Professional Documents
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Antennas
Exercise book
Sophocles J. Orfanidis1
Davide Ramaccia2
Alessandro Toscano2
1
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854
orfanidi@ece.rutgers.edu
www.ece.rutgers.edu/~orfanidi/ewa
2
Department of Applied Electronics, University "Roma Tre"
via della Vasca Navale, 84 00146, Rome, Italy
davide.ramaccia@gmail.com
alessandro.toscano@gmail.com
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Table of Contents
1.1 Exercise.......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Exercise.......................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Exercise........................................................................................................ 12
1.4 Exercise........................................................................................................ 16
1.5 Exercise........................................................................................................ 18
1.6 Exercise........................................................................................................ 20
1.7 Exercise........................................................................................................ 25
1.8 Exercise........................................................................................................ 29
1.9 Exercise........................................................................................................ 30
1.10 Exercise........................................................................................................ 32
1.11 Exercise........................................................................................................ 42
1.12 Exercise........................................................................................................ 54
1.13 Exercise........................................................................................................ 56
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Chapter1
Maxwell's Equations
1.1 Exercise
xˆ yˆ zˆ
U × V = Ux Uy Uz =
(1.1.2)
Vx Vy Vz
( ) (
= xˆ U y Vz − U z Vy − yˆ ( U x Vz − U z Vx ) + zˆ U x Vy − U y Vx )
Now we can prove the algebra identities with simply mathematical substitutions:
(( ) (
A × ( B × C ) = A × xˆ B y C z − Bz C y − yˆ ( Bx C z − Bz C x ) + zˆ Bx C y − B y C x )) =
= ( ( )
xˆ A y Bx C y − B y C x + A z ( Bx C z − Bz C x ) ) (1.1.3)
− yˆ ( A x ( Bx C y − B y C x ) − A z ( B y C z − Bz C y ) )
+ zˆ ( − A x ( Bx C z − Bz C x ) − A y ( B y C z − Bz C y ) )
(
+ xˆ A y Bx C y − A y ByCx + A z Bx Cz − A z Bz C x )
+ yˆ ( A x By Cx − A x Bx C y + A z By Cz − A z Bz C y ) (1.1.4)
+ zˆ ( A x Bz Cx − A x Bx Cz − A y By Cz + A y Bz C y )
Let us write eq. (1.1.4) in matrix form, separating the terms with the minus sign and the terms
with the plus sign:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 1
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
⎡ 0 ByA xCx Bz A x C x ⎤ ⎡ 0 C yA x Bx Cz A x Bx ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A × ( B × C ) = ⎢Bx A yC y 0 Bz A yC y ⎥ − ⎢C x A y B y 0 C z A y B y ⎥ (1.1.5)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ B x A z C z ByA zCz 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ C x A z B z C y A z Bz 0 ⎥⎦
Note that the elements of the diagonal of each matrix are zero. Each term can be filled with the
product of the three component with the same subscript ( a ii = A i B i C i ) :
b) A ⋅ ( B × C ) = B ⋅ ( C × A ) = C ⋅ ( A × B )
(( ) (
A ⋅ ( B × C ) = A ⋅ xˆ B y C z − B z C y − yˆ ( B x C z − B z C x ) + zˆ B x C y − B y C x )) =
( A x B y C z − A x Bz C y ) − ( A y B x C z − A y Bz C x ) + ( A z B x C y − A z B y C x ) = (1.1.7)
( A x B y C z + A y Bz C x + A z B x C y ) − ( A x Bz C y + A y B x C z + A z B y C x )
(( ) (
B ⋅ (C × A) = B ⋅ xˆ C y A z − C z A y − yˆ ( C x A z − C z A x ) + zˆ A x C y − A y C x )) =
( B x C y A z − B x C z A y ) − ( B y C x A z − B y C z A x ) + ( Bz A x C y − Bz A y C x ) =
( Bx C y A z + By Cz A x + Bz C x A y ) − ( Bx Cz A y + By C x A z + Bz C y A x ) =↑ (1.1.8)
order them
( A x B y C z + A y Bz C x + A z B x C y ) − ( A x Bz C y + A y B x C z + A z B y C x )
(( ) (
C ⋅ (A × B) = C ⋅ xˆ A y Bz − A z B y − yˆ ( A x Bz − A z B x ) + zˆ A x B y − A y B x )) =
( C x A y Bz − C x A z B y ) − ( C y A x Bz − C y A z B x ) + ( C z A x B y − C z A y B x ) =
( Cx A y Bz + C y A z Bx + Cz A x By ) − ( Cx A z By + C y A x Bz + Cz A y Bx ) =↑ (1.1.9)
order them
( A x B y C z + A y Bz C x + A z B x C y ) − ( A x Bz C y + A y B x C z + A z B y C x )
If we compare the last row of each expression, we note that they are identical so the algebra
identity is verified.
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 2
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
2 2 2 2
c) A×B + A ⋅B = A B
( ) ( )
2
A × B + A ⋅ B = xˆ A y Bz − A z B y − yˆ ( A x Bz − A z Bx ) + zˆ A x B y − A y Bx
2 2
+
( )
2
+ A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz =
2
⎛ ⎞
( A y Bz − A z B y ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
+ ( A x Bz − A z B x ) + A x B y − A y B x
2
⎜ ⎟ + A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz =
⎝ ⎠
( A y Bz − A z B y ) ( ) + ( A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz )
2 2 2
+ ( A x Bz − A z B x ) + A x B y − A y B x
2
=
( )
2
A 2x B2y + A 2y B2x − 2A x B y A y Bx + A x Bx + A y B y + A z Bz =
d) A = nˆ × A × nˆ + (nˆ ⋅ A)nˆ
Does it make a difference whether nˆ × A × nˆ is taken to mean ( nˆ × A ) × nˆ or nˆ × ( A × nˆ ) ?
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 3
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
( nˆ × A ) × nˆ = ⎡⎣ xˆ ( n y A z − n z A y ) − yˆ ( n x A z − n z A x ) + zˆ ( n x A y − n y A x )⎤⎦ × nˆ =
( )
+ xˆ ⎡( n z A x − n x A z ) n z − n x A y − n y A x n y ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
− yˆ ⎡( n y A z − n z A y ) n z − ( n x A y − n y A x ) n x ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡( n y A z − n z A y ) n y − ( n z A x − n x A z ) n x ⎤ = (1.1.11)
⎣ ⎦
+ xˆ ⎡ n 2z A x − n x n z A z − n x n y A y + n 2y A x ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
− yˆ ⎡ n y n z A z − n z2 A y − n 2x A y + n y n x A x ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ n 2y A z − n z n y A y − n z n x A x + n 2x A z ⎤
⎣ ⎦
And now consider the second case:
( ) (
nˆ × ( A × nˆ ) = nˆ × ⎡ xˆ A y n z − A z n y − yˆ ( A x n z − A z n x ) + zˆ A x n y − A y n x ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ )
( )
+ xˆ ⎡ n y A x n y − A y n x − n z ( A z n x − A x n z ) ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
−yˆ ⎡ n x ( A x n y − A y n x ) − n z ( A y n z − A z n y ) ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ n x ( A z n x − A x n z ) − n y ( A y n z − A z n y ) ⎤ = (1.1.12)
⎣ ⎦
+ xˆ ⎡ A x n 2y − A y n y n x − A z n z n x + A x n 2z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
−yˆ ⎡ A x n x n y − A y n 2x − A y n z2 + A z n z n y ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ A z n x − A x n x n z − A y n y n z + A z n y ⎤
2 2
⎣ ⎦
It is very easy to show that ( nˆ × A ) × nˆ = nˆ × ( A × nˆ ) .
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 4
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
(
(nˆ ⋅ A)nˆ = n x A x + n y A y + n z A z )( n x xˆ + n y yˆ + n z zˆ ) =
(
+ xˆ ⎡ n x n x A x + n y A y + n z A z
⎣ )⎤⎦ +
(
+ yˆ ⎡ n y n x A x + n y A y + n z A z
⎣ )⎤⎦ +
+ zˆ ⎡ n z ( n x A x + n y A y + n z A z ) ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ (1.1.13)
+ xˆ ⎡ n 2x A x + n x n y A y + n x n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ yˆ ⎡ n y n x A x + n 2y A y + n y n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ n z n x A x + n z n y A y + n z2 A z ⎤
⎣ ⎦
Adding the two results, we obtain:
nˆ × A × nˆ + (nˆ ⋅ A)nˆ =
+ xˆ ⎡ A x n 2y − A y n y n x − A z n z n x + A x n 2z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
−yˆ ⎡ A x n x n y − A y n 2x − A y n 2z + A z n z n y ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ A z n 2x − A x n x n z − A y n y n z + A z n 2y ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ xˆ ⎡ n 2x A x + n x n y A y + n x n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ yˆ ⎡ n y n x A x + n 2y A y + n y n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ n z n x A x + n z n y A y + n z2 A z ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ ↑
change signs in parentheses at first yˆ and add
+ xˆ ⎡ A x n 2y − A y n y n x − A z n z n x + A x n 2z + n 2x A x + n x n y A y + n x n z A z ⎤ +
⎣ ⎦
+ yˆ ⎡ A y n x + A y n z − A x n x n y − A z n z n y + n y n x A x + n y A y + n y n z A z ⎤ +
2 2 2
⎣ ⎦
+ zˆ ⎡ A z n 2x − A x n x n z − A y n y n z + A z n 2y + n z n x A x + n z n y A y + n 2z A z ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦
(1.1.14)
+ xˆ A x ⎡ n 2y + n z2 + n 2x ⎤ + + yˆ A y ⎡ n 2x + n 2z + n 2y ⎤ + + zˆ A z ⎡ n 2x + n 2y + n 2z ⎤ = A
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 5
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.2 Exercise
4. ∇ ⋅ ( φ A ) = ( ∇φ ) ⋅ A + φ∇ ⋅ A
5. ∇ × ( φ A ) = ( ∇φ ) × A + φ∇ × A
6. ∇ ⋅ ( ∇ × A ) = 0
7. ∇ ⋅ A × B = B ⋅ ( ∇ × A ) − A ⋅ ( ∇ × B )
8. ∇ × ( ∇ × A ) = ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇ 2 A
First of all we have to express the operator ∇ in general orthogonal coordinates in four common
applications. All vector components are presented with respect to the normalized base ( eˆ 1 , eˆ 2 , eˆ 3 ) :
⎧ eˆ1 ∂φ eˆ 2 ∂φ eˆ 3 ∂φ
⎪∇φ = h ∂q + h ∂q + h ∂q
⎪ 1 1 2 2 3 3
⎪ 1 ⎡ ∂ ⎛ h 2 h3 ∂φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ h1h3 ∂φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ h1h 2 ∂φ ⎞ ⎤
⎪∇2 φ = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎪ h1h 2 h3 ⎣⎢ ∂q1 ⎝ h1 ∂q1 ⎠ ∂q 2 ⎝ h 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ∂q3 ⎝ h3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎪
⎪ 1 ⎡ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
⎪ ∇ ⋅ F = ⎢ ( F1h 2 h 3 ) + ( F2 h1 h 3 ) + ( F3 h1h 2 ) ⎥
h1h 2 h3 ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q2 ∂q3 ⎦
⎪
⎪⎪ h1eˆ1 h 2eˆ 2 h3eˆ 3
⎨
⎪∇ × F = 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
⎪ =
h1h 2 h3 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3
⎪
⎪ h1F1 h 2 F2 h3F3
⎪
⎪ eˆ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤ eˆ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤
⎪ + 1 ⎢ ( h3F3 ) − ( h 2 F2 )⎥ + 2 ⎢ ( h1F1 ) − ( h3F3 )⎥ +
h 2 h3 ⎣ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦ h1h3 ⎣ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎦
⎪
⎪ eˆ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤
⎪ + 3 ⎢ ( h 2 F2 ) − ( h1F1 )⎥
⎩⎪ h1h 2 ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q2 ⎦ (1.2.1)
where ( h1 , h 2 , h 3 ) are the metric coefficients. For common geometries they are defined as follow:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 6
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
⎧ h1 = 1, h 2 = 1, h 3 = 1 (rectangular coordinates)
⎪
⎨ h1 = 1, h 2 = r, h 3 = 1 (cylindrical coordinates) (1.2.2)
⎪ h = 1, h = r, h = r sin ϑ
⎩ 1 2 3 (spherical coordinates)
• Identity n° 1
eˆ1 eˆ 2 eˆ 3
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × ( ∇φ ) = =
∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3
⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ⎠
⎡ ⎛ ∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ⎞ ⎤
⎢eˆ1 ⎜ − ⎟ − eˆ 2 ⎜ − ⎟ +⎥
⎢ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ∂q3 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q3 ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎥
=⎢
⎛ ⎞ ⎥=0
⎢ +eˆ 3 ⎜ ∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ ⎥
− ⎟
⎢⎣ ∂
⎝ 1 2
q ∂q ∂q 2 ∂q1⎠ ⎦⎥
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
For the property of linearity of the derivate operator φ= φ , so each term in the
∂q i ∂q j ∂q j ∂q i
• Identity n° 2
⎛ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ ⎞
∇ ⋅ ( φ∇ψ ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ eˆ 1 φ + eˆ 2 φ + eˆ 3φ ⎟=
⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠
∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞
= ⎜φ ⎟+ ⎜φ ⎟+ ⎜φ ⎟=
∂q1 ⎝ ∂q1 ⎠ ∂q 2 ⎝ ∂q 2 ⎠ ∂q 3 ⎝ ∂q 3 ⎠
⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2 ψ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2 ψ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂ 2ψ ⎞
=⎜ +φ +
⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ + φ +
⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ + φ ⎟⎟ =
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂ q ∂q ∂q ∂ q ∂ q ∂ q ∂ q
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 3 3 ⎠
⎛ ∂ 2 ψ ∂ 2 ψ ∂ 2 ψ ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ ⎞
=φ ⎜ + + + + + = φ∇ 2 ψ + ∇φ ⋅ ∇ψ
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠
• Identity n° 3
First of all we expand the sum inside parentheses:
⎧ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
⎪φ∇ψ = φeˆ 1 ∂q + φeˆ 2 ∂q + φeˆ 3 ∂q
⎪ 1 2 3
⎨
⎪ψ∇φ = ψeˆ ∂φ + ψeˆ ∂φ + ψeˆ ∂φ
1
⎩⎪
2 3
∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 7
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
so
⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ψ ∂φ ⎞
( φ∇ψ − ψ∇φ) = eˆ1 ⎜ φ −ψ ⎟ + eˆ 2 ⎜ φ −ψ ⎟ + eˆ 3 ⎜ φ −ψ ⎟
⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ∂q3 ⎠
• Identity n°4
⎡ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
∇ ⋅ ( φA ) = ∇ ⋅ ( φA1eˆ1 + φA 2 eˆ 2 + φA3eˆ 3 ) = ⎢ ( φA1 ) + ( φA 2 ) + ( φA3 )⎥ =
⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦
⎡⎛ ∂A ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂A3 ∂φ ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ φ 1 + A1 ⎟ + ⎜φ + A2 ⎟ + ⎜φ + A3 ⎟⎥ =
⎢⎣⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ⎞ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 2 ∂A3 ⎞
= ⎜ A1 + A2 + A3 ⎟ +φ ⎜ + + ⎟ = ( ∇φ ) ⋅ A + φ∇ ⋅ A
⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎠
• Identity n° 5
eˆ 1 eˆ 2 eˆ 3
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × ( φA ) = =
∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3
φA1 φA 2 φA 3
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 8
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤ ⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤
+eˆ1 ⎢ ( φA3 ) − ( φA 2 )⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢ ( φA1 ) − ( φA3 )⎥ + eˆ 3 ⎢ ( φA 2 ) − ( φA1 )⎥ =
⎣ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎦
⎡⎛ ∂φ ∂A3 ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂A 2 ⎞⎤ ⎡⎛ ∂φ ∂A ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂A3 ⎞ ⎤
=eˆ1 ⎢⎜ A3 + φ⎟ − ⎜ A2 + φ ⎟ ⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢⎜ A1 + 1 φ ⎟ − ⎜ A3 + φ ⎟⎥ +
⎜ ⎟
⎣⎢⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣⎝ ∂q3 ∂q3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ ∂φ ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ∂A ⎞ ⎤
+eˆ 3 ⎢⎜ A2 + φ⎟ − ⎜ A1 + 1 φ ⎟ ⎥ =
⎣⎢⎝ ∂q1 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 2 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ ∂φ ∂φ ⎤ ⎡ ∂φ ∂φ ⎤ ⎡ ∂φ ∂φ ⎤
=eˆ1 ⎢ A3 − A 2 ⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢ A1 − A3 ⎥ + eˆ 3 ⎢ A2 − A1 ⎥ +
⎣ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎦
⎡ ∂A ∂A 2 ⎤ ⎡ ∂A ∂A ⎤ ⎡ ∂A ∂A ⎤
+eˆ1 ⎢ 3 φ − φ ⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢ 1 φ − 3 φ ⎥ + eˆ 3 ⎢ 2 φ − 1 φ ⎥ = ( ∇φ ) × A + φ∇ × A
⎣ ∂q 2 ∂q3 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q3 ∂q1 ⎦ ⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎦
• Identity n° 6
⎡ ⎛ ∂A ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞ ⎤
∇ ⋅ ( ∇ × A ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎢eˆ 1 ⎜ 3 − ⎟ − eˆ 2 ⎜ − ⎟ + eˆ 3 ⎜ − ⎟⎥ =
⎣⎢ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎦⎥
⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A 2 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A1 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞ ⎤
=⎢ ⎜ − ⎟− ⎜ − ⎟+ ⎜ − ⎟⎥ =
⎢⎣ ∂q1 ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ∂q 2 ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ∂q 3 ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ∂ ∂A 3 ∂ ∂A 2 ∂ ∂A 3 ∂ ∂A1 ∂ ∂A 2 ∂ ∂A1 ⎤
=⎢ − − − + − ⎥=0
⎢⎣ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q1 ∂q 3 ∂q 2 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ∂q 3 ∂q1 ∂q 3 ∂q 2 ⎥⎦
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
For the linearity of the derivate operator φ= φ , so the term in brackets is null.
∂q i ∂q j ∂q j ∂q i
• Identity n°7
To evaluate the expression ∇ ⋅A×B , we have to calculate first the cross product and then the
divergence of vector A × B . This choise is obligated by the fact that if first we calculated the
divergence of the vector A , the results would be a scalar. Cross product with the vector B would be
impossible. So we have:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 9
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
• Identity n° 8
⎛ ⎛ ∂A ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂A ∂A ⎞ ⎛ ∂A ∂A ⎞ ⎞
∇ × ( ∇ × A ) = ∇ × ⎜ eˆ 1 ⎜ 3 − ⎟ − eˆ 2 ⎜ 3 − 1 ⎟ + eˆ 3 ⎜ 2 − 1 ⎟ ⎟ =
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠ ⎠
⎛ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎞
=eˆ1 ⎜ ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟⎟ +
⎜ ∂q ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
⎝ 2 ⎝ q1 q 2 ⎠ q 3 ⎝ q 3 q1 ⎠⎠
⎛ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A1 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎞
− eˆ 2 ⎜ ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟⎟ +
⎜ ∂q ∂q ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
⎝ 1 ⎝ 1 q 2 ⎠ q 3 ⎝ q 2 q 3 ⎠⎠
⎛ ∂ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 3 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 3 ∂A 2 ⎞ ⎞
+ eˆ 3 ⎜ ⎜ − ⎟ − ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟⎟ =
⎜ ∂q ∂ q ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
⎝ 1⎝ 3 q1 ⎠ q 2⎝ q 2 q 3 ⎠⎠
⎛ ∂ ∂A 2 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ ∂A 3 ⎞
=eˆ 1 ⎜ − − + ⎟+
⎜ ∂q 2 ∂q1 ∂ q ∂q ∂q ∂q ⎟
⎝ 2 3 3 1 ⎠
⎛ ∂2A2 ∂ ∂A1 ∂ ∂A 3 ∂ 2 A 2 ⎞
− eˆ 2 ⎜ − − + ⎟+
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠
⎝
⎛ ∂ ∂A1 ∂ 2 A 3 ∂ 2 A 3 ∂ ∂A 2 ⎞
+ eˆ 3 ⎜ − − + ⎟=
⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ∂q ∂q ∂q ∂q ⎟
⎝ 1 2 2 3 ⎠
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 10
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
⎛ ∂ ∂A 2 ∂ ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂A1 ∂ ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂A1 ∂ ∂A 2 ⎞
=eˆ 1 ⎜ + ⎟ − eˆ 2 ⎜ − − ⎟ + eˆ 3 ⎜ + ⎟+
∂
⎝ 2q ∂q1 ∂ q 3 ∂q1 ⎠ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂ q 2 ∂q 3 ∂ q 2 ⎠ ∂
⎝ 1 3
q ∂q ∂ q 2 ∂ q 3 ⎠
⎛ ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 A2 ∂2 A2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2 A3 ∂ 2 A3 ⎞
+e1 ⎜ −
ˆ − ⎟ − e2 ⎜
ˆ + ⎟ + e3 ⎜ −
ˆ − ⎟=
⎜ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎟ ⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝
⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂A 2 ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 3 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂A1 ∂A 2 ⎞⎤
=eˆ 1 ⎢ ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ + eˆ 2 ⎢ ⎜ + ⎟ ⎥ + eˆ 3 ⎢ ⎜ + ⎟⎥ −
⎢⎣ ∂q1 ⎝ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ∂q 2 ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ∂q 3 ⎝ ∂ q1 ∂q 2 ⎠⎦
⎛ ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 A2 ∂2 A2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂ 2 A3 ∂ 2 A3 ⎞
− e1 ⎜
ˆ + ⎟ − e2 ⎜
ˆ + ⎟ − e3 ⎜ +
ˆ + ⎟ = ∇ (∇ ⋅ A ) − ∇2 A
⎜ ∂q 2 ∂q 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ∂q1 ∂q 2 ⎠⎟
⎝ ⎝ ∂q1 ∂q 3 ⎠ ⎝
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 11
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.3 Exercise
Consider the infinitesimal volume element ΔxΔyΔz shown below, such that its upper half lies in
medium ε1 and its lower half in medium ε2 . The axes are oriented such that nˆ = zˆ .
1. Applying the integrated form of Ampère's law to the infinitesimal face abcd, show that
∂D x
H 2 y − H 1y = J x Δ z + Δz (1.3.1)
∂t
2. In the limit Δz → 0 , the second term in the right–hand side may be assumed to go to zero,
whereas the first term will be non–zero and may be set equal to the surface current density,
that is, J sx ≡ lim Δ z → 0 ( J x Δ z ) . Show that this leads to the boundary condition
3. Apply the integrated form of Gauss's law to the same volume element and show the
boundary condition D1z − D 2 z = ρ s = lim Δ z → 0 ( ρΔ z ) .
Solution
• Question n° 1
In its historically original form, Ampère's circuital law relates the magnetic field to its electric
current source. The law can be written in two forms, the integral form and the differential form. The
forms are equivalent, and related by the Kelvin–Stokes theorem. The identity demonstrated by
Stokes is the follow:
∫∫ ( ∇ × F ) dS = ∫ F⋅d (1.3.3)
S c(S)
So applying (1.3.3) to the second Maxwell's equation, we obtain the Ampere's law in integral
form with few simply steps:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 12
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
∂D
∇× H = J +
∂t
Integrate terms of the identity over an opened surface S:
∂D
∫∫ ( ∇ × H ) ⋅ nˆ dS = ∫∫ J ⋅ nˆ dS + ∫∫ ∂t
⋅ nˆ dS
S S S
where is the infinitesimal vector, tangent to the curved line c that bounds the surface S.
Now we can consider the infinitesimal face abcd, that has area S = ΔzΔy and perimeter
p = 2Δz + 2Δy . The left–hand side of (1.3.4) can be decomposed into a sum of four integral
expression, one for each infinitesimal side of the rectangular abcd, and we have to define the sense
of integration. Choose an counterclockwise path so that, using the right–hand rule, the normal is x̂.
Note that the z–parallel sides have the first half in the medium 1 and the second in medium 2. So
the integral on that part of the path needs to be decomposed into two integral with different
arguments. For simplicity, denote the points of contact between mediums along the segments ab
On the contrary, to solve the right–side of (1.3.4) we have to identify the correct component of J
and D that flows through the face abcd, i.e. the component Jx and D x .
