult epigeic
worms are normally small (2 – 7 cm) and pigmented (coloured). Like anecic worms,
epigeic worms also feed on dead leaves, grass and other organic matter and turn them into
humus. When you use worms for vermicomposting, you would normally be using epigeic
worms. The word epigeic is Greek for “on the earth”. Examples of epigeic worms are
Eisenia fetida, eudrilus eugeniae, Lumbricus rubellus etc.( https://www.worm-
composting-help.com/earthworm-types.html)
 Fig5:Epegeic worm

5.3 Selection of worms: Eudrilus eugeniae:

The tremendous appetite of the Eudrilus eugeniae also known as African Night Crawler
makes them ideal for the compost bin and prolific worm casting producers; given the
right environment. There are a multitude of reasons for the selection of Eudrilus Eugeniae
worm for the vermicompost purpose. To produce vermicompost, the most widely
earthworm species used is Eudrilus Eugeniae and is an exotic species of South Africa.
This species of earthworm is very skilled in the way it feeds because every 24 hours eats
food equivalent to its own weight. The earthworm gets its food from vegetable, animal or
mixed organic matter, fresh or in different decomposing stage, to produce earthworm
biomass and manure. This species requires high concentrations of organic matter to feed
on and some environmental conditions. This species make great worms for the compost
bins because they prefer a compost environment to plain soil and they are very easy to
keep. Eudrilus eugeniae get much larger than red wigglers, over 8 inches is not
uncommon. True to their size they eat a lot more than red worms and European night
crawlers. Some estimates say the African can eat nearly 1.5 times it's body weight each
day.

Like any good composting worm African Night Crawlers are colony dwellers being
content to live in close quarters with each other. This also ensures they reproduce quickly.
 Fig6: Eudrilus eugeniae

The greatest advantage of using the Eudrilus Eugeniae as a bait worm is the fact they
need no refrigeration. Most bait night crawlers must be refrigerated to be kept alive for
any period of time; not Eudrilus Eugeniae. Scientific research revealed that Eudrilus
Eugeniae grow more quickly than red worms. Newly hatched Africans reach sexual
maturity blindly fast, as worms go. In ideal conditions they become mature breeders in as
little as 5 weeks. African night crawlers produce an average of up to 3.5 cocoons in a
week. From each cocoon typically 2 hatchlings will emerge. So in about 20 a single
African Night Crawler can produce nearly 175 offspring. Just keep in mind with any
worm breed factors such as food, temperature, and moisture levels may greatly influence
reproduction rates.

While the Eudrilus Eugeniae may not be very cold tolerant it does have the advantage of
being able to withstand high temperatures. African night crawlers will thrive in beds that
are 70◦F to 85◦F (21◦C - 29◦C). Researchers report that Eudrilus Eugeniae can tolerate
temperatures of 90◦F. Just like all worms African night crawlers take in oxygen through
their skin, so moist bedding material helps facilitate worm breathing. The moisture in the
bins also helps breakdown bedding and vegetative matter into a mushy matter. This is
accomplished by the microbes found naturally in worm beds. It is this liquidly mixture of
decaying food and microbes that worms eat.
 CHAPTER 6
BASIC PARAMETERS REQUIED FOR VERMICOMPOSTING

6.1 MOISTURE CONTENT

The bin content should be kept moist but no soaked. A straw covering may be needed in
exposed sites to keep the bin from drying out during hot summer weather. Under natural
condition, the greatest abundance of earthworms will be located in soil which
average between 50%-70% moisture content. If the amount of available moisture should
fall too low the earthworm will begin to lose its internal water content, and a series of
biological events will begin to occur which if unchecked, will eventually result in death
of animal. Adequate moisture is essential for microbial activity. A dry compost pile will
not decompose efficiently. Enough water should be added to completely moisten the pile,
but over watering should be avoided.

6.2 TEMPERATURE

Temperature requirement for optimal results is 20-27°C .However survival of

earthworms is even at lower temperature and up to 48°C air temperature. The temperature
drops below 10°C the amount of food eaten by the worms will also decrease. The worms
will less active, and possibly move a little lower into the bedding causing the problem, in
which case they will move nearer the surface. At the 4-50°C, the adult worms may stop
producing cocoons, and the growth rate of younger worms will diminish. Red worms can
survive a wide range of temperature (40-80°C), but they reproduce and process food
waste at an optimum bedding temperature range of 20°C.

6.3 PH
During the initial stage of decomposition organic acids are produced, decreasing
the pH. The end of composting is usually alkaline (pH 7.1 - 7.5).

Determination of pH
 The pH of the composted sample was determined as per the procedure described
by Chandrabose et al., (1988). The pH is defined as the negative log to the base 10 of the
H+ ion concentration. The pH of the bedding materials was determined Potentiometric
method using a digital pH meter.