So we obtain:
O1 b c O2 d a
− ∫ H1 ⋅ dzˆ − ∫ H 2 ⋅ dzˆ + ∫ H 2 ⋅ dyˆ + ∫ H 2 ⋅ dzˆ + ∫ H1 ⋅ dzˆ − ∫ H1 ⋅ dyˆ =
a O1 b c O2 d
∂D x
= J x Δ zΔ y + Δ zΔ y
∂t
H 1 and H 2 are constant inside each medium, so the line integrals can be written as:
Δz Δz Δz Δz ∂D x
− H1z − H 2z + H 2y Δy + H 2z + H1z − H1y Δy = J x ΔzΔy + ΔzΔy
2 2 2 2 ∂t
i.e.
∂D x
H 2 y Δ y − H 1y Δ y = J x Δ z Δ y + Δz Δy
∂t
∂D x
H 2 y − H 1y = J x Δ z + Δz
∂t
• Question n° 2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 13
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
H 1x − H 2 x = J sy . In order to obtain eq. (1.3.2), we can subtract vectorially these two boundary
conditions:
( )
yˆ ( H1x − H 2x ) − xˆ H1y − H 2y = Jsx xˆ + Jsy yˆ
nˆ × ( H 1 − H 2 ) = J s
where nˆ = zˆ .
• Question n° 3
Gauss's law relates the electric field to its electric charge sources. Like Ampère's circuital law, it
can be written in two forms, the integral form and the differential form. The forms are equivalent,
and related by the divergence theorem:
∫∫∫ ( ∇ ⋅ F ) dV = ∫∫ F ⋅ nˆ dS (1.3.5)
V S(V)
So applying (1.3.5) to the third Maxwell's equation, we obtain the Gauss's law in integral form
with few simply steps:
∇⋅ D = ρ
Integrate terms of the identity over a volume V:
∫∫∫ ( ∇ ⋅ D ) dV = ∫∫∫ ρ dV
V V
where n̂ is the outgoing unit vector normal to the closed surface S that bounds the volume V.
Now consider the volume V = ΔxΔyΔz . The left–hand side of (1.3.6) can be decomposed into two
integrals with arguments D1 and D2 , respectively in the medium 1 and medium 2. The right–hand
where S1 and S2 are portions of S in the medium 1 and medium 2, respectively and ρ is considered
constant inside the volume V.
The terms on the right–hand side of eq. (1.3.7) can be decomposed into several surface integrals,
one for each side of parallelepiped ΔxΔyΔz :
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 14
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Δz Δz Δz Δz
D1z ΔxΔy + D1y Δx + D1x Δy − D1y Δx − D1x Δy −
2 2 2 2
Δz Δz Δz Δz
− D 2z ΔxΔy + D 2y Δx + D 2x Δy − D 2y Δx − D 2x Δy = ρΔxΔyΔz
2 2 2 2
i.e.
D1z − D2z = ρΔz
In the limit Δz → 0 , the amount ρΔz collapses in ρs which is the surface electric charge density.
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 15
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.4 Exercise
Show that time average of the product of two harmonic quantities Α(t) = Re ⎡ Ae jω t ⎤ and
⎣ ⎦
where T = 2π ω is one period. Then show that the time–averaged values of the cross and dot
Solution
First of all, we express the harmonic quantities A(t) and B(t) in their extended form:
⎧⎪ A(t) = A cos (ω t + ϕ1 )
⎨ (1.4.4)
⎪⎩ B (t) = B cos (ω t + ϕ 2 )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 16
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1
T ⎛ e jω t eϕ1 + e− jω t e−ϕ1 ⎞⎛ e jω t eϕ2 + e− jω t e−ϕ2 ⎞
T∫
A(t) B(t) = AB ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ dt =
⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟
0 ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
T jω t ϕ1
AB e e + e (− jω t −ϕ1
e )(
e jω t eϕ2 + e− jω t e−ϕ2 )
2T ∫
= dt =
2
0
AB e2 jω t e( 1 2 ) + e( 1 2 ) + e ( 1 2 ) + e−2 jω t e ( 1 2 )
T ϕ +ϕ ϕ −ϕ − ϕ −ϕ − ϕ +ϕ
2T ∫
= dt =
2
0
AB
T
ABcos (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) 1 1
= ∫ cos ( ϕ − ϕ ) dt = T = ABcos (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = Re ⎡ AB∗ ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦
1 2
2T 2T 2
0
Operating in similar way, we can demonstrate the time–averaged values of the cross and dot
products of two time–harmonic vector quantities.
• Cross Product
T T T
1 1 a×b
∫ ( A(t) × B (t) ) dt = ∫ Re[Ae jω t ]a × Re[Be jω t ]b dt = Re[Ae jω t ] Re[Be jω t ]dt
T ∫
A (t) × B (t) =
T T
0 0 0
The result of integral is note by previous exercise, so:
a×b 1 1
A(t) × B(t) = Re[AB∗ ] = Re[aA × bB∗ ] = Re[A × B∗ ]
2 2 2
• Dot Product
T T T
1 1 a⋅b
A(t) ⋅ B (t) = ∫ ( A(t) ⋅ B (t) ) dt = ∫ Re[Ae jω t ]a ⋅ Re[Be jω t ]bdt = ∫ Re[Ae jω t ] Re[Be jω t ]dt =
T T T
0 0 0
a⋅b 1 1
= Re[AB*] = Re[aA ⋅ bB∗ ] = Re[ A ⋅ B∗ ]
2 2 2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 17
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.5 Exercise
Assuming that B = μH :
1. Show that Maxwell's equations
∇ × E = − jω B
∇ × H = J + jω D
∇⋅D = ρ
∇⋅B = 0
( )
∇ ⋅ E × H ∗ = − jωμ H ⋅ H ∗ − E ⋅ J ∗tot (1.5.1)
where J tot = J + jω D .
2. Extracting the real–parts of both sides of eq. (1.5.1) and integrating over a volume V
bounded by closed surface, show the time–averaged form of energy conservation:
1 1
− ∫∫ Re[E × H∗ ] ⋅ nˆ dS = ∫∫∫ Re ⎡E ⋅ J∗tot ⎤ dV (1.5.2)
2 2 ⎣ ⎦
S(V) V
which states that the net time–averaged power floating into a volume is dissipated into
heat.
3. For a lossless dielectric, show that the integrals in (1.5.2) are zero and provide an
interpretation.
Solution
• Question n° 1
Using the identity ∇ ⋅ ( E × H ) = H ⋅ ( ∇ × E ) − E ⋅ ( ∇ × H ) and Maxwell's equations, we have:
( ) ( )
∇ ⋅ E × H ∗ = H ∗ ⋅ ( ∇ × E ) − E ⋅ ∇ × H ∗ = H ∗ ⋅ ( − j ω B ) − E ⋅ J * − j ω D* = ( )
= − jωμ H ⋅ H ∗ − E ⋅ J ∗tot
• Question n° 2
Integrate over a volume V the right–hand side of eq. (1.5.1) and apply the divergence's theorem:
∫∫∫ ( ∇ ⋅ ( E × H
∗
)) dV = ∫∫ ( E × H∗ ) nˆ dS
V S(V)
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 18
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1 ⎡⎢ ⎤
( )
T
∗ ˆ
E × H n dS ⎥dt
T ∫ ⎢ ∫∫ ⎥
0 ⎣ S(V) ⎦
Invert the order of integrals:
⎡1 T ⎤
(∗
) 1 ∗
∫∫ ⎢⎢ T ∫ E × H dt ⎥⎥ nˆ dS = ∫∫ 2 Re ⎣⎡E × H ⎦⎤ nˆ dS (1.5.3)
S(V) ⎣ 0 ⎦ S(V)
1 ⎡ ⎤
( )
T
∗ ∗
T ∫ ⎢ ∫∫∫
⎢ − j ωμ H ⋅ H − E ⋅ J tot dV ⎥dt =
0⎣ V ⎥⎦
⎡1 T ⎤
∫∫∫ ⎢ T ∫
⎢ − (
j ωμ H ⋅ H ∗
− E ⋅ J ∗
tot dt
⎥⎦
)
⎥ dV = (1.5.4)
V ⎣ 0
⎡1 ∗ 1 ∗ ⎤
∫∫∫ ⎢⎣ 2 Re ⎡⎣ − jωμ H ⋅ H ⎤⎦ − 2 Re ⎡⎣E ⋅ J tot ⎤⎦ ⎥⎦ dV
V
The real part of j ωμ H ⋅ H ∗ is zero because the product H ⋅ H ∗ = H 2 is real and so the quantity
j ωμ H ⋅ H ∗ is imaginary. Only the term associated with the heat survives and we can write:
1 ⎡ 1
− ∫∫ Re E × H∗ ⎤ nˆ dS = ∫∫∫ Re ⎡E ⋅ J∗tot ⎤ dV (1.5.5)
2 ⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎣ ⎦
S(V) V
The minus sign is been associated with the left–hand side because it identifies the quantity of
energy that goes in the volume V –while the Poynting's vector is defined outgoing from V– and the
right–hand side represents the energy dissipated as heat.
• Question n° 3
Inside a lossless dielectric, the current density J is zero while the displacement current D is
simply equal to ε E . So:
1 ∗
∫∫∫ 2 Re ⎡⎣ E ⋅ ( − jωε E ) ⎤ dV = 0
⎦
(1.5.6)
V
being the real part of jωε E ⋅ E∗ zero. Moreover zero for the right–hand side of (1.5.5), that
represents the quantity of energy ingoing the volume bounded by the surface S, implies that not all
the energy remains inside the volume. Exactly in steady state the quantity of energy ingoing is equal
to the outgoing one. It is correct because electromagnetic wave pass through the dielectric.
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 19
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.6 Exercise
Tx = ε Ex E + μ Hx H − xˆ
1
2
(ε E 2 + μ H2 )
3. Write similar equations of y, z components. The quantity G x is interpreted as the field
momentum (in the x–direction) per unit of volume, that is, the momentum density.
Solution
• Question n° 1
Let us begin with eq. (1.6.2) because it is easy to note from the left–hand side that it is the cross
∂D
product of the second Maxwell's equation (i.e. ∇× H = J + ) with the vector B and then we
∂t
extract the x–component. So we have to demonstrate the right–hand side of eq. (1.6.2). We can
write:
⎡ ⎛ ∂H z ∂H y ⎞ ⎛ ∂H z ∂H x ⎞ ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞ ⎤
( ∇ × H ) × B = ⎢ xˆ ⎜ − ⎟ − yˆ ⎜ − ⎟ + z
ˆ ⎜ − ⎟⎥ × B =
⎣⎢ ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎥⎦
xˆ yˆ zˆ
(1.6.4)
⎛ ∂H ∂H y ⎞ ⎛ ∂H z ∂H x ⎞ ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞
= ⎜ z − ⎟ −⎜ − ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Bx By Bz
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 20
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
⎡ ⎛ ∂H z ∂H x ⎞ ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞ ⎤
( ∇ × H ) × B x −component = μ ⎢−H z ⎜ − ⎟ − H y ⎜ ∂x − ∂y ⎟ ⎥ =
⎣⎢ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥
(1.6.5)
⎡ ∂H z ∂H x ∂H y ∂H x ⎤
= μ ⎢ −H z + Hz − Hy + Hy ⎥
⎣ ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ⎦
From the forth Maxwell's equation (i.e. ∇ ⋅ B = 0 ) and the constitutive relation B = μH , we can
add to eq. (1.6.5) the term H x ( ∇ ⋅ H ) and the couple of terms ± H x ∂ H x , because they're both zero:
∂x
( ∇ × H ) × B x −component =
⎡ ∂H z ∂H x ∂H y ∂H x ∂H x ⎤
⎢ −H z + Hz −H y + Hy + Hx +⎥
⎢ ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂x ⎥
(1.6.6)
=μ⎢ ⎥=
∂H y ∂ H ∂ H ∂ H
⎢+Hx + Hx z
+ Hx x
−H x x ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ⎥⎦
⎡ ∂H z ∂H y ∂H x ⎤ 1 ⎡ ∂H z ∂H y ∂H x ⎤
−μ ⎢Hz + Hy + Hx ⎥ = − μ ⎢ 2H z + 2H y + 2H x ⎥=
⎣ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎦ 2 ⎣ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎦
1 ⎡ ∂H 2z ∂H y ∂H 2x ⎤
2
1
− μ ⎢ + + ⎥ = −xˆ μ∇H 2
2 ⎢ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦
and now consider the remaining terms:
⎡ ∂H x ∂H x ∂H x ∂H y ∂H z ∂H x ⎤
μ ⎢Hz + Hy + Hx + Hx + Hx + Hx ⎥ =
⎣ ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ⎦ ↑
order them
⎡ ∂H x ⎛ ∂H y ∂H x ⎞ ⎛ ∂H x ∂H z ⎞⎤
= μ ⎢ 2H x + ⎜ Hx + Hy ⎟ + ⎜ Hz + Hx ⎟⎥ =
⎣⎢ ∂x ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂z ⎠ ⎦⎥
(
⎡ ∂H 2 ∂ H y H x )
∂ (Hx Hz ) ⎤
=μ⎢ x +
⎢ ∂x ∂y
+
∂z ⎥
( (
⎥ = μ∇ ⋅ H x H x xˆ + H y yˆ + H z zˆ ) ) = μ∇ ⋅ ( H x H )
⎣ ⎦
So we have that eq. (1.6.6) can be written as:
1
( ∇ × H ) × B x−component = μ∇ ⋅ ( Hx H ) − xˆ μ∇H2 =
2
(1.6.7)
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ∇ ⋅ ⎜ μ H x H − xˆ μ H2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
that is the right–hand side of eq. (1.6.2).
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 21
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
⎛ ∂B ⎞
Eq. (1.6.1) is obtained in similar way. In the left–hand side, there is the term ⎜ D × ⎟ that
⎝ ∂t ⎠x
∂B
suggests us the cross product of the first Maxwell's equation (i.e. ∇ × E = − ) with the vector D
∂t
and then we extract the x–component. So we have to demonstrate the right–hand side of eq. (1.6.1).
We can apply the cross product to the first Maxwell's equation:
∂B
D × ( ∇× E) = −D ×
∂t
From the properties of the cross product, it's possible to invert the order of the terms in the left–
hand side and change the sign in the right–hand–side:
∂B
( ∇ × E) × D = D ×
∂t
Now consider the term ( ∇ × E ) × D :
⎡ ⎛ ∂E z ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂E z ∂E x ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ∂E x ⎞ ⎤
( ∇ × E ) × D = ⎢ xˆ ⎜ − ⎟ − yˆ ⎜ − ⎟ + z
ˆ ⎜ − ⎟⎥ × D =
⎣⎢ ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ⎥⎦
xˆ yˆ zˆ
(1.6.8)
⎛ ∂E ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂E z ∂E x ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ∂E x ⎞
= ⎜ z − ⎟ −⎜ − ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Dx Dy Dz
⎡ ⎛ ∂E z ∂E x ⎞ ⎛ ∂E y ∂E x
⎞⎤
( ∇ × E ) × D x −component = ε ⎢−Ez ⎜ − ⎟ − E y ⎜ ∂x − ∂y
⎟⎥ =
⎢⎣ ⎝ ∂x ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
(1.6.9)
⎡ ∂E ∂E ∂E y ∂E ⎤
= ε ⎢ −E z z + E z x − E y + Ey x ⎥
⎣ ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ⎦
As for eq. (1.6.5), we can add to eq. (1.6.9) the third Maxwell's equation (i.e. ∇⋅ D − ρ = 0 ), but in
this case there is the term ρ and it's correct for the results that we want to obtain. In fact,
multiplying it with E x , the term −ρ Ex completes the left–hand side of eq. (1.6.1), changing its
sign.
With these considerations, we can add to eq. (1.6.9) the term E x ∇ ⋅ D and the couple of terms
∂E x
±Ex :
∂x
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 22
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
( ∇ × E ) × D x −component =
⎡ ∂E z ∂E ∂E y ∂E ∂E x ⎤
⎢ −E z + E z x −E y + Ey x + Ex +⎥
⎢ ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂x ⎥
(1.6.10)
=ε⎢ ⎥
∂E y ∂E z ∂E x ∂E x
⎢+E x + Ex + Ex −E x ⎥
⎢⎣ ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ ∂E 2z ∂E y ∂E 2x ⎤
2
1
=− ε⎢ + + ⎥ = −xˆ ε∇E 2
2 ⎢ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎥ 2
⎣ ⎦
and now consider the remaining terms:
⎡ ∂E x ∂E x ∂E x ∂E y ∂E z ∂E x ⎤
ε ⎢Ez + Ey + Ex + Ex + Ex + Ex ⎥ =
⎣ ∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ⎦ ↑
order them
⎡ ∂E x ⎛ ∂E x ∂E y ⎞ ⎛ ∂E x ∂E z ⎞ ⎤
= ε ⎢ 2E x + ⎜ Ey + Ex ⎟ + ⎜ Ez + Ex ⎥=
⎢⎣ ∂x ⎝ ∂y ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂z ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
(
⎡ ∂E 2 ∂ E x E y )
∂ ( Ex Ez ) ⎤
=ε⎢ x +
⎢ ∂x ∂y
+
∂z ⎥
( (
⎥ = ε∇ ⋅ E x E x xˆ + E y yˆ + E z zˆ ) ) = ∇ ⋅ (ε E x E )
⎣ ⎦
So we have that eq. (1.6.10) can be written as:
1
( ∇ × E) × D x−component = ∇ ⋅ ( ε E x E ) − xˆ ε∇E2 =
2
(1.6.11)
⎛ 1 ⎞
= ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E x E − xˆ ε E 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
that is the right–hand side of eq.(1.6.1).
• Question n° 2
The identity (1.6.3) is obtained adding eq.(1.6.1) and (1.6.2) as follow:
⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⎛ ∂D ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
ρ E x + ( J × B )x + ⎜ D × ⎟ + ⎜ × B ⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E x E + μ H x H − xˆ ε E 2 − xˆ μ H 2 ⎟
⎝ ∂t ⎠ x ⎝ ∂t ⎠x ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
∂ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
ρ E x + ( J × B ) x + ( D × B ) = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E x E + μ H x H − xˆ ε E 2 − xˆ μ H 2 ⎟
∂t x ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
It is easy to note the presence of f x , ∂G x and Tx as defined in the text of the exercise.
∂t
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 23
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
• Question n° 3
Operating in the similar way to question n°1, it is possible to demonstrate that the relationships
(1.6.1) and (1.6.2) can be written for the y and z–component as follow:
⎡⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⎛ 1 2 ⎞
⎢⎜ D × ∂t ⎟ − ρ E y = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ yˆ 2 ε E − ε E y E ⎟
⎢⎝ ⎠y ⎝ ⎠
(1.6.12)
⎢ ⎛ ∂D ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢( J × B ) y + ⎜ × B ⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ yˆ μ H 2 − μ H y H ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ ∂t ⎠y ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎡⎛ ∂B ⎞ ⎛ 1 2⎞
⎢⎜ D × ∂t ⎟ + ρ E z = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ ε E z E − zˆ 2 ε E ⎟
⎢⎝ ⎠z ⎝ ⎠
(1.6.13)
⎢ ⎛ ∂D ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎢( J × B )z + ⎜ × B ⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜ μ H z H − zˆ μ H 2 ⎟
⎣ ⎝ ∂t ⎠z ⎝ 2 ⎠
From eq. (1.6.12) and (1.6.13) as in question n°2, we can derive the relationship that represents
momentum conservation for y and z–component:
∂G y
fy + = ∇ ⋅ Ty (1.6.14)
∂t
∂G z
fz + = ∇ ⋅ Tz (1.6.15)
∂t
where
⎧ ⎧
⎪f y = ( J × B ) y − ρ E y ⎪f z = ( J × B ) z + ρ E z
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ⎛∂ ⎞ ⎪ ⎛∂ ⎞
⎨G y = ⎜ ( D × B ) ⎟ ⎨G z = ⎜ ( D × B ) ⎟
⎪ ⎝ ∂t ⎠y ⎪ ⎝ ∂t ⎠z
⎪ ⎪
(
1
)
⎪Ty = yˆ ε E 2 + μ H 2 − ε E y E − μ H y H
⎩ 2 ⎩
(1
⎪Tz = ε E z E + μ H z H − zˆ ε E − μ H
2
2 2
)
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 24
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.7 Exercise
Ne2
ωp = (1.7.2)
ε0m
and γ measures the rate of collisions per unit of time.
Show that the casual and stable time–domain dielectric response of eq. (1.7.1) is given as follows:
⎧ε ( t ) = ε 0δ ( t ) + ε 0 χ ( t )
⎪
⎨ ωp2 −γ t/2
⎪ ( )
χ t = e sin (ω0 t ) u ( t )
⎩ ω0
where u ( t ) is the unit–step function and ω0 = ω02 − γ 2 4 , and we must assume that γ < 2ω0 , as
typically the case in practice. Discuss the solution for the case γ 2 > ω0 .
Solution
For the linearity of Fourier transform, we have
⎧ ε 0ωp2 ⎫⎪
−1 ⎪
ℑ −1
{ε (ω )} = ℑ ⎨ε 0 + 2 ⎬=
⎩⎪ ω0 − ω 2 + jωγ ⎭⎪ (1.7.3)
⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
= ℑ−1 {ε 0 } + ε 0ωp2 ℑ−1 ⎨ ⎬
⎩⎪ ω0 − ω + jωγ ⎭⎪
2 2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 25
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
The second term of eq. (1.7.3) is more complicate and it is necessary to simplify the argument.
First of all, we can reduce the denominator in the product of two polynomials of first degree. So we
− jγ ± −γ 2 + 4ω02
ω1,2 = (1.7.5)
−2
Assuming that −γ 2 + 4ω02 = 2ω0 and that 2ω0 > γ , we can rewrite eq. (1.7.5) as follow.
γ
ω1,2 = j ∓ ω0 (1.7.6)
2
where it's important to note that ± has been substituted by ∓ because of the minus sign of the
denominator. Now we can write:
⎪⎧ 1 ⎪⎫ ⎧
−1 ⎪ 1 ⎪⎫ ⎧
−1 ⎪ A B ⎫⎪
ℑ−1 ⎨ ⎬=ℑ ⎨ ⎬=ℑ ⎨ + ⎬
⎩⎪ ω 0 − ω + jωγ
2 2
⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ (ω − ω1 )(ω − ω 2 ) ⎭⎪ ⎪⎩ (ω − ω1 ) (ω − ω 2 ) ⎪⎭
where A and B are two constant that we calculate applying the method of weighted residuals:
1 1 1 1
A = lim = = =−
ω →ω1 (ω − ω2 ) (ω1 − ω2 ) ⎛ γ γ ⎞ 2ω0
⎜ j − ω0 − j − ω0 ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
,
1 1 1 1
B = lim = = =
ω →ω2 (ω − ω1 ) (ω2 − ω1 ) ⎛ γ γ ⎞ 2ω0
⎜ j + ω0 − j + ω0 ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
so:
⎧ ⎫⎪ ⎧− 1 1 ⎫
−1 ⎪ 1 −1 ⎪ 2ω0 2ω0 ⎪
ℑ ⎨ 2 ⎬=ℑ ⎨ + ⎬ (1.7.7)
⎪⎩ ω0 − ω + jωγ ⎪⎭ ⎪ (ω − ω1 ) (ω − ω2 ) ⎪
2
⎩ ⎭
Now the problem is only to transform the trivial expression 1 (ω − ω i ) and then to apply the
{ }
ℑ je − jωi t u(t) ,
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 26
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
+∞ +∞
{ }
ℑ je− jωi t u ( t ) = j ∫ e− jωi t u ( t ) e jω t dt = j ∫ e (
j ω −ωi ) t
dt =
−∞ 0
+∞
= j
1 ⎡e j(ω −ωi )t ⎤ =
j (ω − ωi ) ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ 0
(1.7.8)
⎡ j(ω −ωi )t ⎤
−e (
1 − j ω −ωi ) t
= ⎢ e ⎥=
(ω − ωi ) ⎣ t →+∞ t →0 ⎦
1 1
= [ 0 − 1] = −
(ω − ωi ) (ω − ωi )
So it's possible to assume that:
⎧ 1 ⎫ jω t
ℑ−1 ⎨ ⎬ = − je i u ( t ) (1.7.9)
⎩ ω − ωi⎭
⎪⎧ ⎪⎫
ℑ−1 {ε (ω )} = ℑ−1 {ε 0 } + ε 0ωp2 ℑ−1 ⎨ 2
1
⎬=
⎪⎩ ω0 − ω + jωγ
2
⎪⎭
(1.7.12)
t
ωp2 −γ
= ε 0δ ( t ) + ε 0 e 2 Sin (ω0 t ) u ( t ) = ε 0δ ( t ) + ε 0 χ ( t )
ω0
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 27
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 28
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.8 Exercise
Show that the plasma frequency for electrons can be expressed in the simple numerical form:
fp = 9 N (1.8.1)
where fp is in Hz and N is the electron density in electrons/m3. What is fp for the ionosphere if
N = 1012 ?
Solution
Plasma frequency id defined as
1 Ne 2
fp = (1.8.2)
2π ε0m
where e is the electron charge, ε 0 is the permittivity of vacuum and m is the mass of electron. So
we have to demonstrate the follow identity:
1 e2
=9 (1.8.3)
2π ε0m
The charge of an electron is 1, 602 ⋅ 10 − 19 C and its mass is about 9,10 ⋅ 10 − 31 Kg . The electric
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 29
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.9 Exercise
where ρ is the charge density in the conductor, γ is the measurement of collisions per unit of time
and ω p is the plasma frequency, can be written in the following form in term of dc–conductivity
σ = ε 0ω p2 γ = Ne 2 m γ :
1 σ
ρ (r , t) + ρ (r , t) + ρ (r , t) = 0 (1.9.2)
γ ε0
Then show that it reduces to the naive relaxation equation
∂ρ σ
+ ρ =0 (1.9.3)
∂t ε
in the limit τ = 1 γ → 0 . Show also that in this limit, Ohm's law
t
J (r , t) = ω p2 ∫ e −γ (t − t ') ε 0 E (r , t)dt ' (1.9.4)
−∞
takes the instantaneous form J = σ E , from which the naive relaxation constant τ relax = ε 0 σ was
derived.
Solution
Eq. (1.9.2) is obtained dividing eq. (1.9.1) by γ :
1 ωp2
ρ (r, t) + ρ (r, t) + ρ (r, t) = 0
γ γ
where ω p2 γ = σ ε 0 . It's easy to note that if τ = 1 γ → 0 , then the term ρ (r, t) γ → 0 and the eq.
So
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 30
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
t t
− γ (t − t ') 1 1 ⎡ − γ (t − t ') ⎤ t 1 1
∫ e dt ' = ∫ e − γ (t − t ') d[ −γ (t − t ')] = e = [1 − 0 ] =
γ γ ⎣ ⎦ −∞ γ γ
−∞ −∞
ωp2ε 0
J (r, t) = E(r, t) = σ E(r, t) (1.9.5)
γ
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 31
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.10 Exercise
Conductors and plasmas exhibit anisotropic and birefringent behavior when they are in the
presence of an external magnetic field. The equation of motion of conduction electrons in a constant
external magnetic field is
mv = e(E + v × B) − mγ v (1.10.1)
with the collisional term included. Assume the magnetic field is in the z–direction, B = zˆ B , and
that E = xˆ E x + yˆ E y and v = xˆ v x + yˆ v y .
2. To solve this system, work with the combinations v x ± jv y . Assuming harmonic time–
(
J x ± jJ y = σ ± (ω ) E x ± jE y ) (1.10.4)
γσ 0
where σ ± (ω ) = with σ 0 = N e 2 m γ , that is the dc value of the
γ + j ( ω ± ωB )
conductivity.
4. Show that the time–domain version of eq. (1.10.3) is:
t
( )
J x (t) ± jJ y (t) = ∫ σ ± (t − t ') E x (t ') ± jE y (t ') dt ' (1.10.5)
0
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 32
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
t
J x (t) = ∫ ⎡⎣σ xx (t − t ')E x (t ') + σ xy (t − t ')E y (t ') ⎤⎦ dt '
0 (1.10.6)
t
J y (t) = ∫ ⎡⎣σ yx (t − t ')E x (t ') + σ yy (t − t ')E y (t ') ⎤⎦ dt '
0
6. Evaluate eq. (1.10.6) in the special case E x (t) = E x u(t) and E y (t) = E y u (t) , where E x
and E y are constants, and show that after a long time the steady–state version of eq.
where b = ωB γ . If the conductor has finite extent in the y–direction, as show in Fig.
1.10.1, then no steady current can flow in this direction, J y = 0 . This implies that if an
electric field is applied in the x–direction, an electric field will develop across the y–ends
of the conductor, E y = bE x . The conduction charges will tend to accumulate either on the
right or the left side of the conductor, depending on the sign of b, which depends on the
sign of the electric charge e. This is the Hall effect and is used to determinate the sign of
the conduction charges in semiconductors, e.g. positive holes for p–type, or negative
electrons for n–type.
What is the numerical value of b for electrons in copper if B is 1 gauss?
7. For a collisionless plasma ( γ = 0 ), show that its dielectric behavior is determined from
(
D x ± jD y = ε ± (ω ) E x ± jE y , where )
⎛ ωp2 ⎞
⎜
ε ± (ω ) = ε 0 1 − ⎟ (1.10.8)
⎜ ω ( ω ± ωB ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 33
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Solution
• Question n°1
First of all, divide eq. (1.10.1) by m:
e
v= (E + v × B) − γ v
m
and expand the terms
vx xˆ + v y yˆ =
e
m
( ) (
Ex xˆ + E y yˆ + v y Bxˆ − vx Byˆ − γ vx xˆ + vy yˆ )
Now it is possible to separate x and y–component as follow:
⎧ ⎧
⎪⎪ v x =
e
m
(
E x + v y B − γ vx ) ⎪⎪ v x =
e
m
E x +
eB
m
v y − γ vx
⎨ ⇒ ⎨
⎪⎩ y m y (
⎪v = e E − v B − γ v
x y ) ⎪v = e E − eB v − γ v
⎪⎩ y m y m x y
so we have:
e
jω v x = E x + ωB v y − γ v x
m (1.10.9)
e
jω v y = E y − ω B v x − γ v y
m
Now combine the equations:
⎛ e ⎞ ⎛ e ⎞
( )
jω v x ± jv y = ⎜ E x + ωB v y − γ v x ⎟ ±
⎝m ⎠
j ⎜ E y − ωB v x − γ v y ⎟
⎝m ⎠
that is
(
jω vx ± jvy = ) e
m
( ) (
Ex ± jE y + ωB vy ∓ jvx − γ vx ± jvy ) ( ) (1.10.10)
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 34
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
( )
In Eq. (1.10.10) there is the term ωB v y ∓ jv x that we have to express in the form C vx ± jvy , ( )
where the constant C is to be found. If we take out of the parentheses ±j , we obtain
( )
∓ jωB v x ± jv y and the constant C = ∓ jωB . So eq. (1.10.10) becomes:
(
jω vx ± jvy = ) e
m
( ) (
Ex ± jE y ∓ jωB vx ± jv y − γ vx ± jvy ) ( )
and we obtain:
( ) (
jω v x ± jv y ± jωB v x ± jv y + γ v x ± jv y = ) ( ) e
m
(
E x ± jE y )
( v x ± jv y ) (γ + j (ω ± ωB ) ) = me ( E x ± jE y )
e
(
E x ± jE y )
( v x ± jv y ) = m
γ + j (ω ± ω B )
(1.10.11)
• Question n°3
Substituting eq. (1.10.11) in the expression for the induced currents ( J = Nev ), we have:
Ne2
(
J x ± jJ y = Ne v x ± jv y ) = m
(
E ± jE y
γ + j (ω ± ωB ) x
) (1.10.12)
Ne2
m γσ 0
σ ± (ω ) = = (1.10.13)
γ + j (ω ± ωB ) γ + j (ω ± ωB )
Ne 2
where σ 0 = is the dc value of the conductivity.
γm
• Question n°4
We have to calculate the Fourier transform:
⎧⎪ γσ 0 ⎫⎪
ℑ−1 {σ ± (ω )} = ℑ−1 ⎨ ⎬ (1.10.14)
⎩⎪ γ + j (ω ± ωB ) ⎭⎪
Eq. (1.10.14) can be written as:
⎪⎧ 1 ⎫⎪ ⎧
−1 ⎪ 1 ⎪⎫ −1 ⎧ 1 ⎫
γσ 0 ℑ−1 ⎨ ⎬ = jγσ 0 ℑ ⎨ ⎬ = jγσ 0 ℑ ⎨ ⎬ (1.10.15)
⎩⎪ jω + ( γ ± jωB ) ⎭⎪ ⎩⎪ ω + j ( γ ± jωB ) ⎭⎪ ⎩ ω + ω± ⎭
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 35
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
where ω ± = j ( γ ± j ω B ) . It's easy to note that the inverse Fourier transform in (1.10.15) is already
σ ± ( t ) = jγσ 0 ℑ−1 ⎨
⎧
⎩ ω +
1 ⎫
ω
− jω t
(
⎬ = jγσ 0 − je ± u ( t ) =
±⎭
) (1.10.16)
= γσ 0e − jω± t u ( t ) = γσ 0e −γ t e ∓ jωB t u ( t )
• Question n°5
It's possible to decompose eq. (1.10.17) in its two component as follow:
t
(
J x (t) + jJ y (t) = ∫ σ + (t − t ') E x (t ') + jE y (t ') dt ')
0 (1.10.18)
t
(
J x (t) − jJ y (t) = ∫ σ − (t − t ') E x (t ') − jE y (t ') dt ')
0
⎣ ( ) ( ⎦ )
2J x (t) = ∫ ⎡σ + (t − t ') E x (t ') + jE y (t ') + σ − (t − t ') E x (t ') − jE y (t ') ⎤ dt ' (1.10.19)
0
⎣ ( ) ( ⎦ )
2 jJ y (t) = ∫ ⎡σ + (t − t ') E x (t ') + jE y (t ') − σ − (t − t ') E x (t ') − jE y (t ') ⎤ dt ' (1.10.20)
0
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 36
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
⎧ σ + (t) + σ − (t)
⎪σ xx ( t ) = 2
⎪
⎪σ ⎛ σ + (t) − σ − (t) ⎞
⎪ xy ( t ) = j ⎜ ⎟
⎪ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎨ (1.10.23)
⎪σ yx ( t ) = ⎛⎜ σ + (t) − σ − (t) ⎞⎟
⎪ ⎝ 2j ⎠
⎪
⎪σ ( t ) = ⎛ σ + (t) + σ − (t) ⎞
⎪⎩ yy ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
• Question n°6
Consider the expression of Jx (t) in eq. (1.10.21) and divide it in two integrals:
t t
⎛ σ (t − t ') + σ − (t − t ') ⎞ ⎛ σ + (t − t ') − σ − (t − t ') ⎞
J x (t) = ∫ ⎜ + ⎟ E x (t ')dt ' + j∫ ⎜ ⎟ E y (t ')dt ' =
0 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= I1 + I 2
I1 and I2 can be solved separately. Let's start with I1 substituting E x (t) = E x u(t) and the definition
of σ xx (t) . So we obtain:
t
⎛ σ (t − t ') + σ − (t − t ') ⎞
I1 = ∫ ⎜ + ⎟ E x u(t ')dt ' =
0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1⎡ ⎤ 1
t t
= ⎢ ∫ σ + (t − t ')E x u(t ')dt ' + ∫ σ − (t − t ')E x (t ')dt '⎥ = ( I11 + I12 )
2⎢ ⎥⎦ 2
⎣0 0
Now we solve separately I11 and I12, substituting the definitions of σ + (t) and σ − (t) respectively:
t t
I11 = ∫ σ + (t − t ')E x u(t ')dt ' = ∫ γσ 0e − jω+ (t − t ') u ( t − t ') E x u(t ')dt ' =
0 0
t t
− jω+ (t − t ')
= γσ 0 E x ∫ e dt ' = −γσ 0 E x ∫ e − jω+ (t − t ')d(t − t ') =
0 0
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 37
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Now combining eq. (1.10.24) and (1.10.25), we have the solution of integral I1:
1 1 ⎛ γσ 0E x γσ 0E x ⎞
I1 = (I11 + I12 ) = ⎜ + ⎟=
2 2 ⎝ (γ + jωB ) (γ − jωB ) ⎠
γσ 0E x ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ γσ 0E x ⎛ γ − jωB + γ + jωB ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = (1.10.26)
2 ⎝ (γ + j ω ) (γ − jωB ⎠
) 2 ⎜ γ 2 + ωB2 ⎟
B ⎝ ⎠
γσ 0E x ⎛ 2γ ⎞ γ 2σ 0
= ⎜ 2 ⎟ = E
2 ⎜ γ + ω2 ⎟ γ 2 + ω2 x
⎝ B⎠ B
j⎡ ⎤ j
t t
= ⎢ ∫ σ + (t − t ')E y u(t ')dt ' − ∫ σ − (t − t ')E yu(t ')dt '⎥ = ( I21 − I22 )
2⎢ ⎥⎦ 2
⎣0 0
The integrals I21 and I22 have the same structure of integrals I11 and I12. So the results are known:
γσ 0
I 21 = Ey
(γ + jωB )
(1.10.27)
γσ 0
I 22 = Ey
(γ − jωB )
Now it is possible to write Jx (t) in steady state when a constant electric field is applied:
γ 2σ 0 ωBσ 0 γ 2 E x + ωB E y
J x (t) = E x + E y = σ 0 =
γ 2 + ωB2 γ 2 + ωB2 γ 2 + ωB2
γ 2 E x + ωB E y
γ2 E x + bE y
= σ0 = σ0
γ 2 + ωB2 1 + b2
γ2
where b = ωB γ .
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 38
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Consider now the expression of J y (t) in eq. (1.10.22) and divide it in two integrals:
t t
⎛ σ (t − t ') − σ − (t − t ') ⎞ ⎛ σ + (t − t ') + σ − (t − t ') ⎞
J y (t) = ∫ ⎜ + ⎟ E x (t ')dt ' + ∫ ⎜ ⎟ E y (t ')dt ' =
0 ⎝ 2j ⎠ 0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
= I3 + I 4
I3 and I4 can be solved separately. Let's start with I3 substituting E x (t) = E x u(t) and the definition
of σ yx (t) . So we obtain:
t
⎛ σ (t − t ') − σ − (t − t ') ⎞
I3 = ∫ ⎜ + ⎟ E x u(t ')dt ' =
0 ⎝ 2j ⎠
1⎡ ⎤ 1
t t
= ⎢ ∫ σ + (t − t ')E x u(t ')dt ' − ∫ σ − (t − t ')E x (t ')dt '⎥ = ( I31 − I32 )
2j ⎢ ⎥⎦ 2 j
⎣0 0
Now we solve separately I31 and I32, substituting the definitions of σ + (t) and σ − (t) respectively:
t t
I31 = ∫ σ + (t − t ')E x u(t ')dt ' = ∫ γσ 0e − jω+ (t − t ') u ( t − t ' ) E x u(t ')dt ' =
0 0
t t
− jω+ (t − t ')
= γσ 0E x ∫ e dt ' = −γσ 0E x ∫ e− jω+ (t − t ')d(t − t ') =
0 0
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 39
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
t
⎛ σ (t − t ') + σ − (t − t ') ⎞
I4 = ∫ ⎜ + ⎟ E y (t ')dt ' =
0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
1⎡ ⎤ 1
t t
= ⎢ ∫ σ + (t − t ')E y u(t ')dt ' + ∫ σ − (t − t ')E y u(t ')dt '⎥ = ( I41 + I42 )
2⎢ ⎥⎦ 2
⎣0 0
The integrals I41 and I42 have the same structure of integrals I31 and I32. So the results are known:
γσ 0
I 41 = Ey
(γ + jωB )
(1.10.32)
γσ 0
I 42 = Ey
(γ − jωB )
1 1 ⎛ γσ 0 γσ 0 ⎞
I4 = ( I41 − I42 ) = ⎜ Ey + Ey ⎟ =
2 2 ⎝ (γ + jωB ) (γ − jωB ) ⎠
γσ 0E y ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ γσ 0 E y ⎛ γ − jωB + γ + jωB ⎞
= ⎜ + ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = (1.10.33)
2 ⎝ (γ + jωB ) (γ − jωB ) ⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ γ 2 + ωB2 ⎟
⎠
γσ 0E y ⎛ − 2 γ ⎞ γ 2σ 0
= ⎜ ⎟= Ey
2 ⎜⎝ γ 2 + ωB2 ⎟⎠ γ 2 + ωB2
Now it is possible to write J y (t) in steady state when a constant electric field is applied:
ωBσ 0 γ 2σ 0 γ 2 E y − ωB E x
J y (t) = − 2 Ex + 2 Ey = σ 0 =
γ + ωB2 γ + ωB2 γ 2 + ωB2
γ 2 E y − ωB E x
γ2 E y + bE x
= σ0 = σ0
γ 2 + ωB2 1 + b2
γ2
where b = ωB γ .
• Question n°7
To solve this point it is necessary to obtain the expression of σ ± (ω ) for a collisionless plasma
because it is note the relationship:
σ ± (ω )
ε ± (ω ) = ε 0 + (1.10.34)
jω
The definition of the conductibility σ ± (ω ) has just obtained in this exercise, i.e. eq. (1.10.13). We
have only to set γ = 0 for indicating that there is no collision between the electrons and the medium
structure:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 40
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Ne2
σ ± (ω ) = m (1.10.35)
j ( ω ± ωB )
Ne2
⎛ ωp2 ⎞
ε ± (ω ) = ε 0 − m ⎜
= ε 1− ⎟ (1.10.36)
ω ( ω ± ωB ) 0 ⎜ ω ( ω ± ωB ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Ne2
where ε 0ωp2 = .
m
The numerical value of b for electrons in copper can be find out using:
eB
b = ω Bγ −1 =
mγ
The result is different from the one in the text which is 43.
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 41
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.11 Exercise
This problem deals with various properties of the Kramers–Kronig dispersion relations for the
electric susceptibility, given by:
+∞
χ (ω ' )
1
χ r (ω ) = ℘ ∫ i dω '
π −∞ ω '− ω
(1.11.1)
+∞
1 χ (ω ' )
χ i (ω ) = − ℘ ∫ r dω '
π −∞ ω '− ω
χ ( t ) . Because the time–response χ ( t ) is real–valued, its Fourier transform χ (ω ) will satisfy the
1. Using the symmetry properties, show that eq. (1.11.1) can be written in the folded form:
∞
2 ω ' χ (ω ' )
χ r ( ω ) = ℘∫ 2 i 2 dω '
π 0 ω ' −ω
(1.11.2)
∞
2 ωχ r (ω ' )
χ i ( ω ) = − ℘∫ 2 dω '
π 0 ω ' −ω2
2. Using the definition of the principal–value integrals, show the following integral:
∞
dω '
℘∫ =0 (1.11.3)
0 ω ' −ω
2 2
dx 1 a+x
Hint: You may use the following indefinite integral: ∫ a 2 − x 2 = 2a ln a − x .
3. Using eq. (1.11.3), show that the relations (1.11.2) may be rewritten as ordinary integrals
(without the ℘ instruction) as follows:
∞
2 ω ' χ i (ω ' ) − ωχ i (ω )
χ r (ω ) = ∫ dω '
π 0 ω '2 − ω 2
(1.11.4)
∞
2 ωχ r (ω ' ) − ωχ r (ω )
χ i (ω ) = − ∫ dω '
π 0 ω '2 − ω 2
.
Hint: You will need to argue that the integrands have no singularity at ω ' = ω .
4. For a simple oscillator model of dielectric polarization, the susceptibility is given by:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 42
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
ω p2
χ ( ω ) = χ r ( ω ) − jχ i (ω ) = =
ω02 − ω 2 + jγω
( )
(1.11.5)
ω p2 ω02 − ω 2 γωω p2
= −j
( ) (ω02 − ω 2 )
2 2
ω02 −ω 2
+γ ω 2 2
+ γ 2ω 2
Show that for this model the quantities χ r (ω ) and χ i (ω ) satisfy the modified Kramers–
Indeed, show that these integrals may be reduced to the following ones, which can be
found in standard tables of integrals:
∞ ∞
2 dy 2 y 2 dy 1
π ∫ 1 − 2 y 2 C os θ + y 4 =
π ∫ 1 − 2 y 2 C os θ + y 4 =
2 (1 − C os θ )
0 0
where S in (θ 2 ) = γ ( 2ω 0 ) .
5. Consider the limit of Eq. (1.11.5) as γ →0. Show that in this case the functions χr , χi are
given as follows, and that they still satisfy the Kramers–Kronig relations:
Solution
The Cauchy's principal value is defined for the integration of a function f ( x ) with limited value in
the interval [ a, b ] except for the x = x 0 .This is a special case of Reimann's principal value:
b x 0 −ς1 b
℘∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ f ( x ) dx + lim ∫ f ( x ) dx
a ς1 →0+ a ς 2 → 0 + x +ς
0 2
where ς1 and ς 2 are independent of each other, whereas in the Cauchy's principal value ς1 = ς 2 , so:
b x 0 −ς b
℘∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
a ς →0+ a x 0 +ς
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 43
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 44
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
+∞
1 χ (ω ') 1
0
χ ( −ω ' )
χ i (ω ) = − ℘ ∫ r dω ' − ℘ ∫ r d ( −ω ' ) =
π 0 ω '− ω π +∞ −ω '− ω ↑
Simmetry property of χ r
+∞
1 χ (ω ') 1
0
χ (ω ' )
=− ℘∫ r dω ' − ℘ ∫ r d ( −ω ' ) =
π ω '− ω
0
π −ω '− ω
+∞
+∞
1 χ (ω ') 1 χ (ω ' ) 0
=− ℘∫ r dω ' + ℘ ∫ r dω ' =
π ω '− ω 0
π −ω '− ω
+∞
↑
Invert integral's limits
+∞
1 ⎛ χ (ω ' ) χ r (ω ' ) ⎞
=− ℘∫ ⎜ r − ⎟ dω ' =
π 0 ⎝ ω '− ω ω '+ ω ⎠
+∞
1⎛ (ω '+ ω ) χ i (ω ' ) − (ω '− ω ) χ i (ω ' ) ⎞
= ℘∫ ⎜ ⎟ dω ' =
π 0⎝ ω '2 − ω 2 ⎠
1
+∞ ⎛ ω ' χi (ω ') + ωχi (ω ' ) − ω ' χ i (ω ' ) + ωχ i (ω ') ⎞
= ℘∫ ⎜ ⎟ dω ' =
π 0⎜ ω '2 − ω 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
+∞
2 ωχ (ω ')
= ℘ ∫ 2i 2 dω '
π 0 ω' −ω
• Question n°2
Using the definition of the principal–value integrals and the hint, we write:
∞
dω ' ⎡ω −ς dω ' ∞
dω ' ⎤⎥
℘∫ ⎢
2 ς →0 ⎢ ∫ ∫ ω '2 − ω 2 ⎥ =
= lim +
0 ω '2
− ω ⎣ 0
ω '2
− ω 2
ω +ς ⎦
1 ⎡ ω + ω ' ω −ς ω +ω'
∞ ⎤
= lim ⎢ ln + ln ⎥=
2ω ς →∞ ⎢ ω − ω ' 0 ω − ω ' ω +ς ⎥
⎣ ⎦ (1.11.6)
1 ⎡ 2ω − ς 2ω + ς ⎤
= lim ⎢ ln − ln 1 + ln 1 − ln − ⎥=
2ω ς →∞ ⎣ ς ς ⎦
1 ⎡ 2ω − ς 2ω + ς ⎤
= lim ⎢ ln − ln − ⎥=0
2ω ς →∞ ⎣ ς ς ⎦
• Question n°3
The integrands of equations (1.11.2) have a singularity in ω ' = ω and we have to use the
principal–value for solving the integral. But if we also introduce a singularity at the numerator in
ω ' = ω , we will have the integrand that will not diverge. Besides subtracting eq. (1.11.3), that is
zero, to eq. (1.11.2), we obtain:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 45
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
∞ ∞
2 ω ' χ (ω ' ) dω '
χ r (ω ) = ℘∫ 2 i 2 dω ' −℘∫ 2
π 0 ω' −ω 0 ω' −ω
2
∞ ∞
2 ωχ (ω ' ) dω '
χ i (ω ) = − ℘∫ 2r 2 dω ' −℘∫ 2
π 0 ω' −ω 0 ω' −ω
2
Being equal to zero, the second term can be multiplied by a constant and we choose 2ωχ (ω ) π .