30 gm of air-dried sample passed through a 2mm sieve was transferred to a clean

100ml beaker to in which 60ml of distilled water was added. The contents were stirred
intermittently and the sample suspension was again stirred just before taking the reading.
The electrodes were immersed into the beaker containing sample water suspension and
meter readings both in the supernatant solution and suspension were recorded.

6.4 Estimation of Organic Carbon by Empirical Method

The determination of organic carbon was carried out as per the procedure of Empirical
Method. Exactly one g of finely ground oven dried sample (at 1050 C) was placed in a
constant mass silica crucible and heated in a muffle furnace at 5500 C for 2 h. The
crucible was allowed to cool down in a dessicator and again weighed.

𝐈𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 − 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬

𝐎𝐫𝐠𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫(%) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐈𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬

The ratio of carbon content to volatile substance content remains to some extent
for a particular type of organic waste. The volatile substance in the sample was
determined as for organic matter estimation.

𝐕𝐒 𝐎𝐫𝐠𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫(%)
𝐎𝐫𝐠𝐚𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐂𝐚𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐧(%) = =
𝐀 𝟏.𝟕𝟐𝟒

Where, A = a constant =1.724 (Walkley and Black, 1934)

VS = Volatile substance percent (organic matter percentage)

6.5 Estimation of Total Nitrogen (N)

The total nitrogen of the sample was estimated by Kjeldahl method. This method
involved two steps (i) digestion of the sample to convert the N compound in the sample to
the NH4+ form and (ii) distillation and determination of NH4+ in the digest.

(i) To a 100ml Kjeldahl flask 0.5gm of dried sample was transferred. Twenty ml
of the sulphuric salicylic acid mixture was added and swirled gently so as to bring the dry
sample in contact with the reagents. It was allowed to stand overnight. About 5gm of
sodium thiosulphate was added the next day and heated gently for about 5 min. Care was
taken to avoid frothing. The contents were cooled to which 10gm of sulphate mixture was
added and digested in the Kjeldahl apparatus for 1 hr. Bumping during the digestion can
be avoided by adding glass beads. When the digestion was completed, the digest was
cooled, diluted and distilled as follows.

(ii) To a vacuum jacket of micro- Kjeldahl distillation apparatus, 10ml of the

digest was transferred. In a conical flask, 10ml of 4% boric acid solution was taken
containing bromocresol green and methyl red indicators, to which the condenser outlet of
the flask was dipped. After adding the aliquot digest, the funnel of the apparatus was
washed with 2-3 ml of deionised water and 10ml of boric acid. After completion of
distillation, boric acid was titrated against N/200 H2SO4. Blank was also carried out to
the same end point as has been followed in the case of the sample.

Weight of the sample = 0.5gm

Normality of H2SO4 = N/200

Volume of digestion = 100ml

Aliquot taken = 5ml

Titrant Value (TV) = Sample TV-Blank TV in

𝐓𝐕×𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕×𝟏𝟎𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐍(%) = (1ml of N/10 H2So4 = 0.000014gm N)
𝟎.𝟓×𝟎.𝟓
 6.6 Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio

The end product i.e, vermicompost obtained in end of this experiment study had
C C
lower N ratio as compared to the initial value . The N ratio reflect the spectra of changing

carbon and total nitrogen concentration of the substrate material during vermicomposting
C
process . N ratio of the vermicompost decreased from a initial value of 20.39% To a final

value of 11.12% at the end of 45 days in feed 1( R1) , 30% to 14.16% in feed 2 (R2).
C
The rate of decrease of ratio was fasted in R1 is i.e, 71% as compared to 53%in R2 .
N
C
The decrease in ratio over time might also be attributed to increase in the earthworm
N

population which led to rapid decrease in organic carbon due to enhance oxidation of the
organic matter . The release of part of carbon as carbon dioxide (Co2) in the process of
C
respiration , production of mucus and N excrement , increase level of N and lowers the N

ratios. ( Datar MT, Rao MN, Reddy S(1997) vermicomposting a technological option for
solid waste management, page 89-93)
 CHAPTER 7

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

7.1 Experimental work

7.1.1 Collection of waste:

The organic waste will be collected from nearby area of Assam Engineering College. The
organic waste such as banana trunk and water hyacinth will be collected. Banana trunk
will be collected from the Assam Engineering College Campus and water hyacinth will
be collected from the Deepor Beel.

7.1.2 Selection of site:

For selecting a site for composting, it must always be seen that the site meets all the
necessary requirements. The surrounding should be very much suitable for the worms that
will be used in vermicomposting. The site where the composting is to be done should not
receive direct sunlight and rainfall. It should be cool and isolated and the site should be
free from any insects, animals or birds which may be a disturbance to the worms.
Considering these conditions a site near the chemical engineering department building of
AEC has been selected for the composting purpose.