So we have:
∞
2 ⎡ ⎛ ω ' χi (ω ') ωχ i (ω ) ⎞ ⎤
χ r (ω ) = ⎢℘∫ ⎜ 2 − ⎟ d ω ' ⎥
π ⎢⎣ 0 ⎝ ω ' − ω 2 ω '2 − ω 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
(1.11.7)
∞
2 ⎡ ⎛ ωχ (ω ') ωχ (ω ) ⎞ ⎤
χi (ω ) = − ⎢℘∫ ⎜ 2r 2 − 2r 2 ⎟ dω '⎥
π ⎢⎣ 0 ⎝ ω ' − ω ω' −ω ⎠ ⎥⎦
Because now the integrands don't present a singularity in ω ' = ω , we can cancel ℘ instruction and
obtain:
∞
2 ⎛ ω ' χ i (ω ' ) − ωχ i (ω ) ⎞
χ r (ω ) =
π ∫0 ⎝
⎜ ⎟ dω '
ω '2 − ω 2 ⎠
(1.11.8)
∞
2 ⎛ ωχ r (ω ' ) − ωχ r (ω ) ⎞
χ i (ω ) = −
π ∫0 ⎝
⎜ ⎟ dω '
ω '2 − ω 2 ⎠
• Question n°4
Substitute the quantity χ i (ω ) expressed in eq. (1.11.5) inside the modified Kramers–Kronig
∞
2 xχ i ( x ) − ωχ i (ω ) γωωp2
χ r (ω ) = ∫ dx, where χi (ω ) =
π x2 − ω2
( )
2
0 ω02 − ω 2 + γ 2ω 2
where we have substituted ω ' → x to distinguish better the arguments of the integral. Let us
denote the denominator of χ i (ω ) as Den[ω] . So we have that:
2
∞
1 ⎡ γ xωp2 γωωp2 ⎤
χ r (ω ) =
π ∫0 x 2 − ω 2 ⎢ Den[x]
⎢ x − ω ⎥ dx =
Den[ω ] ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2γωp2 ∞ 1 ⎡ x2 ω2 ⎤
=
π ∫ x 2 − ω 2 ⎢⎢ Den[x] − Den[ω ] ⎥⎥ dx =
0 ⎣ ⎦
2γωp2 ∞ 1 ⎡ x 2Den[ω ] − ω 2 Den[x] ⎤
=
π ∫ x 2 − ω 2 ⎢⎢ Den[x]Den[ω ] ⎥⎥ dx
0 ⎣ ⎦
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 46
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Now we can expand the numerator x 2 D en[ω ] − ω 2 D en[x ] inside the integral using the extended
⎡
( ) ⎤ ⎡
( )
⎤
2 2
x 2Den[ω ] − ω 2Den[x] = x 2 ⎢ ω02 − ω 2 + γ 2ω 2 ⎥ − ω 2 ⎢ ω02 − x 2 + γ 2 x 2 ⎥ =
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
= x 2 ⎡ω04 + ω 4 − 2ω02ω 2 + γ 2ω 2 ⎤ − ω 2 ⎡ω04 + x 4 − 2ω02 x 2 + γ 2 x 2 ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
= x 2ω04 + x 2ω 4 −2x 2ω02ω 2 + x 2γ 2ω 2 − ω 2ω04 − ω 2 x 4 +2ω 2ω02 x 2 −ω 2γ 2 x 2 =
( )
= x 2ω04 + x 2ω 4 − ω 2ω04 − ω 2 x 4 = ω04 x 2 − ω 2 − ω 2 x 2 x 2 − ω 2 = ( )
( )(
= x 2 − ω 2 ω04 − ω 2 x 2 )
and substitute it inside the integral:
χ r (ω ) =
2γωp2 ∞ 1 ⎢ (
⎡ x 2 − ω 2 ω 4 − ω 2x 2 ⎤
0 )(
⎥ )
π ∫0 x 2 − ω 2 ⎢
⎢ ⎥ dx =
Den[x]Den[ω ] ⎥
⎣ ⎦
γωp2 2 ∞ ω04 − ω 2 x 2 γωp2 ⎡ 2 ∞ ω04 ∞
2 ω 2x 2 ⎤
Den[ω ] π ∫ Den[x] Den[ω ] ⎢ π ∫ Den[x] ∫ Den[x] ⎥⎥ =
= dx = ⎢ dx − dx
0 ⎣ 0
π 0 ⎦
γωp2 ⎡ 4 2 ∞ 1 2
∞
x2 ⎤
= ⎢ω0 ∫ dx − ω 2 ∫ dx ⎥
Den[ω ] ⎢ π Den[x] π 0 Den[x] ⎥⎦
⎣ 0
Now it is possible to use the note results suggested by the text of the exercise:
χ r (ω ) =
γ ωp2 ⎡ 4 1
⎢ω0 −ω 2 1
⎤ ωp ω0 − ω
⎥=
2 2 2
=
( )
Den[ω ] ⎢
⎣ γ ω0
2 γ ⎥
⎦
Den[ω ]
=
(
ωp2 ω02 − ω 2 )
(ω02 − ω 2 )
2
+ γ 2ω 2
that is exactly the expression of χ r (ω ) for a simple oscillator model of dielectric polarization in
eq. (1.11.5).
Now we have to demonstrate the dual expression for χ i (ω ) :
χi (ω ) = −
∞
2 ωχ r ( x ) − ωχ r (ω )
χ r (ω ) =
(
ωp2 ω02 − ω 2 )
π∫
dx where
x2 − ω2
(ω02 − ω 2 )
2
0 + γ 2ω 2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 47
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
χi (ω ) = −
2
∞
1
⎡ ω2 ω2 − x2
⎢ω p 0 ( )
ωp2 ω02 − ω 2 ( ) ⎤⎥ dx =
π ∫ x2 − ω2 ⎢ Den[x]
−ω
Den[ω ] ⎥
0 ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
2ωωp2 ∞ 1 ⎢ 0 ( )
⎡ ω 2 − x 2 Den[ω ] − ω 2 − ω 2 Den[x] ⎤
0 (
⎥ dx )
=−
π ∫ x2 − ω2 ⎢ Den[x]Den[ω ] ⎥
0 ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
( ) ( )
2 2
where Den[x] = ω02 − x 2 + γ 2 x 2 and Den[ω ] = ω 02 − ω 2 + γ 2ω 2 .
( ) (
Now we can expand the numerator ω 02 − x 2 Den[ω ] − ω 02 − ω 2 Den[x] inside the integral using )
the extended form for Den[x] and Den[ω] :
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
−ω02 x 4 − ω 4 + 2ω04 x 2 − ω 2 − γ 2ω02 x 2 − ω 2 − ω04 x 2 − ω 2 + x 2ω 2 x 2 − ω 2 = ( )
−ω02 ( x 2 − ω 2 )( x 2 + ω 2 ) + 2ω04 ( x 2 − ω 2 ) − γ 2ω02 ( x 2 − ω 2 ) − ω04 ( x 2 − ω 2 ) + x 2ω 2 ( x 2 − ω 2 ) =
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 48
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
χi (ω ) = −
2ωωp2 ∞ 1 ⎢ ( ⎢⎣ 0 ) (0 0 )
⎡ x 2 − ω 2 ⎡ −ω 2 x 2 + ω 2 − γ 2ω 2 + ω 4 + x 2ω 2 ⎤ ⎤
⎥⎦ ⎥
π ∫ ⎢
x2 − ω2 ⎢ Den[x]Den[ω ]
⎥ dx =
0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
( 2 2 4
)
ωωp2 2 ∞ −ω0 x + ω − γ ω0 + ω0 + x ω
2 2 2 2
Den[ω ] π ∫
=− dx =
Den[x]
0
ωωp2 ⎡ 2 ∞ ⎛ 2 x 2 1 1 1 2 x
2 ⎞ ⎤
Den[ω ] ⎢ π ∫ ⎜⎝
=− ⎢ ⎜ −ω0 − ω0 ω − γ ω0 + ω0 +ω ⎟ dx ⎥ =
2 2 2 2 4
Den[x] Den[x] Den[x] Den[x] Den[x] ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
ωωp2 ⎡ ω02 ω02 ω 2 γ 2 ω02 ω04 ω 2 ⎤
=− ⎢− − − + 2+ ⎥=
Den[ω ] ⎢ γ γ ω0
2
γ ω02 γω γ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
ωωp2 ⎡ ω02 ω 2 γ 2 ω02 ω 2 ⎤ γωωp2 γωωp2
= ⎢ + + − − ⎥= =
Den[ω ] ⎢ γ
⎣
γ γ γ γ
( )
⎥⎦ Den[ω ] ω 2 − ω 2 2 + γ 2ω 2
0
that is exactly the expression of χ i (ω ) for a simple oscillator model of dielectric polarization in eq.
(1.11.5).
• Question n° 5
Let us compare the first integrals in x and y respectively:
∞ ∞
2 dx 2 dy
∫ ≡ ∫ 1 − 2y 2 cos θ + y 4
π
(ω02 − x 2 ) π
2
0 + γ 2x 2 0
They differ only in the denominator, so we can compare them to find the condition of equality,
substituting y → x :
(ω02 − x 2 )
2
+ γ 2 x 2 = 1 − 2x 2 C os θ + x 4
ω04 + x 4 − 2ω02 x 2 + γ 2 x 2 = 1 − 2x 2C os θ + x 4
that is:
⎛ γ2⎞
ω 04 − 2x 2 ⎜ ω 02 − ⎟ + x = 1 − 2x C os θ + x
4 2 4 (1.11.9)
⎜ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
Using the suggested relation Sin (θ 2 ) = γ ( 2ω 0 ) and the relation C os θ = 1 − 2Sin (θ 2 ) , we
have:
⎛θ ⎞ γ2 γ2
C os θ = 1 − 2Sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ = 1 − 2 2 = 1 − (1.11.10)
⎝2⎠ 4ω0 2ω02
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 49
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
In order to match the right– and left–side of eq. (1.11.11), it is necessary that ω0 → 1 and it is
correct because the integrals in y are a reduced form of the integrals in x. Indeed the result of
integrals in y can be written as follow:
1 1 1 1
= = =
2 (1 − C os θ ) ⎛ ⎛ γ 2 ⎞⎞ γ2 γ ω0 →1
2 ⎜1 − ⎜1 − ⎟
2 ⎟⎟ ⎟
⎜ ⎜ ω 2ω02
⎝ ⎝ 4 0 ⎠ ⎠
that is exactly the result of integrals in x when ω0 → 1 .
• Question n° 6
Starting from the expression of χ (ω ) as in eq. (1.11.5) and applying the limit as γ → 0 we get:
ωp2
χ 0 (ω ) = lim χ (ω ) = lim =
γ →0 γ →0 ω02 − ω 2 + jγω
( ω02 − ω 2 )
2 (1.11.12)
ωp2 γω
= lim − j lim ωp2
(ω02 − ω 2 ) + γ 2ω 2 ω0 − ω γ →0 (ω02 − ω 2 ) + γ 2ω 2
γ →0 2 2 2 2
χr0 (ω ) and χi0 (ω ) represent the real and imaginary part of χ 0 (ω ) for γ → 0, respectively.
( ω02 − ω 2 )
2
ωp2
χ r (ω ) = lim
0
=
γ →0
(ω0 − ω ) + γ ω
2 2 2 2 2 ω02 − ω 2
(1.11.13)
1 ⎡
ωp2 ωp2 ωp2 ⎤
=℘ 2 = ⎢℘ −℘ ⎥
ω0 − ω 2 2ω0 ⎢⎣ ω0 − ω ω0 + ω ⎥
⎦
γω
For what concerns χ i0 (ω ) = ω p2 lim we have to note that it is very similar to
γ →0
( ω02 −ω 2 2
) +γ ω
2 2
So, we first manipulate χi0 (ω ) in order to apply eq. (1.11.14). Dividing and multiplying
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 50
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
γω
χ i0 (ω ) = ωp2 lim ω2 =
( )
γ →0 2
ω02 − ω 2 γ ω
2 2
+
ω 2
ω2 (1.11.15)
πωp2 1 γ
= lim
ω γ →0 π ⎛ 2 2
ω0 − ω 2 ⎞
⎟⎟ + γ
2
⎜⎜
⎝ ω ⎠
The limit γ → 0 of eq. (1.11.15) has the same form of eq. (1.11.14), assuming ε → γ and
ω02 − ω 2
x→ . So it is possible to write:
ω
πω p2 ⎛ ω 02 − ω 2 ⎞
χ i0 (ω ) = δ⎜ ⎟ (1.11.16)
ω ⎜ ω ⎟
⎝ ⎠
In order to write (1.11.16) in a simpler form, we apply the following two properties of the Dirac
delta function:
1. consider a function f ( x ) with n zeros:
⎧⎪ f ( x ) = 0
⎨ in x i = x1 , x 2 , ... , x n
⎪⎩ f ' ( x ) ≠ 0
then
n δ ( x − xi )
δ (f ( x )) = ∑ (1.11.17)
i =1 f ' ( xi )
δ (x − a) δ (x + a)
( )
δ x2 − a2 = + =
d 2
dx
(
x − a2 ) x =a d 2
dx
(
x − a2 ) x=−a
1 1 1
= δ (x − a) + δ (x + a) = ⎡δ ( x − a ) + δ ( x + a ) ⎤⎦
2a 2 −a 2a ⎣
2. Consider a function g ( x ) :
g ( x )δ ( x − x 0 ) = g ( x 0 )δ ( x − x 0 ) (1.11.18)
In order to apply (1.11.17) to (1.11.16), first of all we have to evaluate the zeros of the function
ω02 − ω 2
f (ω ) = :
ω
f (ω ) = 0 ⇔ ω = {+ ω 0 , − ω 0 } (1.11.19)
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 51
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
d ⎛ ω02 − ω 2 ⎞ 2 d (1 ω ) ⎛ 1 ⎞
d ω02 − ω 2 ( )
f ' (ω ) =
d
dω
f (ω ) = ⎜
dω ⎜⎝ ω
⎟ = ω0 − ω
⎟
2
dω
(
+⎜ ⎟
⎝ω ⎠ dω
) =
⎠ (1.11.20)
⎛ ω −ω ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2 2
ω −ω
2 2
= − ⎜ 0 2 ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ 2 ω = −2 − 0 2
⎜ ω ⎟ ⎝ω ⎠ ω
⎝ ⎠
Now it is possible to write:
πωp2 ⎛ ω02 − ω 2 ⎞
χi0 (ω ) = δ⎜ ⎟=
ω ⎜⎝ ω ⎟⎠
πωp2 δ (ω − ωi )
2
= ∑
ω i=1 f ' (ωi )
=
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ (1.11.21)
πωp2 ⎢ δ (ω − ω0 ) δ (ω + ω0 ) ⎥
= ⎢ + ⎥=
ω ⎢ ω2 −ω2 ω2 −ω2 ⎥
⎢ −2 − 0 2 0 −2 − 0 2 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ ω0 ω0 ⎥⎦
πωp2
= ⎡δ (ω − ω0 ) + δ (ω + ω0 ) ⎤⎦
2ω ⎣
Let us, then, apply the second property of the Dirac delta function (1.11.18):
πωp2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
χ i0 (ω ) = ⎢ δ ( ω − ω 0 ) + δ ( ω + ω0 ) ⎥ =
2 ⎣ω ω ⎦
πωp2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ δ ( ω − ω0 ) − δ ( ω + ω0 ) ⎥ = (1.11.22)
2 ⎣ ω0 ω0 ⎦
πωp2
= ⎡δ (ω − ω0 ) − δ (ω + ω0 ) ⎤⎦
2ω0 ⎣
This expression still satisfies the Kramers–Kronig relations. Substitute the quantity χi0 (ω )
expressed in eq. (1.11.22) inside the modified Kramers–Kronig relationship (1.11.4) for χ r (ω ) :
2
∞ xχ 0 ( x ) − ωχ 0 (ω )
χ r (ω ) = ∫ i i
dx
π 0 x2 − ω2
where we have substituted ω ' → x to distinguish better the arguments of the integral. So:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 52
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
2∞
2 π ωp
⎡ x (δ ( x − ω0 ) − δ ( x + ω0 ) ) − ω (δ (ω − ω0 ) − δ (ω + ω0 ) ) ⎤ dx =
1
χ r (ω ) = ∫
π 2 ω0 0 x − ω 2 ⎣
2 ⎦
⎡∞ x
∞
x ⎤
⎢∫ 2 δ ( x − ω0 ) dx − ∫ x2 − ω2 δ ( x + ω0 ) dx − ⎥
ωp2 ⎢ 0 x − ω 2 ⎥ ωp2
= ⎢
0
⎥= [ I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 ]
ω0 ⎢ ∞ ω ∞
ω ⎥ ω0
⎢+ ∫ 2 δ (ω − ω0 ) dx + ∫ 2 δ (ω + ω0 ) dx ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 x − ω 2
0 x − ω 2
⎦⎥
The integrals I3 and I4 vanishe as demonstrated in (1.11.6). Also the integral I2 vanishes because it
is over the real–positive values of x while the Dirac delta function is always zero on this interval (it
is not zero only for x = −ω0 , which is real negative). So we can write:
ω p2 ω0 ω p2
χ r (ω ) = ℘ =℘ = χ 0 (ω ) (1.11.23)
ω0 ω02 − ω 2 ω02 − ω 2 r
χ r0 (ω ) = lim
(
ωp2 ω02 − ω 2 )
(ω02 − ω 2 )
γ →0 2
+ γ 2ω 2
So:
χ i0
2
(ω ) = − ∫
∞
ω
⎡
⎢ ω p ω0 − x
2 2 2
( −
)
ω p2 ω 02 − ω 2
⎤
⎥ ( )
lim ⎢ ⎥ dx
π
( )
x 2 − ω 2 γ →0 ⎢ ω 2 − x 2 2 + γ 2 x 2
( )
2
2 2⎥
0 ω0 − ω
2 2
+γ ω
⎣ 0 ⎦
and, exchanging the limit with the integral, we can write:
⎧
⎪ 2∞ ω
χ i0 (ω ) = lim ⎨ − ∫ 2
⎡ 2
(
⎢ ω p ω0 − x
2 2
−
)
ωp2 ω02 − ω 2
⎤ ⎫
⎥ ⎪ ( )
⎢ ⎥ dx ⎬
γ →0 ⎪ π x − ω 2
( ) ( )
2 2
0 ⎢ ω0 − x
2 2
+γ x
2 2
ω0 − ω
2 2
+γ ω ⎥ ⎪
2 2
⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎭
Now it is easy to note that the argument of the limit has already been solved in the solution of
question n°4 of this exercise resulting in χ i (ω ) . Then, the limit γ → 0 to χ i (ω ) should be applied,
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 53
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.12 Exercise
by starting with the causality condition χ ( t ) u ( − t ) = 0 and translating it to the frequency domain,
Solution
The convolution is a mathematical operation on two functions f and g, producing a third function
that is typically viewed as a modified version of one of the original functions. In signal theory, it
represents the transformation obtained when a signal passes through a black–box system with a
known impulse response. In similar way, in frequency domain the output of the system is the
product of the Fourier transformations of the input signal and the impulse response. So the
convolution in time domain is also the corresponding operation of the product in frequency domain
and vice versa. It is defined as:
+∞ +∞
( f ∗ g )( t ) ∫ f (τ ) g ( t − τ ) d τ = ∫ g (τ ) f ( t − τ ) dτ
−∞ −∞
So we have:
+∞
1
χ ( ω ) = ℘ ∫ χ ( ω ' ) U ( ω − ω ' ) dω '
2π
−∞
+∞ +∞
1 1 1
= ℘ ∫ χ (ω ' ) dω ' + π ∫ χ ( ω ' ) δ ( ω − ω ' ) dω ' =
2π j (ω − ω ') 2 π
−∞ −∞
+∞
1 1 1
= ℘ ∫ χ (ω ') dω ' + χ ( ω )
2π j
−∞
(ω − ω ' ) 2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 54
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
Rearranging terms and canceling a factor of 1 2 , we obtain the Kramers–Kronig relation in its
complex–value form:
+∞
1 χ (ω ' )
χ (ω ) = ℘∫ dω ' .
πj (ω − ω ' )
−∞
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 55
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
1.13 Exercise
An isotropic homogeneous lossless dielectric medium is moving with uniform velocity v with
respect to a fixed coordinate frame S. In the frame S' moving with dielectric, the constitutive
relations are assumed to be the usual ones, that is, D ' = ε E ' and B' = μH' . Using the Lorentz
transformations:
E'⊥ = γ ( E ⊥ + cβ × B ⊥ ) H '⊥ = γ ( H ⊥ − cβ × D⊥ )
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
B '⊥ = γ ⎜ B ⊥ − β × E ⊥ ⎟ D'⊥ = γ ⎜ D⊥ + β × H ⊥ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ (1.13.1)
E'/ / = E/ / H '/ / = H//
B '/ / = B/ / D'/ / = D/ /
where cβ = v , β c = v c 2 and γ = 1 1− β
2
, show that the constitutive relations take the
B = μ H − av × ( E + μ v × H ) (1.13.3)
εμ − ε 0 μ0
where a = .
1 − εμ v 2
Solution
It is possible to express the constitutive relations D ' = ε E ' and B' = μH' as follow:
(
D ' = D'⊥ + D'/ / = ε E'⊥ + E'/ / ) (1.13.4)
B ' = B'⊥ + B'/ / = μ ( H '⊥ + H '/ / )
where the subscripts and // indicate the component perpendicular and parallel at the velocity
vector v .
Considering the first equation of set (1.13.4), we can substitute to all of component with the
superscript with the correspondent definition given by the Lorentz transformation:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 56
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
(
D'⊥ + D'/ / = ε E'⊥ + E'/ / )
⎛ 1 ⎞
γ ⎜ D⊥ + β × H ⊥ ⎟ + D / / = ε ⎡⎣γ ( E ⊥ + cβ × B ⊥ ) + E / / ⎤⎦
⎝ c ⎠
(1.13.5)
γ
γ D ⊥ + β × H ⊥ + D / / = εγ ( E ⊥ + cβ × B ⊥ ) + ε E / /
c
γ
γ D ⊥ + β × H ⊥ + D / / = εγ ( E ⊥ + cβ × B ⊥ ) + ε E / /
c
Now it is possible to substitute cβ = v and β c = v c 2 and separate the component parallel and
perpendicular at the velocity vector v :
⎧ 1
⎪ D⊥ + 2 v × H ⊥ = ε E⊥ + ε v × B ⊥ ( ⊥ −component)
⎨ c (1.13.6)
⎪D = ε E ( // − component)
⎩ // //
The relation between the parallel components of vector D and vector E is the same in the two
frame S and S'. On the contrary, the perpendicular component depends on both electric and
magnetic field. In the fixed frame S the constitutive relation B = μH is not valid, so we have to
evaluate it using the set (1.13.1) and the constitutive relation B' = μH' in the frame S' where it is
valid. Considering only the perpendicular component, we have:
B '⊥ = μ H '⊥
⎛ 1 ⎞
γ ⎜ B ⊥ − β × E ⊥ ⎟ = μ γ ( H ⊥ − cβ × D ⊥ )
⎝ c ⎠
1
B ⊥ − β × E ⊥ = μ H ⊥ − μ cβ × D ⊥
c
1
B ⊥ = μ H ⊥ + β × E ⊥ − μ cβ × D ⊥
c
and express it as function of velocity v:
1
B⊥ = μH⊥ + v × E⊥ − μ v × D⊥ (1.13.7)
c2
Now we can substitute eq. (1.13.7) in eq. (1.13.6) and obtain:
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
D⊥ + 2 v × H ⊥ = ε E⊥ + ε v × ⎜ μ H ⊥ + 2 v × E⊥ − μ v × D⊥ ⎟
c ⎝ c ⎠
1 ε
D⊥ = ε E⊥ − 2 v × H ⊥ + εμ v × H ⊥ + 2 v × v × E⊥ − εμ v × v × D⊥
c c
⎛ 1⎞ ε
D⊥ + εμ v × v × D⊥ = ε E⊥ + ⎜ εμ − 2 ⎟ v × H ⊥ + 2 v × v × E⊥
⎝ c ⎠ c
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 57
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
The double cross product v × v × D ⊥ can be evaluated using the BAC-CAB rule:
v × v × D⊥ = v ( v ⋅ D⊥ ) − D⊥ ( v ⋅ v ) = 0 − v 2 D⊥ = − v 2 D⊥
so
⎛ 1 ⎞ ε
D⊥ − εμ v2D⊥ = ε E⊥ + ⎜ εμ − 2 ⎟ v × H ⊥ + 2 v × v × E⊥
⎝ c ⎠ c
D⊥ =
ε
E⊥ +
( εμ − ε 0μ0 ) v × H +
ε
v × v × E⊥
(1 − εμ v ) 2
(1 − εμ v )2 ⊥
(
c 1 − εμ v2
2
)
It is easy to note that the term v × H ⊥ is multiplied by the coefficient a, so:
ε ε
D⊥ = E ⊥ + av × H ⊥ + v × v × E⊥ (1.13.9)
(1 − εμ v ) 2
(
c 1 − εμ v
2 2
)
Comparing eq. (1.13.9) and eq. (1.13.2), we can note that the coefficient of E⊥ and v × v × E⊥ are
different. It is possible to think that probably we have to add and subtract a unknown quantity. To
find it, we will compare the our expression and the expression suggested in eq. (1.13.2), that is:
⎧ ε ε
E⊥ + v × v × E⊥
⎪
⎪⎪( 1 − εμ v 2
c )
2
1 − εμ v 2
( )
⎨
⎪ε E − ε εμ − ε 0 μ 0 v × v × E
⎪ ⊥
⎪⎩ (
1 − εμ v 2 )
⊥
εμ − ε 0 μ 0
where we already substituted =a.
(1 − εμ v ) 2
Now we can identify with X the unknown quantity and we can impose that:
⎧ ε
E ⊥ + XE ⊥ = ε E ⊥
⎪
(
⎪⎪ 1 − εμ v
2
)
⎨
⎪ ε εμ − ε 0 μ 0
v × v × E ⊥ + X E ⊥ = −ε v × v × E⊥
⎪⎩
2
(
⎪ c 1 − εμ v 2
) 1 − εμ v 2
( )
which can be simplified as:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 58
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
⎧ ε
+X =ε
⎪
⎪⎪ (
1 − εμ v 2
)
⎨ (1.13.10)
⎪− ε v2 εμ − ε 0 μ0
+ X = +ε v 2
(
⎪ c 2 1 − εμ v 2
⎪⎩ )
1 − εμ v 2 ( )
where in the second equation is present the term − v 2 because of v × v × E ⊥ = − v 2 E ⊥ .
From the first of (1.13.10), we obtain that:
ε +1 − εμ v 2 −1 εμ v 2
X =ε − =ε = −ε (1.13.11)
(
1 − εμ v 2 ) (1 − εμ v 2 ) ( 1 − εμ v 2 )
and from the second:
ε v2 εμ − ε 0 μ0 ε v2 ⎡1 ⎤
X= ε v2 = ⎢ 2 + εμ − ε 0 μ0 ⎥ =
(
c 2 1 − εμ v 2 ) (1 − εμ v2 ) (1 − εμ v2 ) ⎣c ⎦
(1.13.12)
v 2
εμ v 2
=ε ⎡ ε 0 μ0 + εμ −ε 0 μ0 ⎤ = ε
(1 − εμ v ) 2 ⎣ ⎦
(1 − εμ v2 )
It is easy to note that X has the same module, but opposite sign. This confirms our argument of
finding a quantity to add and subtract at eq. (1.13.9). So finally we can write:
ε ε
D⊥ = E⊥ + av × H ⊥ + v × v × E⊥ + XE⊥ − XE⊥ =
(1 − εμ v2 ) (
c2 1 − εμ v2 )
(1.13.13)
ε ε εμ v2 εμ v2
= E⊥ + av × H ⊥ + v × v × E⊥ + ε E⊥ − ε E⊥
(1 − εμ v )
2
(
c 1 − εμ v
2 2
) (1 − εμ v ) 2
(1 − εμ v ) 2
ε εμ v 2
v × v × E⊥ + ε E⊥ =
(
c2 1 − εμ v2 ) (
1 − εμ v 2 )
ε εμ
v × v × E⊥ − ε v × v × E⊥ =
2
(
c 1 − εμ v 2
) (1 − εμ v ) 2
(1.13.15)
ε ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ 2 − εμ ⎟ v × v × E⊥
(1 − εμ v2 ) ⎝c ⎠
ε 0 μ0 − εμ
=ε v × v × E⊥ = −ε av × v × E⊥
( 1 − εμ v 2 )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 59
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 1
It is easy to note that eq. (1.13.17) and eq. (1.13.2) are identical. In the same way, we can
demonstrate eq. (1.13.3), but we kwon that the relations are dual and we can obtain eq. (1.13.3) just
operating a changing of variables as follow:
⎧D → B
⎪E → H
⎪
⎨
⎪v × H → −v × E
⎪⎩ε → μ
So:
D = ε E + av × ( H − ε v × E ) → B = μ H − av × ( E + μ v × H ) (1.13.18)
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 60
Electromagnetic
Waves and Antennas
Exercise book
Chapter 2: Uniform Plane Waves
Sophocles J. Orfanidis1
Davide Ramaccia2
Alessandro Toscano2
1
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854
orfanidi@ece.rutgers.edu
www.ece.rutgers.edu/~orfanidi/ewa
2
Department of Applied Electronics, University "Roma Tre"
via della Vasca Navale, 84 00146, Rome, Italy
davide.ramaccia@gmail.com
alessandro.toscano@gmail.com
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Table of Contents
Chapter 2 Uniform Plane WavesEquation Chapter 2 Section 1 ............... 1
2.1 Exercise ........................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 2
Uniform Plane WavesEquation Chapter 2 Section 1
2.1 Exercise
A function E ( z, t ) may be thought of as a function E (ζ , ξ ) of the independent variables
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂2 ⎞
⎜ 2 − 2 2 ⎟ E ( z, t ) = 0 (2.1.1)
⎜ ∂z c ∂t ⎟⎠
⎝
and the forward-backward equations:
∂E + 1 ∂E +
=−
∂z c ∂t (2.1.2)
∂E − 1 ∂E −
=+
∂z c ∂t
become in these variables:
∂ 2E ∂E+ ∂E−
= 0, = 0, =0 (2.1.3)
∂ζ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ζ
Solution
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 1
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
⎧ ∂ζ ∂
⎪ ∂z = (z − ct) = 1 ⇒ ∂ζ = ∂z (a)
∂z
⎪
⎪ ∂ζ ∂
= (z − ct) = −c ⇒ ∂ζ = −c∂t (b)
⎪ ∂t ∂t
⎨ (2.1.4)
⎪ ∂ξ ∂
= (z + ct) = 1 ⇒ ∂ξ = ∂z (c)
⎪ ∂z ∂z
⎪ ∂ξ ∂
⎪ = (z + ct) = + c ⇒ ∂ξ = + c∂t (d)
⎩ ∂t ∂t
so, multiplying eq. (a) and (c) of (2.1.4), we have ∂ 2 z = ∂ζ∂ξ and, multiplying eq. (b) and (d) of
(2.1.4), we have −c2∂t = ∂ζ∂ξ . Now we can substitute them inside eq. (2.1.1) to obtain:
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟ E (ζ , ξ ) = 0
⎜ ∂ζ∂ξ ∂ζ∂ξ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
that is:
∂2
2 E (ζ , ξ ) = 0
∂ζ∂ξ
Using the relationships (a) and (b) of (2.1.4), we can rewrite the forward equation in (2.1.2) as
follow:
∂E + ∂E
=− +
∂ξ ∂ξ
that is verified only when
∂E +
=0 (2.1.5)
∂ξ
In the same way, using the relationships (c) and (d) of (2.1.4), the backward equation in (2.1.2)
becomes:
∂E − ∂E
=− −
∂ζ ∂ζ
and, consequently
∂E −
=0 (2.1.6)
∂ζ
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 2
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
pulse is launched towards the positive z–direction. Determine expressions for E ( z, t ) and H ( z, t )
Solution
For a forward–moving wave, we have E ( z, t ) = F ( z − ct ) = F ( 0 − c ( t − z c ) ) , which implies that
E ( z, t ) = E ( z − ct,0 ) = E ( 0, t − z c )
Using this property , we find for the electric and magnetic fields:
E ( z, t ) = E ( 0, t − z c ) = xˆ E 0 ⎡⎣ u ( t − z c ) − u ( t − z c − T ) ⎤⎦
1 E (2.2.1)
H ( z, t ) = zˆ × E ( z, t ) = yˆ 0 ⎡⎣ u ( t − z c ) − u ( t − z c − T ) ⎤⎦
Z0 Z0
Because of the unit step, the non–zero values of the fields are restricted to t − z c ≥ 0 , or, z ≤ ct ,
that is, at the time t the wave–front has propagated only up to the position z = ct . Fig. 2.2.1 shows
the expanding wave–fronts at time t and t + Δt .
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 3
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
∂ ⎡ E ⎤ ⎡ 0 − jωμ ⎤ ⎡ E ⎤
= (2.3.1)
∂z ⎢⎣ H × zˆ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− jωε 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ H × zˆ ⎥⎦
where the matrix is meant to apply individually to the x, y components of the vector entries. Show
that the following similarity transformation diagonalizes the transition matrix, and discuss its role in
decoupling and solving the above system in terms of forward and backward waves:
−1
⎡1 Z0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − jωμ ⎤ ⎡1 Z0 ⎤ ⎡ − jk 0⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ =⎢ (2.3.2)
⎣1 − Z0 ⎦ ⎣ − jωε 0 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢1 − Z0 ⎦⎥ ⎣ 0 jk ⎦⎥
where k = ω c , c = 1 με , and Z0 = μ ε .
Solution
For a single–frequency wave, we can assume a time–dependence as e jω t . So the electric and
Evaluating the derivate in the right–hand side of both equations, the term e jωt can be simplified:
⎧∇ × E ( x, y, z ) e jω t = − jωμ H ( x, y, z ) e jω t
⎪
⎨
⎪⎩∇ × H ( x, y, z ) e jω t = jωε E ( x, y, z ) e jω t
The curl of the electric (or magnetic) field can be written as determinant of the following matrix:
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∇×E = ∂x ∂y ∂z
E x (x, y, z) E y (x, y, z) E z (x, y, z)
where ∂ i with i = x, y, z are the partial derivates. But we are in presence of an uniform plane
waves propagating along z–direction, so the electric filed vector lies on the x–y plane, i.e. the z–
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 4
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
component of the electric field is null( Ez = 0 ), and also in each plane the vector has constant
amplitude, i.e. the derivates along x and y are null. The curl becomes:
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∇×E = 0 0 ∂z (2.3.4)
E x (x, y, z) E y (x, y, z) 0
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∇×E = 0 0 1 (2.3.5)
∂E x (x, y, z) ∂E y (x, y, z)
0
∂z ∂z
∂E ( x, y, z )
that is simply the cross–product of ẑ and :
∂z
∂E ( x, y,z )
zˆ × = − jωμ H ( x, y,z ) (2.3.6)
∂z
∂H ( x, y,z )
zˆ × = + jωε E ( x, y,z ) (2.3.7)
∂z
Consider eq. (2.3.6) and apply the cross–product with ẑ to both of side:
⎛ ∂E ⎞
⎜ zˆ × ⎟ × zˆ = − jωμ H × zˆ (2.3.8)
⎝ ∂z ⎠
and, using BAC-CAB rule, the left–hand side simplifies into:
⎛ ∂E ⎞ ∂E ∂E ∂E ∂E ∂E
⎜ zˆ × ⎟ × zˆ = ( zˆ ⋅ zˆ ) − zˆ ⎛⎜ zˆ ⋅ ⎞⎟ = − zˆ z =
⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂z ∂z ∂z
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 5
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
The transition matrix has to be diagonalized and we need of eigenvectors to create the matrix for
the base change. The eigenvectors are found from the eigenvalues that are the roots of the
characteristic polynomial:
Det ( A − α I ) = 0
⎡ 0 − jωμ ⎤
where A = ⎢ , I is the identity matrix and α are the eigenvalues.
⎣ − jωε 0 ⎥⎦
So we have:
⎛⎡ 0 − jωμ ⎤ ⎡1 0⎤ ⎞ ⎛ −α − jωμ ⎞ 2 2
Det ⎜ ⎢ ⎥ −α ⎢ ⎥ ⎟ = Det ⎜ ⎟ = α + ω με = 0
⎝ ⎣ − jωε 0 ⎦ ⎣0 1⎦ ⎠ ⎝ − jωε −α ⎠
which gives:
α1 = − jω με = − jk
(2.3.11)
α 2 = + jω με = + jk
It has two separate eigenvalues, so it is diagonalizable. The diagonal matrix is simply:
⎡α1 0 ⎤ ⎡ − jk 0 ⎤
⎢ 0 α ⎥ = ⎢ 0 + jk ⎥
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦
that is the right–hand side of (2.3.2). The left–hand side is composed by the product of the matrix
A and two matrixes for the base change. These matrixes are made putting in row the eigenvectors
ν1 and ν 2 calculated as follow:
A ⋅ ν i = αi ν i ⎛ν ⎞
with i = 1, 2 and νi = ⎜ i1 ⎟
⎝ν i2 ⎠
Expanding it two different systems of equations, one for each eigenvalue, we have:
⎡ 0 − jωμ ⎤ ⎛ν11 ⎞ ⎛ν11 ⎞
⎢ − jωε ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ = α1 ⎜ ⎟
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎝ν12 ⎠ ⎝ν12 ⎠
⎡ 0 − jωμ ⎤ ⎛ν 21 ⎞ ⎛ν 21 ⎞
⎢ − jωε ⎥ ⎜ ⎟ = α2 ⎜ ⎟
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎝ν 22 ⎠ ⎝ν 22 ⎠
or equivalently,
⎧ − jωμν12 = α1ν 11
⎨ (2.3.12)
⎩ − jωεν11 = α1ν 12
⎧− jωμν 22 = α 2ν 21
⎨ (2.3.13)
⎩− jωεν 21 = α 2ν 22
Solving (2.3.12) and (2.3.13), we find that the eigenvectors are given by:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 6
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
ν1 = ⎜ ⎟ , ν 2 = ⎜ ⎟ (2.3.14)
⎝ Z0 ⎠ ⎝ − Z0 ⎠
Now we can write the matrix for the base change as:
⎡ ν1T ⎤ ⎡ν 11 ν 12 ⎤ ⎡1 Z0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ = (2.3.15)
T ν ν ⎥ ⎢1 − Z0 ⎥⎦
⎣⎢ ν 2 ⎦⎥ ⎣ 21 22 ⎦ ⎣
where the superscript T indicate the vector transpose.
In order to verify that eq. (2.3.2) is correct, we have to calculate the inverse of the matrix (2.3.15):
−1
⎡1 Z0 ⎤ 1
( )
−1 T
P =⎢ ⎥ = Cij (P)
⎣1 − Z0 ⎦ Det [ P ]
where Cij (P) is the matrix of cofactors of P. The cofactor in position ( i, j) is defined as follow:
i+ j
Cij (P) = ( −1) Det ( Minor( P ,i, j) )
where Minor ( P,i, j) represents the matrix obtained by P cancelling the i–th row and j–th column.
So:
⎡1 Z0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − jωμ ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 12 ⎤
PAP −1 = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢1 2Z ⎥=
⎣1 − Z0 ⎦ ⎣ − jωε 0 ⎦ ⎣ ( 0 ) −1 ( 2Z0 ) ⎦
⎡ − jωε Z0 − jωμ ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 12 ⎤
=⎢ ⎢ ⎥=
⎣ jωε Z0 − jωμ ⎥⎦ ⎣1 ( 2Z0 ) −1 ( 2Z0 ) ⎦
⎡ ⎛ ωε Z0 ωμ ⎞ ⎛ ωε Z0 ωμ ⎞ ⎤
⎢ − j⎜ + ⎟ − j⎜ − ⎟⎥
⎢ ⎝ 2 2Z0 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2Z0 ⎠ ⎥
=⎢ ⎥
⎢ + j⎛⎜ ωε Z0 − ωμ ⎞⎟ + j⎛⎜ ωε Z0 + ωμ ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 2Z0 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2Z0 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡1 Z0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − jωμ ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 1 2 ⎤ ⎡ − jk 0 ⎤
⎢1 − Z ⎥ ⎢ − jωε ⎢1 2Z ⎥= (2.3.17)
⎣ 0⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ ( 0 ) −1 ( 2Z0 ) ⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 + jk ⎥⎦
⎥
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 7
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
It is possible to note that the diagonalization (2.3.2) allow us to decouple the electric and the
magnetic field as in (2.3.19) and, using the relationship (2.3.20), we are able to express the electric
field in term of forward and backward wave.
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 8
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Solution
The wavelength λ is the distance by which the phase of the sinusoidal wave changes by 2π
radians. Since the propagation factor e − jkz accumulates a phase of k radians per meter, we have by
definition that kλ = 2π . The wavelength λ can be expressed via the frequency of the wave in
Hertz, f = ω 2π , as follows:
2π 2π c 2π c c
λ= = = = (2.4.1)
k ω 2π f f
Using the relation (2.4.1), we can calculate the frequency range for the electromagnetic visible
spectrum:
c c
380 × 10−9 < λ < 780 × 10−9 ⇒ >f >
380 × 10−9 780 × 10−9
that is:
789.5 THz > f > 384.6 THz (2.4.2)
The frequencies of the colours are:
Colour Wavelength Frequency
(nm) (THz)
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 9
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 10
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
wavelength of 20 µm?
Solution
Using eq. (2.4.1), it is easy to obtain the result:
c 3 × 108
f= = −6
= 15 × 1012 = 15 THz
λ 20 × 10
Solution
Using eq. (2.4.1), we have:
c 3 × 108
λ(10KHz) = = = 30000 m = 30 Km
f 10 × 103
c 3 × 108
λ(10MHz) = = = 30 m
f 10 × 106
c 3 × 108
λ(10GHz) = = = 0.030 m = 30 mm
f 10 × 1012
The frequency in GHz of the 21–cm hydrogen line observed in the cosmos is:
c 3 × 108
f= = = 1.43 GHz
λ 21 × 10−2
The wavelength in cm of the typical microwave oven frequency of 2.45 GHz is:
c 3 × 108
λ= = = 0.122 m = 12.2 cm
f 2.45 × 109
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 11
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Suppose you start with E ( z, t ) = xˆ E 0e jω t − jkz , but you don't yet know the relationship between k
and ω (you may assume they are both positive.) By inserting E ( z, t ) into Maxwell's equations,
determine the k–ω relationship as a consequence of these equations. Determine also the magnetic
E ( z, t ) = xˆ E 0e jω t + jkz E ( z, t ) = yˆ E 0e jω t − jkz
Repeat the problem if and .
Solution
Consider the source–free Maxwell's equations:
⎧ ∂B
⎪⎪∇ × E = − ∂t
⎨
⎪ ∇ × H = ∂D
⎩⎪ ∂t
and now substitute the expression of E ( z, t ) in the first Maxwell's equation. Assuming valid the
constitutive relation B = μ H :
∂H
∇ × xˆ E 0e jω t − jkz = − μ (2.7.1)
∂t
The cross–product in the left–hand side of eq. (2.7.1) can be expanded as follow:
∂H
yˆ jkE 0e jω t − jkz = − μ
∂t
It is easy to note that H (z, t) has to depend by z and t in the same way as E ( z, t ) because the
variables t and z are presented only in the exponential. So H(z, t) = yˆ H0e jω t − jkz :
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 12
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
∂ jω t − jkz
yˆ jkE 0 e jω t − jkz = − μ yˆ H 0 e
∂t
yˆ j kE 0 e jω t − jkz = − μ yˆ H 0 jω e jω t − jkz
which gives:
kE0 = −ωμ H0 (2.7.2)
Assuming valid the constitutive relation D = ε E , substitute the expression of E ( z, t ) and H (z, t)
∂e jω t − jkz
∇ × yˆ H0e jω t − jkz = ε xˆ E 0 (2.7.3)
∂t
The cross–product in the left–hand side of eq. (2.7.3) and the derivate in the right–hand side can
be expanded as follow:
xˆ
∂
∂z
( )
H 0e jω t − jkz + zˆ
∂
∂x
( )
H 0e jω t − jkz = jωε xˆ E 0e jω t − jkz
which gives:
kH0 = −ωε E0 (2.7.4)
Thanks to the relationships (2.7.2) and (2.7.4) we can find the k–ω relation:
⎧ kE 0 = −ωμ H 0
⎨
⎩ kH 0 = −ωε E 0
k 2 E 0 H 0 = ω 2 με E 0 H 0
and, consequently:
k = ±ω με (2.7.5)
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 13
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Solution
The polarization of a plane wave is defined to be the direction of the time–varying real–valued
field E ( z, t ) = ℜe ⎡E ( z ) e jω t ⎤ where E ( z ) = E0e ± jkz . At any fixed point z, the vector E ( z, t ) may
⎣ ⎦
be along a fixed linear direction or it may be rotating as a function of t, tracing a circle or an ellipse.
Consider the following expression for the electric field:
(
E ( z, t ) = xˆ A x e jφx + yˆ A ye
jφy
)e jω t ± jkz
= xˆ A x e (
j ω t ± jkz+φx )
+ yˆ A ye
(
j ω t ± jkz+φy ) (2.8.2)
phase and the electric field vector oscillates along a straight line. It is of interest the direction,
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 14
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
respect the x–axis, along which the electric field oscillates with angular frequency ω . It is
directly related to the amplitudes of the components Ex , Ey :
⎛ Ay ⎞
ϑ = arctan ⎜ ⎟ (2.8.5)
⎝ Ax ⎠
slope Ay/Ax
Ey
Ex
Ex
Ey slope -Ay/Ax
quadrature phase because one is always 90° out of phase respect to other.
¾ Circular polarization ( A x = A y and φx − φy = ± π 2 ): this is a particular case of elliptical
E x ( t ) = A cos ω t
E y ( t ) = A cos (ω t − π 2 ) = −A sin ω t
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 15
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Ex(t)
ωt
Ey(t)
To decide whether this represents a right or left polarization, we use the IEEE convention. Curl
the fingers of your left and right hands into a fist and point both thumbs towards the direction of
propagation. If the fingers of your right (left) hand are curling in the direction of rotation of the
electric field, then the polarization is right (left) polarized.
y right–polarized y left–polarized
E E
x x
z z
left–polarized y right–polarized
y
E E
x x
-z -z
Let us solve the exercise for the case (a): E ( z ) = E 0 ( xˆ + yˆ ) e − jkz . First of all we have to express
the field in its real–valued form in z = 0 , in order to obtain an expression similar to eq. (2.8.4):
E ( t, z ) = E 0ℜe ⎡( xˆ + yˆ ) e (
j ω t − kz ) ⎤
= E 0 xˆ cos (ω t − kz ) + E 0 yˆ cos (ω t − kz )
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
so
E x ( t, z ) = E0 cos (ω t − kz )
E y ( t, z ) = E0 cos (ω t − kz )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 16
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
It is easy to note that it is a forward–moving wave, because of the term −kz , and linear polarized,
being φx = φy = 0 . Using eq. (2.8.5), the direction ϑ of electric field vector is 45°.