7.2 Procedure:

a) Placing the compost bin:

• A spot in the Chemical Engineering department of AEC was picked to place the
compost bin. The best spot for placement of compost bins is when a consistent
temperature and moisture level is maintained. Placing it near a heater, oven, air
conditioner, or vent should be avoided. Although composting usually does not produce
much smell, they were kept out of the main working areas of the department. The ideal
temperature for the compost bin is 10 to 25 degrees Celsius.
• Compost bin were purchased. This bins holds the bedding, food scraps, worms and
necessary materials required for vermicomposting. It also regulates the amount of
moisture and oxygen content in the bedding. It has to be made sure that whichever
container is bought has a lid. Otherwise, it is needed to be improvised and covered with a
black plastic, like a trash bag.

• Drilling holes in the bin for air flow: If a pre-made worm bin is brought, it may have air
holes already but if a storage container is brought it will have none. Then by using a
pointer drill to cut ½ inch holes in the bottom, sides, and lid of the bin, at least 20 holes
are to be drilled in the bin. Drilling at least five holes each in the lid and the bottom, and
at least 4 holes on each side of the bin. The worms don't leave through these holes
because of their aversion to light, but the holes can be covered with wire screen or mesh.

Fig7: shady house

b) Making the worm habitat:

• For making the worm habitat and thick layer of sand is used for the initial bedding.
Worms need bedding that retains moisture, so sand is ideal used too. Over sand mixture
of cardboard and shreaded newspaper is spread.
 Fig8.1: sand Fig8.2: cardboard+ newspaper

• After bedding is made the bed needs to be wetted. Earthworms need moisture to live
and breathe, so it’s important for the bedding to be wet before adding the worms later on.
It was made sure that all of the bedding was completely wet. When water is soaked into
the bedding it must spread evenly across the bottom of the bin.

c) Methodology:

• 12 kg of banana trunk and 10 kg of water hyacinth was collected from AEC campus
and allowed to precompost in a pit for two weeks as precomposting helps the worms to
grind the waste easily and digest and makes the process faster.

• The precompost was taken out of the pit and put in the compost bin for three days for
further composting.

• 2.4 Kilograms (for banana trunk) and 2 kilogram (for waterhyacinth) (1:5 = cow dung :
food waste ratio) of cow dung was added as the upper layer and worms released on the
topmost layer as the worms like to live in such conditions.

To maintain the moisture content, water was spread after every layer. This process of
making layers should be followed until it is filled up to the top of the container. Then
spreading the worms (around 130 in banana trunk and 100 in water hyacinth in number)
and the container must be closed with a
 Chapter 8

RESULTS

Fig9.1: vermicompost(banana trunk)

Fig9.2: vermicompost( water hyacinth)

Table 2:

NAME OF FEED FEED TAKEN PRODUCT ACHIEVED

(in kg) (in kg)
BANANA TRUNK 12 8.5
WATER HYACINTH 10 7.5

Table 3: MOISTURE CONTENT

NO. OF DAYS 15 DAYS 30 DAYS 45 DAYS 65 DAYS

BANANA TRUNK (%) 67 65 63 58

WATER HYACINTH 65 62 61 55
(%)

Table 4: NPK

DAY ‘0’

COMPOSITION BANANA TRUNK WATER HYACINTH

NITROGEN (%) 1.16 .28

PHOSPHORUS (%) 0.0094 0.032

POTASSIUM (%) 0.013 0.233

DAY ‘45’

COMPOSITION BANANA TRUNK WATER HYACINTH

NITROGEN (%) 2.42 1.26

PHOSPHORUS (%) 1.235 .95

POTASSIUM (%) 1.42 3.12

STANDARD RANGE OF NPK( FCO standard value)

COMPOSITION RANGE
NITROGEN (%) 2.1- 2.6
PHOSPHORUS (%) 1.5- 1.7
POTASSIUM (%) 1.4-1.6
CHAPTER 9
 CONCLUSION

The arising issues connected to land disposal and incineration has led to high
consideration of low cost methods such as composting and vermicomposting as options
for solid waste management of nontoxic waste. Although composting can be regarded as
a feasible option for solid waste management, vermicomposting is more suitable
alternative based on the high nutrient values and time efficient process(require less time).
By combining both composting and vermicomposting, an improved process can be made
as an option for biodegradable solid waste management. In fact, the combination between
composting and followed by vermicomposting enhanced the end quality concerning N, P,
and K Contents. In your experiment we found that N,P and K values for banana trunk is
higher than N,P and K values for water hyacinth so we can conclude that
vermicomposting using banana trunk is more efficient than using water hyacinth.