On the contrary, let us solve the exercise for the case (c): E = E 0 ( jxˆ + yˆ ) e − jkz . Its real–valued
form in z = 0 is:
E ( t, z ) = E 0ℜe ⎡( jxˆ + yˆ ) e (
⎢⎣
j ω t − kz ) ⎤
⎥⎦ ⎢⎣( )
= E 0ℜe ⎡ xˆ e jπ 2 + yˆ e (
j ω t − kz ) ⎤
⎥⎦
=
= E 0 xˆ cos (ω t − kz + π 2 ) + E 0 yˆ cos (ω t − kz )
so
E x ( t, z ) = E0 cos (ω t − kz + π 2 )
E y ( t, z ) = E0 cos (ω t − kz )
Fig. 2.8.2 and Fig. 2.8.3, the sense of rotation is counterclockwise. Now we apply the IEEE
convention and the find that the field is right–circular polarized.
Table 2.8.1 contains the results of the exercise for each given electric field:
Polarization Direction/
# Expression
Type Sense of Rotation
b ( )
E = E 0 xˆ − 3yˆ e − jkz Linear -60°
f E = E0 ( )
3xˆ − yˆ e − jkz Linear -30°
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 17
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
1. Determine the vector phasor representing E ( z, t ) in the complex form E = E0e jω t − jkz .
2. Determine the polarization of this electric field (linear, circular, elliptic, left–handed,
right–handed).
3. Determine the magnetic field H ( z, t ) in its real–valued form.
Solution
• Question n°1
First of all, we need to manipulate (2.9.1) in order to obtain an expression with components
similar to:
E x ( z, t ) = A x cos (ω t ± kz + φx )
(2.9.2)
(
E y ( z, t ) = A y cos ω t ± kz + φy )
So we can write:
E x ( z, t ) = 2cos (ω t − kz )
(2.9.3)
E y ( z, t ) = 4cos (ω t − kz − π 2 )
E ( z, t ) = xˆ 2e (
j ω t − jkz )
+ yˆ 4e (
j ω t − jkz −π 2 )
(
= 2xˆ + 4yˆ e − jπ 2
) e jωt− jkz =
= ( 2xˆ − j4yˆ ) e (
j ω t − kz )
• Question n°2
In (2.9.3) it is easy to note that the relative phase φ = φx − φy = π 2 , so according to Fig. 2.8.2 and
Fig. 2.8.3, the sense of rotation is counter–clockwise. The field is forward–moving and, using the
IEEE convention, the field is right–elliptical polarized, being E x ≠ E y .
• Question n°3
Using the relation:
E = Z0 ( H × zˆ )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 18
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
H ( z, t ) =
1
Z0
zˆ × E ( z, t ) =
1
Z0
( )
zˆ × E x ( z, t ) xˆ + E y ( z, t ) yˆ =
=
1
Z0
( )
E x ( z, t ) yˆ − E y ( z, t ) xˆ =
1
=
Z0
( 2 cos (ω t − kz ) yˆ − 4 cos (ω t − kz − π 2 ) xˆ )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 19
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
1. Its phasor form has the form E = ( Axˆ + Byˆ ) e ± jkz . Determine the numerical values of the
Solution
• Question n°1
First of all, we need to manipulate (2.10.1) in order to obtain an expression with components
similar to (2.9.2):
E x ( z, t ) = cos (ω t − kz )
E y ( z, t ) = 2cos (ω t − kz − π 2 )
E ( z, t ) = xˆ e (
j ω t − jkz )
+ yˆ 2e (
j ω t − jkz −π 2 )
(
= xˆ + 2yˆ e − jπ 2
) e jωt− jkz =
= ( xˆ − j2yˆ ) e (
j ω t − kz )
• Question n°2
The polarization of the wave is elliptical because the module of x, y components are different. It is
also right polarized because the relative phase φ = φx − φy = π 2 .
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 20
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
For both cases, determine the polarization of the wave (linear, circular, left, right, etc.) and the
direction of propagation.
For the case (a), determine the field in its phasors form. For the case (b), determine the field in its
real–valued form as a function of t, z.
Solution
• Case (a)
First of all, we rewrite the first field of (2.11.1) as follow:
E x ( z, t ) = cos (ω t + kz − π 2 )
(2.11.2)
E y ( z, t ) = 2cos (ω t + kz )
E ( z, t ) = xˆ e (
j ω t + jkz −π 2 )
+ yˆ 2e (
j ω t + jkz )
(
= xˆ e − jπ 2
)
+ 2yˆ e jω t + jkz =
= ( 2yˆ − jxˆ ) e (
j ω t + kz )
In (2.11.2) it is easy to note that the relative phase φ = φx − φy = −π 2 , so according to Fig. 2.8.2
and Fig. 2.8.3, the sense of rotation is clockwise. The field is backward–moving and, using the
IEEE convention, the field is right–elliptical polarized ( E x ≠ E y ).
• Case (b)
In this case, we have to write E ( z ) in its real–valued form as a function of t, z. So:
E ( z, t ) = ℜ e ⎡( (1 + j) xˆ − (1 − j) yˆ ) e (
j ω t − kz ) ⎤
=
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
= ℜ e ⎡( (1 + j) xˆ − (1 − j) yˆ ) e (
j ω t − kz ) ⎤
=
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
= ℜ e ⎡⎣( (1 + j) xˆ − (1 − j) yˆ ) ( cos (ω t − kz ) + jsin (ω t − kz ) ) ⎤⎦ = (2.11.3)
= ( xˆ − yˆ ) cos (ω t − kz ) − ( xˆ + yˆ ) sin (ω t − kz ) =
= ( xˆ − yˆ ) cos (ω t − kz ) − ( xˆ + yˆ ) cos (ω t − kz − π 2 ) =
= xˆ ( cos (ω t − kz ) − cos (ω t − kz − π 2 ) ) − yˆ ( cos (ω t − kz ) + cos (ω t − kz − π 2 ) )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 21
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
and it is easy to note that the relative phase φ = φx − φy = − π 2 , so according to Fig. 2.8.2 and Fig.
2.8.3, the sense of rotation is clockwise. The field is forward–moving and, using the IEEE
convention, the field is left–circular polarized ( E x = E y ).
In similar way, the exercise can be solved writing the complex amplitude of each component in
the form:
⎧⎪ 2 2
a + jb = Me jϕ where ⎨M = a + b (2.11.6)
⎪⎩ϕ = arctan b a
Using (2.11.6), we obtain:
1 + j = 2e jπ 4
− (1 − j) = 2e j3π 4
and, consequently
E ( z, t ) = ℜ e ⎡
⎣⎢ ( )
2e jπ 4 xˆ + 2e j3π 4 yˆ e (
j ω t − kz ) ⎤
⎦⎥
=
⎢⎣ (
= 2ℜ e ⎡ e jπ 4 xˆ + e j3π 4 yˆ e ( )
j ω t − kz ) ⎤
⎥⎦
=
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 22
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
3. Determine the polarization type (left, right, linear, etc.) of this wave.
Solution
• Question n°1
First of all, we rewrite (2.12.1) as follow:
E x ( z, t ) = cos (ω t − kz − π 4)
(2.12.2)
E y ( z, t ) = cos (ω t − kz − π 4)
E ( z, t ) = xˆ e (
j ω t − kz −π 4 )
+ yˆ e (
j ω t − kz −π 4 )
(
= xˆ e− jπ 4
+ yˆ e− jπ 4
) e jωt− jkz =
1
(1 − j) ( xˆ + yˆ ) e (
j ω t − kz )
=
2
• Question n°2
Using the relation
E = Z0 ( H × zˆ )
1 1
H ( t, z ) = zˆ × E ( t, z ) = zˆ × ⎡⎣ xˆ cos (ω t − kz − π 4 ) + yˆ sin (ω t − kz + π 4 ) ⎤⎦ =
Z0 Z0
1
= ⎡ yˆ cos (ω t − kz − π 4 ) − xˆ sin (ω t − kz + π 4 ) ⎤⎦
Z0 ⎣
• Question n°3
In (2.12.2) it is easy to note that the relative phase φ = φx − φy = 0 , so the wave is linear polarized,
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 23
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
a)
⎣ ( )
E ( z ) = ⎡ 1 + j 3 xˆ + 2yˆ ⎤ e jkz
⎦
b) E ( z ) = ⎡⎣(1 + j) xˆ − (1 − j) yˆ ⎤⎦ e− jkz
E ( z ) = ⎡⎣ xˆ − zˆ + j 2yˆ ⎤⎦ e ( )
− jk x + z 2
c)
Solution
• Case (a)
We have to writing the complex amplitude of each component Ex , Ey in the form Ae jϕ , using
(2.11.6):
( ) = 2e jπ 3
(1 + j 3 ) = (1)2 + ( )
2 jarctan 31
3 e
so:
E ( z ) = 2 ⎡ xˆ e jπ 3
+ yˆ ⎤ e jkz
⎣ ⎦
The relative phase φ = φx − φy = π 3 , so it is inside the interval [ 0, π 2] and, according to Fig.
2.8.2 and Fig. 2.8.3, the sense of rotation is counter–clockwise. The field is backward–moving and,
using the IEEE convention, the field is left–circular polarized, being E x = E y .
• Case (b)
See case (b) of exercise n° 2.11.
• Case (c)
In this case the electric field doesn't propagate along the z direction, but it is tilted with respect to
the z axis and lies on the z-x plane. So we have to identify a new coordinate system in order to
apply the well–known steps to solve the problem.
Express the electric field in the real–valued form:
⎣
( )
E ( t, z ) = ℜe ⎡⎢ xˆ − zˆ + j 2yˆ e jω t e ( )
− jk x + z 2⎤
⎥⎦ =
( )( ( )
= ℜe ⎡⎢ xˆ − zˆ + j 2yˆ cos ω t − k ( x + z ) 2 + jsin ω t − k ( x + z )
⎣ ( ))
2 ⎤⎥ =
⎦
(
= ( xˆ − zˆ ) cos ω t − k ( x + z ) ) (
2 − 2yˆ sin ω t − k ( x + z ) 2 )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 24
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
This wave does not propagate along the z–direction, and consequently the plane with constant
phase are not identified for any constant value of z. So we have to apply a change of coordinate
system (x, y, z) → (x ', y, z ') where the y axis is the same because E ( t, z ) has constant phase for
any y.
z
z
45°
The relative phase φ = φx − φy = −π 2 , so according to Fig. 2.8.2 and Fig. 2.8.3, the sense of
rotation is clockwise. The field is forward–moving and , using the IEEE convention, the field is
left–circular polarized , being E x = E y .
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 25
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Show that:
E ( t + Δt, z + Δz ) × E ( t, z ) = ABzˆ sin (φa − φb ) sin (ωΔt − kΔz ) (2.14.2)
Solution
(
The cross product of two vectors A = A x , A y , A z ) (
and B = B x , B y , B z ) is defined as the
xˆ yˆ zˆ
A × B = Ax Ay Az (2.14.3)
Bx By Bz
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 26
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
⎣⎢ 2
(
⎢ − 1 cos (ωΔt − kΔz + φ − φ ) + cos ( 2ω t − 2kz + ωΔt − kΔz + φ + φ ) ⎥
a b b a )⎦⎥
1
= zˆ AB ⎣⎡ cos (ωΔt − kΔz + φb − φa ) − cos (ωΔt − kΔz + φa − φb ) ⎤⎦
2
The expression inside the brackets can be still simplified using now the product–to– sum identity
for sine:
cos (θ − ϕ ) − cos (θ + ϕ )
sin θ sin ϕ = (2.14.6)
2
and, consequently, we have:
1
Det ( M ) = zˆ AB ⎡⎣cos (ωΔt − kΔz + φb − φa ) − cos (ωΔt − kΔz + φa − φb ) ⎤⎦ =
2
1
= zˆ AB ⎣⎡cos (ωΔt − kΔz − (φa − φb ) ) − cos (ωΔt − kΔz + (φa − φb ) ) ⎦⎤ = (2.14.7)
2
= zˆ ABsin (ωΔt − kΔz ) sin (φa − φb )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 27
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
E 2x E 2y ExEy
2
+ 2
−2 cos φ = sin 2 φ (2.15.1)
A B AB
to be equivalent to the rotated one with components
E′x = E x cos θ + E y sin θ
(2.15.2)
E′y = E y cos θ − E x sin θ
one must determine the tilt angle θ such that the following matrix condition is satisfied:
⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
− 0 ⎥
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎢ A 2 AB ⎥ ⎡ cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎢ 2
2 ⎢ A′
⎢ − sin θ ⋅⎢ ⎥⋅ = sin φ ⎥ (2.15.3)
⎣ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ − AB B2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 B′2 ⎥⎦
Show that the required angle θ is given by
2AB
tan 2θ = cos φ (2.15.4)
A 2 − B2
Then show that the following condition is satisfied, where τ = tan θ :
Using this property, show that the semi–axes A', B' are given by the equations:
A 2 − B2τ 2 B2 − A 2τ 2
′2
A = , ′2
B = (2.15.6)
1−τ 2 1 −τ 2
Then, transform these equations into the form:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 28
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
( ) ( A 2 + B2 )
1 2 s 2
A′ = A + B2 + + 4A 2 B2 cos 2 φ
2 2
(2.15.7)
( ) ( A 2 + B2 )
1 2 s 2
B′ = A + B2 − + 4A 2 B2 cos 2 φ
2 2
where s = sign(A − B) .Finally, show that A', B' satisfy the relationships:
Solution
The polarization ellipse in eq. (2.15.1) can be written in matrix form as follow:
⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤
⎢ −
2 AB ⎥ ⎡ E x ⎤
⎡Ex E y ⎤ ⋅ ⎢ A ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ = sin 2 φ (2.15.9)
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎣E y ⎦
⎢⎣ − AB B2 ⎥⎦
and, from the matrix form of (2.15.2), it is possible to obtain its inverse:
⎡ E′x ⎤ ⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎡ E x ⎤ ⎡ E x ⎤ ⎡ cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ E′x ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⋅⎢ ⎥ ⇒ ⎢E ⎥ = ⎢ ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ (2.15.10)
⎣ E′y ⎦ ⎣ − sin θ cos θ ⎦⎥ ⎣ E y ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎦⎥ ⎣ E′y ⎦
Noting that the first vector in (2.15.9) is the transposed of the one in (2.15.10), we can substitute
(2.15.10) into (2.15.9):
⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤
−
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎢ A 2 AB ⎥ ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ E′x ⎤
⎡ E′x E′y ⎤ ⋅ ⎢ ⋅⎢ ⎥⋅ ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ = sin 2 φ (2.15.11)
⎣ ⎦ − sin θ
⎣ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ sin θ ⎥
cos θ ⎦ ⎣ E′y ⎦
⎢⎣ − AB B2 ⎥⎦
Eq. (2.15.11) represents the tilted ellipse shown in Fig. 2.15.1. The ellipse is not rotated with
respect to the axes E′x , E′y and it is possible to define new values of the minor and major axis in
this rotated coordinate system. As suggested from Fig. 2.15.1 the minor axis is B′ and the major
axis is A′ and the equation of the tilted ellipse can be rewritten as:
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ 2 0 ⎥
⎡ E′x ⎤
⎡ E′x E′y ⎤ ⋅ ⎢ A′ ⎥⋅⎢ ⎥ =1 (2.15.12)
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎣ E′y ⎦
⎢⎣ 0 B′2 ⎥⎦
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 29
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ′2 0 ⎥
A ⎡ E′ ⎤
sin 2 φ ⎡⎣ E′x E′y ⎤⎦ ⋅ ⎢ ⎥ ⋅ ⎢ x ⎥ = sin 2 φ (2.15.13)
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎣ E′y ⎦
⎢⎣ 0 B′2 ⎥⎦
and comparing eq. (2.15.11) and eq. (2.15.13), we note they are equal if and only if:
⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
− 0 ⎥
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎢ A 2 AB ⎥ ⎡ cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎢ 2
2 ⎢ A′
⎢ − sin θ ⋅⎢ ⎥⋅ = sin φ ⎥ (2.15.14)
⎣ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ − AB B2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 B′2 ⎥⎦
The relationship (2.15.14) is fundamental to solve the whole exercise. Firstly, it can be
manipulated in order to demonstrate eq. (2.15.4). Left multiplying both side by:
−1
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤
⎢ − sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦
⎣
we obtain:
⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤
−1 −
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎢ A 2 AB ⎥ ⎡cos θ − sin θ ⎤
⎢ − sin θ ⋅⎢ ⋅⎢ ⎥⋅ =
⎣ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎣ − sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ − AB B2 ⎥⎦
(2.15.15)
⎡ 1 ⎤
−1 ⎢ 2 0 ⎥
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ A′
= sin 2 φ ⎢ ⎥ ⋅⎢ ⎥
⎣ − sin θ cos θ ⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 B′2 ⎥⎦
Since:
−1
⎡ cos θ sin θ ⎤ ⎡ cos θ − sin θ ⎤
⎢ − sin θ =⎢
⎣ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦
eq. (2.15.15) can be written as:
⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ − 0 ⎥
2 AB ⎥ ⎡ cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎡ cos θ − sin θ ⎤ ⎢ A′2
⎢ A ⎥⋅ = sin 2 φ ⎢ ⋅⎢ ⎥ (2.15.16)
⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎦ ⎥
⎣ sin θ cos θ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ − AB B2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 B′2 ⎥⎦
Let us now divide both side of (2.15.16) by cos θ and, defining τ = tan θ , we get:
⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥ ⎢ 2 0 ⎥
2 AB ⎡1 −τ ⎤ 2 ⎡1 −τ ⎤ ⎢ A′
⎢ A ⎥⋅⎢ = sin φ ⋅ ⎥ (2.15.17)
⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎣τ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢τ 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ 0 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ − AB 2 ⎥
B ⎦ ⎢⎣ B′2 ⎥⎦
Eq. (2.15.17) represents the following linear system:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 30
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
⎧ 1 cos φ sin 2 φ
⎪ 2 −τ = (a)
⎪A AB A ′2
⎪ 1 cos φ sin 2 φ
⎪ + τ = (b)
⎪ B2 AB B′2
⎨ (2.15.18)
⎪ cos φ τ sin 2 φ
−
⎪ AB + = τ (c)
⎪ B2 A ′2
⎪ cos φ τ sin 2 φ
⎪ − − = τ (d)
⎩ AB A 2 B′2
Substituting (2.15.18)(a) and (2.15.18)(b) in (2.15.18)(c) and (2.15.18)(d) leads to:
⎧ 1 cos φ sin 2 φ
⎪ 2 − τ = (a)
⎪ A AB A ′2
⎪ 1 cos φ sin 2 φ
⎪ +τ = (b)
⎪ B2 AB B′2
⎨ (2.15.19)
⎪ − cos φ + τ = τ ⎛ 1 − τ cos φ ⎞ (c)
⎪ AB B2 ⎜ 2 AB ⎟⎠
⎝A
⎪
⎪ cos φ τ ⎛ 1 cos φ ⎞
⎪ − AB − 2 = τ ⎜ 2 + τ AB ⎟ (d)
⎩ A ⎝B ⎠
It is easy to show that (2.15.19) (c) and (2.15.19) (d) are equivalent. In fact:
cos φ τ ⎛ 1 cos φ ⎞
(c) − + 2 = τ ⎜ 2 −τ ⇒
AB B ⎝A AB ⎟⎠
cos φ τ τ cos φ
− + 2 = 2 −τ 2 ⇒
AB B A AB
cos φ τ τ cos φ
− − 2 = − 2 −τ 2 ⇒
AB A B AB
cos φ τ ⎛ 1 cos φ ⎞
− − 2 = −τ ⎜ 2 + τ (d)
AB A ⎝B AB ⎟⎠
Starting from (2.15.19) (c), or (d):
cos φ τ ⎛ 1 cos φ ⎞
− + 2 = τ ⎜ 2 −τ ⇒
AB B ⎝A AB ⎟⎠
cos φ τ τ cos φ
− + 2 = 2 −τ 2 ⇒
AB B A AB
τ τ 2 cos φ cos φ
− = −τ + ⇒
B2 A 2 AB AB
⎛ A 2 − B2 ⎞ cos φ
τ⎜ 2 2 ⎟=
⎜ A B ⎟ AB
⎝ ⎠
(
1 −τ 2 )
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 31
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
τ ⎛ A 2 B 2 ⎞ cos φ AB
= ⎜ ⎟ = cos φ (2.15.20)
1 − τ 2 ⎜⎝ A 2 − B2 ⎟⎠ AB A 2 − B2
It is known that:
tan θ τ
tan 2θ = 2 2
=2
1 − tan θ 1−τ 2
so (2.15.20) can be written as
2τ 2AB
tan 2θ = 2
= cos φ (2.15.21)
1−τ A 2 − B2
which is the same of eq. (2.15.4).
Eq. (2.15.19)(c), or (d), can be viewed as a quadratic equation in τ :
cos φ ⎛ A 2 − B2 ⎞ cos φ
τ2 +τ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ − =0 (2.15.22)
AB ⎜ A B ⎟ AB
⎝ ⎠
with its solution given by:
2
⎛ A 2 − B2 ⎞ ⎛ A 2 − B2 ⎞ cos 2 φ
−⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ± ⎜⎜ 2 2 ⎟⎟ + 4
⎜ A B ⎟ A 2 B2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ A B ⎠
τ1,2 = =
cos φ
2
AB
⎛ A 2 − B2 ⎞
( A 2 − B2 )
1 2
−⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ± 2 2 + 4A 2 B2 cos 2 φ
⎜ A B ⎟ A B
= ⎝ ⎠ = (2.15.23)
cos φ
2
AB
( A 2 − B2 )
2
B2 − A 2 ± + 4A 2 B2 cos 2 φ B2 − A 2 + sD
= = = τs
2ABcos φ 2ABcos φ
where:
• s = ±1 ;
( A 2 − B2 ) ( A 2 + B2 )
2 2
• D= + 4A 2 B2 cos 2 φ = − 4A 2 B2 sin 2 φ ;
which is the same value set in the text of the exercise. This choice is according to the fact that in
general one defines the major axis with A and the minor axis with B and we have that s = 1 .
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 32
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
The values τ s , τ −s satisfy the identities (2.15.19) (c) and (2.15.19) (d) and so, if we substitute
them inside (2.15.19) (a) or (b), we are able to eliminate φ in the definition of A′ , B′ and A, B. We
want to remark that the direct substitution is not a good choice because it leads to an expression
difficult to be managed. So it is better to follow a longer way to solve the problem, but easier to be
understood.
Let us now stop to consider the linear system (2.15.19) and let us diagonalize the matrix:
⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ − 0 ⎥
2 AB ⎥ ⎢ ′2
⎢ A ⎥ ⇒ diagonalize ⇒ ⎢A ⎥
⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ − AB B2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 B′2 ⎥⎦
The eigenvalues are the roots of the characteristic polynomial:
⎛⎡ 1 cos φ ⎤ ⎞
⎜⎢ −
2 AB ⎥ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎟⎟
Det ⎜ ⎢ A ⎥−λ ⎢ ⎥ =0
⎜ ⎢ cos φ 1 ⎥ ⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎟
⎜ ⎢ − AB ⎟
⎝⎣ B2 ⎥⎦ ⎠
that is
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ cos 2 φ
⎜ 2 − λ ⎟⎜ 2 − λ ⎟− 2 2 = 0 ⇒
⎝A ⎠⎝ B ⎠ A B
1 λ λ cos 2 φ
− − =0+ λ2 − ⇒
A 2 B2 A2
B2 A 2 B2
⎛ A 2 + B2 ⎞
⎜ A B ⎟ A B
⎝ ⎠
1
(
λ 2 − λ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ + 2 2 1 − cos 2 φ = 0 ) ⇒ (2.15.25)
λ 2 ( A 2 B2 ) − λ ( A 2 + B2 ) + (1 − cos 2 φ ) = 0 ⇒
λ 2 ( A 2 B2 ) − λ ( A 2 + B2 ) + sin 2 φ = 0
Finally we get:
( ) ( )
2
A 2 + B2 + s A 2 + B2 − 4A 2 B2 sin 2 φ A 2 + B2 + sD
λs = = , with s = ±1 (2.15.26)
2A 2 B2 2A 2 B2
λ± s are the eigenvalues, useful to simplify the expressions when substituting τ s in eq. (2.15.18)
(a) and (b). In fact:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 33
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
1 cos φ 1 B2 − A 2 + sD cos φ 1 B2 − A 2 + sD A 2 + B2 − sD
−τs = 2− = 2− = = λ−s
A2 AB A 2AB cos φ AB A 2A 2 B2 2A 2 B2
(2.15.27)
1 cos φ 1 B2 − A 2 + sD cos φ 1 B2 − A 2 + sD A 2 + B2 + sD
− τ s = − = − = = λs
B2 AB B2 2AB cos φ AB B2 2A 2 B2 2A 2 B2
or in a more compact form:
⎧ 1 cos φ
⎪⎪ 2 − τ s AB = λ−s
A (2.15.28)
⎨
⎪ 1 − τ cos φ = λ
s s
⎩⎪ B2 AB
Comparing (2.15.28) with (2.15.19) (a) and (2.15.19) (b), we can write:
⎧ sin 2 φ
⎪ = λ−s
⎪ A ′2
⎨ 2 (2.15.29)
⎪ sin φ
⎪ ′2 = λs
⎩ B
and consequently
⎧ 2 sin 2 φ sin 2 φ
⎪ A′ = = λ
⎪ λ−s λs λ−s s
⎨ (2.15.30)
2 2
⎪ 2 sin φ sin φ
⎪ B′ = = λ
⎩ λs λs λ−s −s
The product λs λ−s is given by:
A 2 + B2 + sD A 2 + B2 − sD
λs λ−s = ⋅ =
2A 2 B2 2A 2 B2
( A 2 + B2 )
2
− D2
= = (2.15.31)
4A 4 B4
( ) ( )
2 2
A 2 + B2 − A 2 + B2 + 4 A 2 B2 sin 2 φ
sin 2 φ
= =
4 A 4 B4 A 2 B2
and consequently the equations (2.15.30) became:
sin 2 φ sin 2 φ 1
A ′2 = λs = λs = A 2 B2λs = ⎡ A 2 + B2 + sD ⎤
λs λ−s sin φ 2 2⎣ ⎦
A 2 B2 (2.15.32)
sin 2 φ sin 2 φ 1
B′2 = λ−s = λ−s = A 2 B2λ−s = ⎡ A 2 + B2 − sD ⎤
λs λ−s sin φ 2 2⎣ ⎦
A 2 B2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 34
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
giving the expressions for A′ and B′ as required by the exercise [see eq. (2.15.7)].
In the same way, starting from (2.15.32):
A′2 = A 2 B2λs
B′2 = A 2 B2λ−s
⎧ 1 cos φ
⎪⎪λ−s = 2 − τ s AB
A
⎨
⎪λ = 1 + τ cos φ
⎪⎩ s B2 s AB
and we have:
⎛ 1 cos φ ⎞
A ′2 = A 2 B2 ⎜ 2 + τ s 2
⎟ = A + τ s ABcos φ
⎝B AB ⎠
(2.15.33)
⎛ 1 cos φ ⎞
B′2 = A 2 B2 ⎜ 2 − τ s ⎟ = B2 − τ s ABcos φ
⎝A AB ⎠
From eq. (2.15.21) we have also:
2τ s
=
2AB
cos φ ⇒ ABcos φ =
( A 2 − B2 )τ s
(2.15.34)
1 − τ s2 A 2 − B2 1 − τ s2
which can be substituted in (2.15.33):
′2 2
A = A + τ s ABcos φ = A + τ s 2 ( A2 − B2 )τ s = A2 − B2τ s2
1 − τ s2 1 − τ s2
(2.15.35)
B′2 = B2 − τ s ABcos φ = B2 − τ s AB
(A 2 2
− B τs ) =
B 2
− A 2τ s2
1 − τ s2 1 − τ s2
Eq. (2.15.35) gives the expression of A′ and B′ as required by the exercise [see eq.(2.15.6)].
Adding A′ and B′ , we obtain:
A 2 − B2τ s2 B2 − A 2τ s2
A′2 + B′2 = + =
1 − τ s2 1 − τ s2
( A 2 + B2 ) (1 − τ s2 )
(2.15.36)
2
A − B2τ s2 +B 2
− A 2τ s2
= = = A 2 + B2
1 − τ s2 1 − τ s2
sin 2 φ
( ) ( )
2 2
A′2 B′2 = A 2 B2 λs λ−s = A 2 B2 = A 2 B2 sin 2 φ ⇒ A′B′ = AB sin φ (2.15.37)
2 2
A B
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 35
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
It is easy to note that eq. (2.15.36) and (2.15.37) are equal to eq. (2.15.8) in the text of the
exercise.
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 36
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
equation:
E ( 0 ) × E ( t ) = zˆ ABsin φ sin ω t (2.16.1)
Discuss how linear polarization can be explained with the help of this result.
Solution
Using (2.14.3), we can write:
xˆ yˆ zˆ
E ( 0) × E ( t ) = A cos φa B cos φb 0 (2.16.3)
A cos (ω t + φa ) B cos (ω t + φb ) 0
and we have:
E ( 0 ) × E ( t ) = zˆ ⎡⎣ ABcos φa cos (ω t + φb ) − ABcos φb cos (ω t + φa ) ⎤⎦ =
(2.16.4)
= zˆ AB ⎡⎣cos φa cos (ω t + φb ) − cos φb cos (ω t + φa ) ⎤⎦
The expression inside the brackets can be simplified using the product–to–sum identity for cosine:
cos (θ − ϕ ) + cos (θ + ϕ )
cos θ cos ϕ = (2.16.5)
2
and, consequently, (2.16.4) can be written as:
E ( 0 ) × E ( t ) = zˆ AB ⎡⎣cos φa cos (ω t + φb ) − cos φb cos (ω t + φa ) ⎤⎦
⎡ 1
( ⎤
⎢ + 2 cos (φa − ω t − φb ) + cos (φa + ω t + φb ) + ⎥ )
= zˆ AB ⎢ ⎥=
⎣⎢ 2
(
⎢ − 1 cos (φ − ω t − φ ) + cos (φ + ω t + φ ) ⎥
b a b a
⎦⎥
)
AB
= zˆ ⎡cos (φa − ω t − φb ) − cos (φb − ω t − φa ) ⎤⎦ =
2 ⎣
AB
= zˆ ⎡cos ( −ω t + φ ) − cos ( −ω t − φ ) ⎤⎦
2 ⎣
The cosine is an even function, i.e. cos (α ) = cos ( −α ) , so:
AB
E ( 0 ) × E ( t ) = zˆ ⎡cos (ω t − φ ) − cos (ω t + φ ) ⎤⎦
2 ⎣
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 37
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
The expression inside the brackets can be still simplified using now the product–to– sum identity
for sine:
cos (θ − ϕ ) − cos (θ + ϕ )
sin θ sin ϕ = (2.16.6)
2
and, consequently, we have:
AB
E ( 0 ) × E ( t ) = zˆ ⎡cos (ω t − φ ) − cos (ω t + φ ) ⎤⎦ =
2 ⎣ (2.16.7)
= zˆ ABsin φ sin ω t
The more general relationship (2.16.2) can be proven in the same way of eq. (2.16.1):
xˆ yˆ zˆ
E ( t1 ) × E ( t 2 ) = Det A cos (ω t1 + φa ) B cos (ω t1 + φb ) 0 =
A cos (ω t 2 + φa ) B cos (ω t 2 + φb ) 0
= zˆ AB ⎡⎣ cos (ω t1 + φa ) cos (ω t 2 + φb ) − cos (ω t1 + φb ) cos (ω t 2 + φa ) ⎤⎦ =
AB ⎢ cos (ω t1 + φa − ω t 2 − φb ) + cos (ω t1 + φa + ω t 2 + φb ) + ⎥
⎡ ⎤
= zˆ = (2.16.8)
2 ⎢ − cos (ω t + φ − ω t − φ ) − cos (ω t + φ + ω t + φ ) ⎥
⎣ 1 b 2 a 1 b 2 a ⎦
AB
= zˆ ⎡ cos (ω ( t1 − t 2 ) + φ ) − cos (ω ( t1 − t 2 ) − φ ) ⎤⎦ =
2 ⎣
AB
= zˆ ⎡ cos (ω ( t 2 − t1 ) − φ ) − cos (ω ( t 2 − t1 ) + φ ) ⎤⎦ =
2 ⎣
= zˆ ABsin φ sin (ω ( t 2 − t1 ) )
When the electric field is linear polarized, the electric field vector, sampled in any t , is always
along a fixed direction, so the angle between the two vectors E ( t1 ) and E ( t 2 ) , represented by the
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 38
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Solution
From the first property, let us express the characteristic impedance as:
ωμ
ηc = (2.17.3)
kc
and invert it:
1 kc
ηc−1 = = (2.17.4)
ηc ωμ
Now it is possible to substitute k c → β − jα in eq. (2.17.4) and extract the real part:
⎡ β − jα ⎤ β
ℜe ⎡ηc−1 ⎤ = ℜe ⎢ ⎥=
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ωμ ⎦ ωμ
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 39
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
⎛ θ θ⎞ −1 2
k c = β − jα = ω με d′ ⎜ cos − jsin ⎟ ( cos θ )
⎝ 2 2⎠
(2.18.2)
μ ⎛ θ θ⎞ 12
ηc = η ′ − jη ′′ = d ⎜ cos + jsin ⎟ ( cos θ )
ε′ ⎝ 2 2⎠
Solution
Using the definition of k c in (2.17.1) and the relationship (2.18.1), we can write:
k c = ω με c = ω μ ( ε ′ − jε ′′ ) =
(2.18.3)
12
= ω με ′ (1 − jtan θ ) = ω με ′ (1 − jtan θ )
⎛ σ⎞
ε c = ε ′ − jε ′′ = ε d′ − j ⎜ ε d′′ + (2.18.4)
⎝ ω ⎟⎠
where ε d = ε d′ − jε d′′ is the permittivity of dielectric and σ its conductivity. So in (2.18.3) we can
( )
12
= ω με d′ e − jθ ( cos θ )−1 2 =
⎛ − jθ ⎞ θ θ⎞
−1 2 ⎛ −1 2
= ω με d ⎜ e 2 ⎟ ( cos θ )
′ = ω με d′ ⎜ cos − jsin ⎟ ( cos θ )
⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 2 2⎠
⎝ ⎠
In the same way it is possible to express ηc as in (2.18.2), starting from its definition in (2.17.1):
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 40
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
μ μ μ
ηc = = = =
εc ε ′ − jε ′′ ε ′ − jε ′ tan θ
12 12
μ ⎛ 1 ⎞ μ ⎛ cos θ ⎞
= = (2.18.6)
ε d′ ⎝ 1 − jtan θ ⎟⎠
⎜
ε d′ ⎝ cos θ − jsin θ ⎟⎠
⎜
(
μ − jθ
) μ θ θ⎞
−1 2 ⎛
= e ( cos θ )1 2 = ⎜ cos + jsin ⎟ ( cos θ )
12
ε d′ ε d′ ⎝ 2 2⎠
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 41
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Solution
First of all we have to express the complex–values of the permittivity as follow:
⎧⎪ 2 2
a + jb = Me jϕ where ⎨M = a + b (2.19.1)
⎪⎩ϕ = arctan b a
so, using the superscripts 1 and 2 to indicate the permittivity of potatoes and carrots, respectively,
we have:
wavenumbers:
0.367
−j
k1c = β − jα = 51.31 65 − j25 51.31 69.64e 2 = (2.19.2)
428.18e − j0.1835
= 428.18 ( cos ( 0.1835 ) − jsin ( 0.1835 ) ) = 421 − j78.13 m −1
0.322
−j
k c2 = β − jα = 51.31 75 − j25 51.31 79.06e 2 = (2.19.3)
456.23e − j0.161
= 456.23 ( cos ( 0.161) − jsin ( 0.161) ) = 450 − j73.14 m −1
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 42
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
This heating method is effective because the penetration depths are bigger than the dimension of
mesh potatoes and carrots. The energy in the electromagnetic waves reheat successfully the foods.
The attenuation of the electric field (in dB and absolute units) at a depth of 1 cm from the surface
of the food is:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 43
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Solution
The parameters β , α and δ in a good conductor are:
ωμσ
β =α = = π fμσ (2.20.1)
2
1 2 1
δ= = = (2.20.2)
α ωμσ π fμσ
The conductibility of the copper is 5.8 ×107 Siemens/m, so the skin depth at frequency f is:
1 1
δ= = f −1 2 = 0.0661× f −1 2 (2.20.3)
π fμσ − 7
π × 4π × 10 × 5.8 × 10 7
and its minimum value over the frequency range of interest is at least 50 dB. So inverting the eq.
(2.20.4) with the assumption that AdB ( z ) ≥ 50dB , we have:
50 50
A dB ( z ) = 8.686 z δ ≥ 50dB ⇒ z≥ δ= 0.0661× f −1 2 = 0.3805 × f −1 2 (2.20.5)
8.686 8.686
The inequality (2.20.5) can be plotted as function of frequency in the range 10 kHz–1 GHz:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 44
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
The high frequency interference is attenuated of 50dB using a copper shield with thickness very
low, exactly, at 1 GHz, 0.012 mm of copper are sufficient. On the contrary at low frequencies the
thickness is more, exactly, at 10 kHz, z =3.8 mm, that represents the minimum thickness of the
shield in order to satisfy the attenuation limit.
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 45
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
aluminium is 3.5 ×107 S m . Over what frequency range can this shield protect our equipment
assuming the same 50dB attenuation requirement of the previous problem?
Solution
First of all we have to evaluate the skin depth as function of the frequency f:
1 1
δ= = f −1 2 0.0851× f −1 2 (2.21.1)
π fμσ − 7
π × 4π × 10 × 3.5 × 10 7
and its minimum value over the frequency range of interest is at least 50 dB. So inverting the eq.
(2.21.2) with the assumption that AdB ( z ) ≥ 50dB , we have:
50 50
A dB ( z ) = 8.686 z δ ≥ 50dB ⇒ z≥ δ= 0.0661× f −1 2 = 0.3805 × f −1 2 (2.21.3)
8.686 8.686
The inequality (2.21.3) can be plotted as function of frequency in the range 10 kHz–1 GHz:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 46
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
A typical thickness of aluminium is about 1 mm, and this shield reduces by 50 dB only electric
fields with frequency greater than 150 kHz.
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 47
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
(
E ( 0, t ) = xˆ E1e jω1t + E 2e jω2t ) (2.22.1)
Solution
For a forward–moving wave, we have E ( z, t ) = F ( z − ct ) = F ( 0 − c ( t − z c ) ) , which implies that
E ( z, t ) = E ( z − ct,0 ) = E ( 0, t − z c )
Using this property , we find for the electric and magnetic fields:
E ( z, t ) = E ( 0, t − z c ) = xˆ E1e( jω1( t + z c )
+ E 2e
jω2 ( t + z c )
)= (2.22.2)
(
= xˆ E1e jω1t e jk1z + E 2e jω1t e jk 2z )
where ki = ωi c with i = 1, 2 , and the magnetic field is:
H ( z, t ) =
1
Z0
(
zˆ × E ( z, t ) = yˆ H1e jω1t e jk1z + H 2e jω1t e jk 2z ) (2.22.3)
where Hi = Ei Z0 with i = 1, 2 .
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 48
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
components:
E ( z ) = E + e − jkz + E − e jkz
(2.23.1)
H (z) =
1
η
( E + e − jkz − E − e jkz )
3) Assuming μ = μ0 and ε = n 2ε 0 , so that n is the refractive index of the dielectric, show that
the fields at two different z–locations, say at z = z1 and z = z2 are related by the matrix
equation:
⎡ E ( z1 ) ⎤ ⎡ cos kA jη −1 sin kA ⎤ ⎡ E ( z 2 ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (2.23.3)
⎣η0 H ( z1 ) ⎦ ⎣⎢ jη sin kA cos kA ⎦⎥ ⎣η0 H ( z 2 ) ⎦
Z ( z 2 ) + jη −1 tan kA Y ( z 2 ) + jη tan kA
Z ( z1 ) = , Y ( z1 ) = (2.23.4)
1 + jη Z ( z 2 ) tan kA 1 + jη −1Y ( z 2 ) tan kA
What would be these relationships if had we normalized to the medium impedance, that is,
Z ( z) = E ( z) ηH ( z) ?
Solution
• Question n° 1
Assuming an harmonic time dependence e jωt , the Maxwell's equations can be written as follow:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 49
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
⎧∇ × E = − jωB
⎪
⎪∇ × H = jω D + J
⎨ (2.23.5)
⎪∇ ⋅ D = ρ
⎪⎩∇ ⋅ B = 0
In a source less, linear, isotropic and uniform medium, the quantities ρ and J are zero and the
constitutive relations B = μ H and D = ε E are valid. So the set (2.23.5) becomes:
⎧∇ × E = − jωμ H
⎪∇ × H = jωε E
⎪
⎨ (2.23.6)
⎪∇ ⋅ E = 0
⎪⎩∇ ⋅ H = 0
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∇ × xˆ E ( z ) = ∂ x ∂y ∂ z = yˆ ∂ z E ( z ) − zˆ ∂ y E ( z ) =
E (z) 0 0
( ) (
= yˆ ∂ z E + e− jkz + E −e jkz = yˆ − jkE + e− jkz + jkE − e jkz = ) (2.23.7)
From exercise 2.7 we know the k − ω relationship and as consequence also the expression of the
characteristic impedance η :
μ
k = ω με , η= (2.23.8)
ε
where μ = μ0μr , ε = ε 0ε r . So inserting (2.23.8) in (2.23.7), we obtain:
μ 2ε ε
= − jω yˆ E ( z ) = − jωμ yˆ E (z) = (2.23.9)
μ μ
E (z)
= − jωμ yˆ = − jωμ H ( z )
η
It is very simple to verify the second Maxwell's equation in the same way. The third and fourth
equation are the divergence of the electric and magnetic field respectively:
∇ ⋅ E = ∇ ⋅ xˆ E ( z ) = ∂ x E ( z ) = 0 (2.23.10)
∇ ⋅ H = ∇ ⋅ yˆ H ( z ) = ∂ y H ( z ) = 0 (2.23.11)
• Question n° 2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 50
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
The energy flux can be evaluated as dot product of the Poynting vector and the unit vector along
the z–direction:
1
Pz = P ⋅ zˆ = ℜe ⎡E × H∗ ⎤ ⋅ zˆ (2.23.12)
2 ⎣ ⎦
Substituting (2.23.1) in eq. (2.23.12), we have:
⎡
(
E∗+ e+ jkz − E∗− e− jkz ⎤ )
1 ⎢
Pz = ℜe E + e
2 ⎢ ( − jkz
+ E−e jkz
xˆ × ) η
yˆ ⎥ ⋅ zˆ =
⎥
⎣⎢ ⎥⎦
=
1
2η ⎣ ( )(
ℜe ⎡⎢ E + e − jkz + E − e jkz E∗+ e+ jkz − E∗− e− jkz zˆ ⎤⎥ ⋅ zˆ =
⎦ ) (2.23.13)
=
1
2η ⎣⎢ (
ℜe ⎡ E + − E − ⎤ =
2 2
⎦⎥ 2η) 1 2
E+ − E− ( 2
)
• Question n° 3
Consider the expression for E ( z1 ) and multiply it by the neutral term e jkz2 e− jkz2 :
consequently,
where A = z2 − z1 . Using the Euler's formula e jx = cos x + jsin x , eq. (2.23.14) can be written as:
μ0 η η
η= = 0 = 0
ε 0ε r εr n
Now eq. (2.23.16) and eq. (2.23.17) can be written in the matrix form as (2.23.3).
• Question n° 4
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 51
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
E ( z1 )
Z ( z1 ) =
η0 H ( z1 )
and we can substitute the electric and magnetic field with their respective relationships (2.23.16)
and (2.23.17). So:
η0 H ( z 2 )
E ( z 2 ) cos kA + j sin kA
Z ( z1 ) = n (2.23.18)
jnE ( z 2 ) sin kA + η0 H ( z 2 ) cos kA
E ( z 2 ) cos kA sin kA
+ jn −1
η0 H ( z 2 ) cos kA cos kA Z ( z 2 ) + jn −1 tan kA
Z ( z1 ) = = (2.23.19)
E ( z 2 ) sin kA 1 + jnZ ( z 2 ) tan kA
1 + jn
η0 H ( z 2 ) cos kA
1 1 + jnZ ( z 2 ) tan kA
Y ( z1 ) = = =
Z ( z1 ) Z ( z 2 ) + jn −1 tan kA
1
+ jn tan kA (2.23.20)
Z ( z2 ) Y ( z 2 ) + jn tan kA
= =
n −1 1 + jn −1Y ( z 2 ) tan kA
1+ j tan kA
Z ( z2 )
If we had normalized Z ( z ) and Y ( z ) to the medium impedance, simply we have to cancel the
term n of refractive index inside eq. (2.23.19) and (2.23.20):
⎧ Z ( z 2 ) + jtan kA
⎪ Z ( z1 ) =
⎪ 1 + jZ ( z 2 ) tan kA
⎨
⎪Y ( z ) = Y ( z 2 ) + jtan kA
⎪ 1
1 + jY ( z 2 ) tan kA
⎩
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 52
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
E ( r, t ) = [ xˆ ′A + yˆ ′B] e jω t − jkz′
1 (2.24.1)
H ( r, t ) = [ yˆ ′A − xˆ ′B] e jω t − jkz′
η
where ( x ′, y′, z′ ) is a rotated coordinate system with respect to a fix coordinate system ( x, y, z ) as
shown in
w=
1
2
⎡1 1 ⎤ 1 2
ℜe ⎢ ε E ⋅ E∗ + μ H ⋅ H∗ ⎥ = ε A + B
⎣2 2 ⎦ 2
2
( )
(2.24.2)
1
2 ⎣
∗
P = ℜe ⎡ E × H ⎤ = zˆ ′
⎦
1
2η
2
( 2
)
A + B = ( zˆ cos θ + xˆ sin θ )
1
2η
2
A +B
2
( )
where zˆ ′ = ( zˆ cos θ + xˆ sin θ ) is the unit vector in the direction of propagation. Show that the energy
P
transport velocity is v = = czˆ ′ .
w
Solution
The dot products E ⋅ E∗ and H ⋅ H ∗ can be evaluated as follow:
∗
E ( r, t ) ⋅ E ( r, t ) = [ xˆ ′A + yˆ ′B] ⋅ ⎡ xˆ ′A∗ + yˆ ′B∗ ⎤ = AA∗ + BB∗ = A + B
2 2
⎣ ⎦
∗ 1 1
( ) 1
H ( r, t ) ⋅ H ( r, t ) = 2 [ yˆ ′A − xˆ ′B] ⋅ ⎡ yˆ ′A∗ − xˆ ′B∗ ⎤ = 2 AA∗ + BB∗ = 2 A + B
η ⎣ ⎦ η η
2
(2
)
and now we can substitute them inside the definition of the time–averaged energy density:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 53
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
1
2
⎡1
⎣2
1
2
⎤ 1
⎦ 2
⎡1
⎣⎢ 2
2 2 1 2 2 ⎤
w = ℜe ⎢ ε E ⋅ E∗ + μ H ⋅ H∗ ⎥ = ℜe ⎢ ε A + B + 2 μ A + B ⎥ =
2η ⎦⎥
( ) ( )
(2.24.3)
1 ⎡1 2
(2 1 2 2 ⎤ 1 2
= ℜe ⎢ ε A + B + ε A + B ⎥ = ε A + B
2 ⎣2 2 ⎦ 2
2
) ( ) ( )
On the contrary the cross product E × H ∗ can be written as:
xˆ ′ yˆ ′ zˆ ′ ⎛ A2 B2 ⎞
E× H = ∗
A B 0 = zˆ ′ ⎜
⎜ η
+
η ⎟
1
η (
⎟ = zˆ ′ A 2 + B 2 )
∗
A∗ ⎝ ⎠
−B 0
η η
and, consequently,
1
P = ℜe ⎡E × H∗ ⎤ = zˆ ′
2 ⎣ ⎦
1
2η
2 2
(
A + B = ( zˆ cos θ + xˆ sin θ )
1
2η
2
) 2
A + B (2.24.4) ( )
Substituting eq. (2.24.3) and (2.24.4) in the definition of th energy transport velocity, we obtain:
v=
P
=
zˆ ′
1 1
2η
2
A +B
2
(= zˆ ′
1
= zˆ ′
1 )
= zˆ ′
1
= czˆ ′
w 1
2
2
ε A +B(2 ηε μ
ε
)ε
με
1
where c = is the speed of light in the free space.
με
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 54
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
H ( x, z, t ) = yˆ H 0e jω t e
− jk ( )
3z − x 2
(2.25.2)
Solution
• Question n° 1
From the first Maxwell's equation, we can find the magnetic field as follow:
1
H ( x, z, t ) = ∇× E ( x, z, t ) (2.25.3)
− jωμ
The cross product has to be evaluated:
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∇ × E ( x, z, t ) = ∂ x ∂y ∂z (2.25.4)
0 E ( x, z, t ) 0
− jk ( x + z )
where E ( x, z, t ) = E 0 e jω t e
2
. The determinant of matrix (2.25.4) is:
∂ ⎛ jω t − jk ( x + z ) ⎞ + zˆ ∂ ⎛ E e jω t e − jk( x + z ) ⎞=
∇ × E ( x, z, t ) = − xˆ
2 2
⎜ E 0e e ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟
∂z ⎝ ⎠ ∂x ⎝ ⎠
(2.25.5)
− jk ⎛ jω t − jk ( x + z ) 2 ⎞ + zˆ − jk ⎛ E e jω t e − jk( x + z ) 2 ⎞
= − xˆ ⎜ E 0e e ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟
2⎝ ⎠ 2⎝ ⎠
and consequently
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 55
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
1
H ( x, z, t ) = ∇ × E ( x, z, t ) =
− jωμ
1 ⎡ jk jk ⎤
= ⎢ xˆ E ( x, z, t ) − zˆ E ( x, z, t ) ⎥ =
− jωμ ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
(2.25.6)
1 ⎡ jω με jω με ⎤
= ⎢ xˆ E ( x, z, t ) − zˆ E ( x, z, t ) ⎥ =
− jω μ ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
E ( x, z, t ) E ( x, z, t ) E ( x, z, t )
= zˆ − xˆ = zˆ ′
η 2 η 2 η
• Question n° 2
The direction of propagation can be found as cross product between the direction of oscillation of
the electric and magnetic field. So:
xˆ yˆ zˆ
kˆ = yˆ × zˆ ′ = 0 1 0 =
( xˆ + zˆ ) = xˆ ′ (2.25.7)
2
1 1
− 0
2 2
• Question n° 3
Using the inverse form of the second Maxwell's equation, we have:
xˆ yˆ zˆ
1 1
E ( x, z, t ) = ∇ × H ( x, z, t ) = ∂x ∂y ∂z (2.25.8)
jωε jωε
0 H ( x, z, t ) 0
where H ( x, z, t ) = H 0e jω t e
− jk ( 3z − x 2) . So:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 56
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
1 ⎡ ∂ ⎛ jω t − jk ( )
3z − x 2 ⎞ ∂ ⎛ jω t − jk ( )
3z − x 2 ⎞ ⎤
E ( x, z, t ) = ⎢ − xˆ ⎜ H 0e e ⎟ + zˆ ⎜ H 0e e ⎟⎥ =
jωε ⎣⎢ ∂ z ⎝ ⎠ ∂x ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥
1 ⎡ − j 3k jk ⎤
= ⎢ − xˆ H ( x, z, t ) + zˆ H ( x, z, t ) ⎥ =
jωε ⎣ 2 2 ⎦ (2.25.9)
1 ⎡ − jω 3 με jω με ⎤
= ⎢ −xˆ H ( x, z, t ) + zˆ H ( x, z, t ) ⎥ =
jω ε ⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎦⎥
1
= η H ( x, z, t )
2
( ) 1
3xˆ + zˆ = η H ( x, z, t ) xˆ ′
2
where k = ω με , η = μ ε and xˆ ′ = ( )
3xˆ + zˆ . We can assume a new coordinate system aligned
The direction of propagation can be found as cross product between the direction of oscillation of
the electric and magnetic field. So:
xˆ yˆ zˆ
kˆ = yˆ × zˆ ′ = 0 1 0 = xˆ − 3zˆ = − zˆ ′
3 0 1
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 57
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Assume that the amplitude attenuation through the first polarizer are a1 , a2 with respect to the x–
and y–directions. The polarizer transmits primarily the x–polarization, so that a2 a1 . The
analyzer is rotated by an angle ϕ so that the same gains a1 , a2 now refer to the x'– and y'–
directions.
1. Ignoring the phase retardance introduced by each polarizer, show that the polarization
vectors at the input, and after the first and second polarizer, are:
E0 = xˆ cos θ + yˆ sin θ
E1 = xˆ a1 cos θ + yˆ a2 sin θ (2.26.1)
( ) (
E2 = xˆ ′ a12 cos ϕ cos θ + a1a2 sin ϕ sin θ + yˆ ′ a22 cos ϕ sin θ − a1a2 sin ϕ cos θ )
where ( xˆ ′, yˆ ′) are related to ( xˆ , yˆ ) as follow:
⎡ xˆ ′ ⎤ ⎡ cos ϕ sin ϕ ⎤ ⎡ xˆ ⎤
⎢ yˆ ′⎥ = ⎢ − sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎥ ⎢ yˆ ⎥ (2.26.2)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
2. Explain the meaning an usefulness of the matrix operations:
⎡ a1 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos ϕ sin ϕ ⎤ ⎡ a1 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos θ ⎤
⎢0 (2.26.3)
⎣ a2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 a2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sin θ ⎥⎦
and
⎡ cos ϕ − sin ϕ ⎤ ⎡ a1 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos ϕ sin ϕ ⎤ ⎡ a1 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos θ ⎤
(2.26.4)
⎢ sin ϕ
⎣ cos ϕ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 a2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 a2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sin θ ⎥⎦
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 58
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
( )
I = a14 cos 2 θ + a24 sin 2 θ cos 2 ϕ + a12 a22 sin 2 ϕ +
(2.26.5)
( )
+2a1a2 a12 - a22 cos ϕ sin ϕ cos θ sin θ
4. If the input light were unpolarized, that is incoherent, show that the average of the
intensity of part (3) over all angles 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π , will be given by the generalized Malus's
law:
I=
1 4
2
( )
a1 + a24 cos 2 ϕ + a12 a22 sin 2 ϕ (2.26.6)
Solution
• Question n° 1
The electric field E1 after the polarizer is an attenuated form of the field E0 , that is each
and, consequently,
⎡a 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos θ ⎤ ⎡ a1 cos θ ⎤
E1 = A ⋅ E0 = ⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ = xˆ a1 cos θ + yˆ a2 sin θ (2.26.7)
⎣ 0 a2 ⎦ ⎣ sin θ ⎦ ⎣ a2 sin θ ⎦
The electric field E1 passes thought the second polarizer that is rotated of an angle by an angle ϕ
so that the same gains a1 , a2 now refer to the x'– and y'–directions. The rotation can be expressed
by the matrix (2.26.2) and then the x'– and y'–components of the field E2 have to be attenuated by
⎡a 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos ϕ sin ϕ ⎤
E2 = ⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ E1 (2.26.8)
⎣ 0 a2 ⎦ ⎣ - sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎥⎦
from which:
⎡a 0 ⎤ ⎡ cos ϕ sin ϕ ⎤ ⎡ a1 cos θ ⎤
E2 = ⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ =
⎣ 0 a2 ⎦ ⎣ - sin ϕ cos ϕ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ a2 sin θ ⎥⎦ (2.26.9)
= xˆ ′ ( a12 cos ϕ cos θ ) (
+ a1a2 sin ϕ sin θ + yˆ ′ a22 cos ϕ sin θ − a1a2 sin ϕ cos θ )
• Question n° 2
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 59
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
The matrix operation (2.26.3) is simply the cascade of the matrix that we used to solve the point
(1). In fact the first two matrixes are necessary to rotate and attenuate the field E1 that passes
through the analyzer, the third matrix represents the attenuation through the polarizer and the fourth
represents the tilt of the electric field vector with respect to the x– and y–directions. Using these
matrixes operation, it is a very simple model system.
In the matrix operation (2.26.4), shown here for simplicity, it is possible to note that there is a new
matrix M at the beginning of the expression:
This has the same structure of a rotation matrix, but the angle is opposite, i.e. −ϕ . This suggest
that (2.26.4) represents a system with another analyzer at the end tilted of an angle −ϕ , but without
any attenuations.
• Question n° 3
The light intensity is the time–averaged energy density multiplied by the speed of light in the host
medium, that is vacuum in this case.
From exercise 2.24, we have already demonstrated the expression of the time–averaged energy
density w and so:
1 2 1
cε E = cε ⎛⎜ E x′ + E y′ ⎞⎟
2 2
I= (2.26.10)
2 2 ⎝ ⎠
that is the light intensity is proportional to the sum of the square module of the components of
electric field.
= ( a14 cos 2 ϕ cos 2 θ + a12 a22 sin 2 ϕ sin 2 θ + 2a13a2 sin ϕ sin θ cos ϕ cos θ ) +
(2.26.11)
+ ( a24 cos 2 ϕ sin 2 θ + a12 a22 sin 2 ϕ cos 2 θ − 2a1a23 sin ϕ sin θ cos ϕ cos θ )
= ( a14 cos 2 θ + a24 sin 2 θ ) cos 2 ϕ + a12 a22 sin 2 ϕ + 2a1a2 ( a12 - a22 ) sin ϕ sin θ cos ϕ cos θ
• Question n° 4
The average of the intensity over all angles 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π can be evaluated integrating the eq.
(2.26.11) and dividing it by 2π as follow:
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 60
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
2π 2π 2π 2π
1 a14 cos2 ϕ a24 cos2 ϕ a12 a22 sin 2 ϕ
I= ∫ I dθ = ∫ cos 2 θ dθ + ∫ sin 2 θ dθ + ∫ dθ +
2π 2π 2π 2π
0 0 0 0
(2.26.12)
2π
+
1
2π
( )
2a1a2 a12 - a22 sin ϕ cos ϕ ∫ cosθ sin θ dθ
0
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 61
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Fig. 2.27.1: Plane wave viewed from stationary and moving frames.
where β = v c and γ = 1 1 − β 2 .\
Solution
The three relationships in (2.27.1) relate the apparent propagation angles θ , θ ′ in the two frames
that are different because of the aberration of light due to the motion. They are a consequence of the
Lorentz transformation of the frequency–wavenumber four–vector (ω c, k ) :
ω ′ = γ (ω − β ck z )
⎛ β ⎞
k ′z = γ ⎜ k z − ω ⎟ (2.27.4)
⎝ c ⎠
k ′x = k x
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 62
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
in the frame S', k′z = k′ cos θ ′ , k′x = k′ sin θ ′ , with k ′ = ω ′ c , the Eqs. (2.27.4) may be rewritten in
the form:
ω ′ = ωγ (1 − β cos θ )
ω ′ cos θ ′ = ωγ ( cos θ − β ) (2.27.5)
ω ′ sin θ ′ = ω sin θ
The three equations are equivalent to evaluate the angular frequency ω ′ in the moving frame S'
and they relate the different angular θ , θ ′ regardless of the frequency. From the first and second
equation we can obtain the expression for cos θ ′ :
⎧ ω′
⎪ωγ = (1 − β cos θ ) ω ′ ( cos θ − β )
⎨ ⇒ ω ′ cos θ ′ = (2.27.6)
⎪ω ′ cos θ ′ = ωγ ( cos θ − β ) (1 − β cos θ )
⎩
From the first and third equation, we have:
⎧ ω′
⎪ω = γ 1 − β cos θ ω ′ sin θ
⎨ ( ) ⇒ ω ′ sin θ ′ = (2.27.7)
⎪ω ′ sin θ ′ = ω sin θ γ (1 − β cos θ )
⎩
The half–angle formula for the tangent is in general:
x sin x 1 − cos x
tan = = (2.27.8)
2 1 + cos x sin x
and using it, we can obtain the third relationship of (2.27.1):
sin θ ′ sin θ
tan θ ′ 2 = = =
1 + cos θ ′ γ (1 − β cos θ )(1 + cos θ ′ )
sin θ
= =
⎛ ⎛ cos θ − β ⎞ ⎞
γ (1 − β cos θ ) ⎜ 1 + ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 1 − β cos θ ⎠ ⎠
(2.27.9)
sin θ
= =
⎛ 1 − β cos θ + cos θ − β ⎞
γ (1 − β cos θ ) ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ 1 − β cos θ
⎝ ⎠
sin θ 1
= = tan θ 2
γ (1 − β )(1 + cos θ ) γ (1 − β )
So:
tan θ ′ 2 1 1− β 2 1− β 1+ β 1+ β
= = = = (2.27.10)
tan θ 2 γ (1 − β ) 1− β 1− β 1− β
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 63
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
In the identity of eq. (2.27.2) between the angle θ , θ ′ we note that the last term is equal to 1 γ 2 ,
that can be expressed using the second identity in eq. (2.27.1):
sin θ 1 sin 2 θ ′
sin θ ′ = ⇒ = 1− β 2 = (1 − β cos θ )2 (2.27.11)
γ (1 − β cos θ ) γ 2
sin θ 2
Consequently since
sin 2 θ ′
2
(1 − β cos θ )2 = 1 − β 2 = (1 − β cos θ )(1 + β cosθ ′)
sin θ ↑
(2.27.2)
sin 2 θ ′
(1 − β cos θ ) = 1 + β cos θ ′ (2.27.12)
sin 2 θ
So:
sin 2 θ ′ 1
2
(1 − β cos θ ) = (1 − β cos θ ) =
sin θ γ 2 (1 − β cos θ )
2
1− β 2 1 − β 2 + β cos θ − β cos θ
= = =
(1 − β cos θ ) (1 − β cos θ ) (2.27.13)
=
(1 − β cos θ ) + β ( cosθ − β ) = 1 + β ( cos θ − β ) =
(1 − β cos θ ) (1 − β cos θ )
= 1 + β cos θ ′
Using (2.27.11) and (2.27.13) we can write that:
sin 2 θ ′
1− β 2 = 2
(1 − β cos θ )2 = (1 + β cos θ ′)(1 − β cos θ ) (2.27.14)
sin θ
The second identity in eq. (2.27.2), i.e. (1 + β cos θ )(1 − β cos θ ′ ) = 1 − β 2 , is formally identical to
the first identity, but the angles θ , θ ′ are inverted. This is reasonable if the velocity vector v is
directed in the negative z–direction, that is v → − v . Since the term β is defined as v c and it is
the square, the sign of v is negligible and the identity is valid.
The alternative Doppler formulas in eqs. (2.27.3) are obtained applying (2.27.14) to the relativistic
Doppler formula, relating the frequency of the wave as measured by an observer in the moving
frame S' to the frequency of a source in the fixed frame S:
1 − β cos θ
f ′ = fγ (1 − β cos θ ) = f (2.27.15)
2
1− β
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 64
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
⎧ 1− β 2 1
⎪(1 − β cos θ ) = = 2
⎪ (1 + β cos θ ′ ) γ (1 + β cos θ ′ )
⎨ −1
⎪⎛ 2⎞ 1
⎜
⎪⎝ 1 − β ⎟ = γ =
⎩
⎠ (1 + β cos θ ′ )(1 − β cos θ )
and then substitute them inside (2.27.15):
fγ f
f ′ = fγ (1 − β cos θ ) = =
γ 2
(1 + β cos θ ′) γ (1 + β cos θ ′)
(2.27.16)
1 − β cos θ 1 − β cos θ 1 − β cos θ
f′ = f =f =f
1− β 2 (1 + β cos θ ′)(1 − β cos θ ) 1 + β cos θ ′
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 65
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
with respect to our fixed frame S, and we assume that θ = 0° in the frame S. Let fa and fb be the
it was assumed that the plane wave was propagating in the z–direction in all three reference frames
S, Sa, Sb.
If in the frame S the wave is propagating along the θ –direction shown in Fig. 2.28.1, show that
the Doppler formula may be written in the following equivalent forms:
γ b (1 − β b cos θ ) fa 1 − β cos θ a
f b = fa = f a γ (1 − β cos θ a ) = = fa (2.28.2)
γ a (1 − β a cos θ ) γ (1 − β cos θ b ) 1 − β cos θ b
where
va v v 1 1 1
βa = , βb = b , β = , γ a = , γb = , γ= (2.28.3)
c c c 2
1 − βa 2
1 − βb 1− β 2
and θa , θb are the propagation directions in the frame Sa, Sb. Moreover, show the following
relations among these angles:
cos θ − βa cos θ − β b cos θa − β
cos θa = , cos θ b = , cos θ b = (2.28.5)
1 − βa cos θ 1 − β b cos θ 1 − β cos θa
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 66
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Solution
The relativistic Doppler formula relates the frequency of the wave as measured by an observer in
the moving frame S' to the frequency of a source in the fixed frame S:
1 − β cos θ
f ′ = fγ (1 − β cos θ ) = f (2.28.6)
2
1− β
If we consider separately the frame Sa and the frame Sb, we can write for each frame a relativistic
Doppler formula:
1 − β a cos θ
f a = fγ a (1 − β a cos θ ) = f
1 − β a2
(2.28.7)
1 − β b cos θ
f b = fγ b (1 − β b cos θ ) = f
1 − β b2
From the first equation in (2.28.7), we can write f as a function of fa, and substitute it inside the
second equation, in order to obtain:
γ b (1 − β b cos θ )
f b = fa (2.28.8)
γ a (1 − β a cos θ )
If the observer moves with the same velocity of the frame Sa, he will have the sensation that the
frame Sa is fixed and the frame Sb is moving. So it is possible to use the relationships (2.27.16):
f 1 − β cos θ
f ′ = fγ (1 − β cos θ ) = =f (2.28.9)
γ (1 + β cos θ ′ ) 1 + β cos θ ′
where
⎧f → f a , f ′ → f b
⎨
⎩θ → θ a , θ ′ → θ b
and γ , β are expressed in (2.28.3). So:
fa 1 − β cos θ a
f b = f a γ (1 − β cos θ a ) = = fa (2.28.10)
γ (1 + β cos θ b ) 1 + β cos θ b
The relationships between the angles θa , θb expressed in (2.28.5) can be obtained from the
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 67
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
if we consider first the frame Sa and then the frame Sb with respect to the fixed frame S, we can
write the two following relationships:
cos θ − βa cos θ − β b
cos θa = , cos θ b = (2.28.12)
1 − βa cos θ 1 − β b cos θ
from which we can obtain the expression of cosθb as a function of cosθa . From the first identity of
(2.28.12) we can write:
βa + cos θa
cos θ =
1 + βa cos θa
and we can substitute it in the second identity:
β a + cos θ a
− βb
cos θ − β b 1 + β a cos θ a
cos θ b = = =
1 − β b cos θ 1 − β β a + cos θ a
b
1 + β a cos θ a
β a + cos θ a − β b (1 + β a cos θ a )
= =
1 + β a cos θ a − β b β a + β b cos θ a
β + cos θ a − β b − β b β a cos θ a
= a =
1 + β a cos θ a − β b β a − β b cos θ a
=
(1 − β b βa ) cos θa − ( β b − β a ) =
(1 − β b βa ) − ( β b − β a ) cos θa
⎛ β − βa ⎞
cos θ a − ⎜ b ⎟
= ⎝ 1 − β b β a ⎠ = cos θ a − β
⎛ β − βa ⎞ 1 − β cos θ a
1− ⎜ b ⎟ cos θ a
⎝ 1 − βb βa ⎠
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 68
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
in Fig. 2.29.1 for a buried–pipe. Assume that the earth has conductivity σ = 10−3 S m , permittivity
ε = 9ε 0 , and permeability μ = μ0 . You may use the "weakly lossy dielectric" approximation.
2. Determine the value of the complex refractive index nc = n r − jni of the ground at 900
MHz.
3. With reference to the above figure, explain why the electric field returning back to the
radar antenna after getting reflected by the buried–pipe is given by:
E ret
2 ⎡ 4 h2 + d2 ⎤
= exp ⎢ − ⎥ (2.29.1)
E0 ⎢ δ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where E0 is the transmitted signal, d is the depth of the pipe, and h is the horizontal
displacement of the antenna from the pipe. You may ignore the angular response of the
radar antenna and assume it emits isotropically in all directions into the ground.
4. The depth d may be determined by measuring the roundtrip time t ( h ) of the transmitted
2n r
t (h) = d2 + h2 (2.29.2)
c0
5. Suppose t ( h ) is measured over the range −2 ≤ h ≤ 2 meters over the pipe and its
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 69
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Solution
• Question n° 1
In the weakly lossy case, the propagation parameter k becomes:
⎛ τ⎞ ⎛ σ + ωε d′′ ⎞
k = β − jα = ω με d′ ⎜ 1 − j ⎟ = ω με d′ ⎜ 1 − j ⎟ (2.29.3)
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2ωε d′ ⎠
where ε d′ and ε d′′ are the real and imaginary part of the dielectric constant ε , i.e. ε = ε d′ + jε d′′ , and
τ = tan θ = ε d′′ ε d′ is the loss tangent that is a convenient way to quantify the losses. In this case
ε d′ = 9ε 0 and ε d′′ = σ ω . So we can evaluate (2.29.3):
⎛ σ ⎞ σ μ0
k = β − jα = ω 9μ0ε 0 ⎜1 − j ⎟ = ω 9μ0ε 0 − j
⎝ 2ω 9ε 0 ⎠ 2 9ε 0
⇓
⎧ β = 3ω μ ε = 6π × 900 ×106 × 4π ×10−7 × 8.85 ×10−12 = 56.57 rad / m
⎪⎪ 0 0
⎨ σ μ0 10−3 4π ×10−7
⎪ α= = = 0.063 rad / m
⎪⎩ 2 9ε 0 2 9 × 8.85 ×10−12
σ 10−3
ε = 9ε 0 − j = 9 × 8.85 ×10−12 − j = ( 79.65 − j1.11) ×10−12 =
ω 900 ×10 6
jtan1.11 jtan1.11
= 10−12 79.652 + 1.112 e 79.65 = 10−12 79.652 + 1.112 e 79.65 =
= 79.66 ×10−12 e j0.0045π
and consequently, using (2.29.4), the complex refractive index of the ground is:
• Question n° 3
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 70
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
Ignoring the angular response of the radar antenna and assuming it emits isotropically in all
directions into the ground, the electric field into the ground is:
The distance r between the antenna and the buried–pipe can be evaluated using the Pythagoras'
theorem:
r = h2 + d2 (2.29.7)
The transmitted signal reaches the object and returns back to the radar antenna after getting
reflected by the buried–pipe. So the round trip is two times long and the backward signal, using
(2.29.6) and (2.29.7), can be expressed as:
h 2 + d 2 −2 jβ h 2 +d 2
E ret = E 0e −2 jkr = E 0e −2α e (2.29.8)
h 2 +d2
E ret = E 0 e −2α
from which
2 h 2 +d 2
E ret −4
−4α h 2 +d 2 δ
=e = e (2.29.9)
E0 ↑
α =1 δ
• Question n° 4
The time is the ratio of distance divided by speed that explains the amount of distance covered in
a given time:
s = v⋅t (2.29.10)
where s is the distance in meter, v is the constant speed in meter per second and t is the time in
second.
The wave propagates into the ground with velocity cg = c0 n r , where n r is the real part of the
refraction index of the ground, and the round trip of the wave from the antenna to the buried–pipe is
2r long. This values can be substituted inside (2.29.10) and, using (2.29.7), we obtain:
c0 2n r 2n
2r = t (h) ⇒ t (h) = r = r d2 + h2 (2.29.11)
nr c0 c0
• Question n° 5
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 71
S.J. Orfanidis – Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas Exercises Chapter 2
It is possible to note from (2.29.11) that the minimum roundtrip time t ( h ) is when the antenna is
aligned with the pipe, that is the value of h is zero. Using (2.29.11), we can evaluate the depth d in
meters:
c0 3 × 108
d= t (h) = 0.2 × 10−6 = 10 m (2.29.12)
2n r 2×3
D. Ramaccia and A. Toscano Pag. 72